4th Year Power Plant Engineering

Fuel and Energy Eng. Lect. Akeel M. A. Morad

Chapter Three
Steam Turbines

Steam turbine is one of the most important prime movers for generating electricity.
This falls under the category of power producing turbo-machines. In the turbine, the
energy level of the working fluid goes on decreasing along the flow stream. Single unit
of steam turbine can develop power ranging from 1 mW to 1000 mW. In general, 1 mW,
2.5 mW, 5 mW, 10 mW, 30 mW, 120 mW, 210 mW, 250 mW, 350 mW, 500 mW, 660
mW, 1000 mW are in common use. The thermal efficiency of modern steam power plant
above 120 mW is as high as 38% to 40%. The purpose of turbine technology is to
extract the maximum quantity of energy from the working fluid, to convert it into useful
work with maximum efficiency, by means of a plant having maximum reliability,
minimum cost, minimum supervision and minimum starting time.

1. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF STEAM TURBINE

The principle of operation of steam turbine is entirely different from the steam engine.
In reciprocating steam engine, the pressure energy of steam is used to overcome external
resistance and the dynamic action of steam is negligibly small. But the steam turbine
depends completely upon the dynamic action of the steam. According to Newton’s
Second Law of Motion, the force is proportional to the rate of change of momentum
(mass × velocity). If the rate of change of momentum is caused in the steam by allowing
a high velocity jet of steam to pass over curved blade, the steam will impart a force to
the blade. If the blade is free, it will move off (rotate) in the direction of force. In other
words, the motive power in a steam turbine is obtained by the rate of change in moment
of momentum of a high velocity jet of steam impinging on a curved blade which is free
to rotate. The steam from the boiler is expanded in a passage or nozzle where due to fall
in pressure of steam, thermal energy of steam is converted into kinetic energy of steam,
resulting in the emission of a high velocity jet of steam which, Principle of working
impinges on the moving vanes or blades of turbine (Fig.1).

Fig.1.Turbine Blade.

As shown in Fig.2, when the blade is locked the jet enters and leaves with equal
velocity, and thus develops maximum force if we neglect friction in the blades. Since the
blade velocity is zero, no mechanical work is done. As the blade is allowed to speed up,
the leaving velocity of jet from the blade reduces, which reduces the force. Due to blade

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velocity the work will be done and maximum work is done when the blade speed is just
half of the steam speed. In this case, the steam velocity from the blade is near about zero
i.e. it is trail of inert steam since all the kinetic energy of steam is converted into work.

Fig.2. Action of Jet on Blade.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM TURBINE

Steam turbine may be classified as follows: -

(A) On the Basis of Principle of Operation:

(i) Impulse turbine

(a) Simple, (b) Velocity stage, (c) Pressure stage, (d) combination of (b) and (c).
(ii) Impulse-reaction turbine
(a) 50% (Parson’s) reaction, (b) Combination of impulse and reaction.

(i) Impulse Turbine: If the flow of steam through the nozzles and moving blades
of a turbine takes place in such a manner that the steam is expanded only in
nozzles and pressure at the outlet sides of the blades is equal to that at inlet
side; such a turbine is termed as impulse turbine because it works on the
principle of impulse.
(ii) Impulse-Reaction Turbine: In this turbine, the drop in pressure of steam
takes
place in fixed (nozzles) as well as moving blades. The pressure drop suffered

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by steam while passing through the moving blades causes a further generation
of kinetic energy within the moving blades, giving rise to reaction and adds to
the propelling force which is applied through the rotor to the turbine shaft.
In general, it may be stated that energy transformation occurs in both fixed and
moving blades.
The rotor blades cause both energy transfer and transformation. Since there is an
acceleration of flow in moving blade passage hence chances of separation of flow is less
which results in higher stage efficiency.

(B) On the basis of “Direction of Flow’’ :

(i) Axial flow turbine, (ii) Radial flow turbine, (iii) Tangential flow turbine.
(i) Axial Flow Turbine. In axial flow turbine, the steam flows along the axis of the
shaft. It is the most suitable turbine for large turbo-generators and that is why it is
used in all modem steam power plants.
(ii) Radial Flow Turbine. In this turbine, the steam flows in the radial direction. It
incorporates two shafts end to end, each driving a separate generator. A disc is
fixed to each shaft. Rings of 50% reaction radial-flow bladings are fixed to each disk.
The two sets of bladings rotate counter to each other. In this way, a relative speed of
twice the running speed is achieved and every blade row is made to work.
(iii) Tangential Flow Turbine. In this type, the steam flows in the tangential
direction. This turbine is very robust but not particularly efficient machine, sometimes
used for driving power station auxiliaries. In this turbine, nozzle directs steam
tangentially into buckets milled in the periphery of a single wheel, and on exit the steam
turns.

(C) On the Basis of Means of Heat Supply:

(i) Single pressure turbine,

(ii) Mixed or dual pressure turbine
(iii) Reheated turbine.
(a) Single (b) Double

(i) Single Pressure Turbine: In this type of turbine, there is single source of
steam supply.
(ii) Mixed or Dual Pressure Turbine: This type of turbines, use two sources of
steam, at different pressures. The dual pressure turbine is found in nuclear
power stations where it uses both sources continuously. The mixed pressure
turbine is found in industrial plants (e.g., rolling mill, colliery, etc.) where
there are two supplies of steam and use of one supply is more economical than

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the other; for example, the economical steam may be the exhaust steam from
engine which can be utilized in the L. P. stages of steam turbine. Dual pressure
system is also used in combined cycle.
(iii) Reheated Turbine: During its passage through the turbine steam may be
taken out to be reheated in a reheater incorporated in the boiler and returned at
higher temperature. This is done to avoid erosion and corrosion problems in
the bladings and to improve the power output and efficiency.

(D) On the Basis of Means of Heat Rejection:

(i) Pass-out or extraction turbine, (ii) Regenerative turbine, (iii) Condensing turbine,
(iv) Non-condensing turbine, (v) Back pressure or topping turbine.
(i) Pass-out Turbine. In this turbine, a considerable proportion of the steam is
extracted from some suitable point in the turbine where the pressure is sufficient for use
in process heating; the remainder continuing through the turbine.
(ii) Regenerative Turbine. This turbine incorporates a number of extraction branches;
through which small proportions of the steam are continuously extracted for the purpose
of heating the boiler feed water in a feed heater in order to increase the thermal
efficiency of the plant.
(iii) Condensing Turbine. In this turbine, the exhaust steam is condensed in a
condenser and the condensate is used as feed water in the boiler.
(iv) Non-Condensing Turbine. When the exhaust steam coming out from the turbine is
not condensed but exhausted in the atmosphere is called non-condensing turbine. The
exhaust steam is not recovered for feed water in the boiler.
(v) Back Pressure or Topping Turbine. This type of turbine rejects the steam after
expansion to the lowest suitable possible pressure at which it is used for heating
purpose.

(E) On the Basis of Number of Cylinder:

Turbine may be classified as
(i) Single cylinder and (ii) Multi-cylinder.

(i) Single Cylinder. When all stages of turbine are housed in one casing, then it is called
single cylinder. Such a single cylinder turbine uses one shaft.
(ii) Multi-Cylinder. In large output turbine, the number of the stages needed becomes so
high that additional bearings are required to support the shaft. Under this circumstance,
multi-cylinders are used.

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(F) On the Basis of Arrangement of Cylinder Based on General Flow of Steam.
(i) Single flow, (ii) Double flow, and (iii) Reversed flow

(G) On the Basis of Number of Shaft

(i) Tandem compound, (ii) Cross compound

(H) On the Basis of Rotational Speed

(i) constant speed turbines
(ii) Variable speed turbines

3. THE SIMPLE IMPULSE TURBINE

This type of turbine works on the principle of impulse and is shown diagrammatically. It
mainly consists of a nozzle or a set of nozzles, a rotor mounted on a shaft, one set of
moving blades attached to the rotor and a casing. The uppermost portion of the diagram
shows a longitudinal section through the upper half of the turbine, the middle portion
shows the development of the nozzles and blading i.e. the actual shape of the nozzle and
blading, and the bottom portion shows the variation of absolute velocity and absolute
pressure during flow of steam through passage of nozzles and blades. The example of
this type of turbine is the de-Laval Turbine.
The steam at condenser pressure or exhaust pressure enters the blade and comes out at
the same pressure i.e. the pressure of steam in the blade passages remains approximately
constant and equal to the condenser pressure. Generally, converging-diverging nozzles
are used. Due to the relatively large ratio of expansion of steam in the nozzles, the steam
leaves the nozzles at a very high velocity (supersonic), of about 1100 m/s. It is assumed
that the velocity remains constant in the recess between the nozzles and the blades. The
steam at such a high velocity enters the blades and reduces along the passage of blades
and comes out with an appreciable amount of velocity (Fig.3).

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Fig.3. Impulse Turbine.

4. COMPOUNDING OF IMPULSE TURBINE

Compounding is a method for reducing the rotational speed of the impulse turbine to
practical limits. As we have seen, if the high velocity of steam is allowed to flow
through one row of moving blades, it produces a rotor speed of about 30,000 r.p.m.
which is too high for practical use.
This process is called compounding of steam turbines. There are three main types
(a) Pressure-compounded impulse turbine.
(b) Velocity-compounded impulse turbine.
(c) Pressure and velocity compounded impulse turbine.

5. PRESSURE COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE

In this type of turbine, the compounding is done for pressure of steam only i e. to reduce
the high rotational speed of turbine the whole expansion of steam is arranged in a
number of steps by employing a number of simple turbine in a series keyed on the same
shaft as shown. Each of these simple impulse turbine consisting of one set of nozzles

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and one row of moving blades is known as a stage of the turbine and thus this turbine
consists of several stages. The exhaust from each row of moving blades enters the
succeeding set of nozzles. Thus we can say that this arrangement is nothing but splitting
up the whole pressure drop (Fig.4).

Fig. 4 Pressure Compounded

Impulse Turbine.

6. SIMPLE VELOCITY-COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE

In this type of turbine, the compounding is done for velocity of steam only i.e. drop in
velocity is arranged in many small drops through many moving rows of blades instead
of a single row of moving blades. It consists of a nozzle or a set of nozzles and rows of
moving blades attached to the rotor or wheel and rows of fixed blades attached to casing
as shown in Fig.5. The fixed blades are guide blades which guide the steam to
succeeding rows of moving blades, suitably arranged between the moving blades and set
in a reversed manner. In this turbine, three rows or rings of moving blades are fixed on a
single wheel or rotor and this type of wheel is termed as the three row wheel. There are
two blades or fixed blades placed between Lint first and the second and the second
and third rows of moving blades respectively.

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Fig. 5Velocity Compounded

Impulse Turbine.

The whole expansion of steam from the steam chest pressure to the exhaust pressure
takes place in the nozzles only. There is no drop in either in the moving blades or the
fixed i.e. the pressure remains constant in the blades as in the simple impulse turbine.
The steam velocity from the exit of the nozzle is very high as in the simple impulse
turbine. Steam with this high velocity enters the first row of moving blades and on
passing through these blades, the Velocity slightly reduces i.e. the steam gives up a part
of its kinetic energy and reissues from this row of blades with a fairly high velocity. It
then enters the first row of guide blades which directs the steam to the second row of
moving blades. Actually, there is a slight drop in velocity in the fixed or guide blades
due to friction.

7 PRESSURE AND VELOCITY COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE

This type of turbine is a combination of pressure and velocity compounding and is
diagrammatically. There are two wheels or rotors and on each, only two rows of moving
blades are attached cause two-row wheel are more efficient than three-row wheel. In
each wheel or rotor, velocity drops i.e. drop in velocity is achieved by many rows of
moving blades hence it is velocity compounded. There are two sets of nozzles in which

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whole pressure drop takes place i.e. whole pressure drop has been divided in small
drops, hence it is pressure-compounded.
In the first set of nozzles, there is some decrease in pressure which gives some kinetic
energy to the steam and there is no drop in pressure in the two rows of moving blades of
the first wheel and in the first row of fixed blades. Only, there is a velocity drop in
moving blades though there is also a slight drop in velocity due to friction in the fixed
blades. In second set of nozzles, the remaining pressure drop takes place but the velocity
here increases and the drop in velocity takes place in the moving blades of the second
wheel or rotor. Compared to the pressure-com-pounded impulse turbine this
arrangement was more popular due to its simple construction. It is, however, very rarely
used now due to its low efficiency.

8. IMPULSE-REACTION TURBINE
As the name implies this type of turbine utilizes the principle of impulse and reaction
both. Such a type of turbine is diagrammatically shown. There are a number of rows of
moving blades attached to the rotor and an equal number of fixed blades attached to the
casing. In this type of turbine, the fixed blades which are set in a reversed manner
compared to the moving blades, corresponds to nozzles mentioned in connection with
the impulse turbine. Due to the row of fixed blades at the entrance, instead of the
nozzles, steam is admitted for the whole circumference and hence there is all-round or
complete admission. In passing through the first row of fixed blades, the steam
undergoes a small drop in pressure and hence its velocity somewhat increases. After
this it then enters the first row of moving blades and just as in the impulse turbine, it
suffers a change in direction and therefore in momentum. This momentum gives rise to
an impulse on the blades. Commonly, this type of turbine is called Reaction Turbine. It
is obvious from the Fig. 6. that there is a gradual drop in pressure in both moving blades
and fixed blades.

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Fig. 6. Impulse Reaction

Turbine

9 ADVANTAGES OF STEAM TURBINE OVER STEAM ENGINE

The various advantages of steam turbine are as follows :
(i) It requires less space.
(ii) Absence of various links such as piston, piston rod, cross head etc. make the
mechanism simple. It is quiet and smooth in operation,
(iii) Its over-load capacity is large.
(iv) It can be designed for much greater capacities as compared to steam engine. Steam
turbines can be built in sizes ranging from a few horse power to over 200,000 horse
power in single units.
(v) The internal lubrication is not required in steam turbine. This reduces to the cost of
lubrication.
(vi) In steam turbine the steam consumption does not increase with increase in years of
service.
(vii) In steam turbine power is generated at uniform rate, therefore, flywheel is not
needed.
(viii) It can be designed for much higher speed and greater range of speed.
(ix) The thermodynamic efficiency of steam turbine is higher.

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10- STEAM TURBINE PERFORMANCE

Turbine performance can be expressed by the following factors:

(i) The steam flow process through the unit-expansion line or condition curve.
(ii) The steam flow rate through the unit.
(iii) Thermal efficiency.
(iv) Losses such as exhaust, mechanical, generator, radiation etc.
Mechanical losses include bearing losses, oil pump losses and generator bearing losses.
Generator losses include will electrical and mechanical losses. Exhaust losses include
the kinetic energy of the steam as it leaves the last stage and the pressure drop from the
exit of last stage to the condenser stage.
For successful operation of a steam turbine it is desirable to supply steam at constant
pressure and temperature. Steam pressure can be easily regulated by means of safety
valve fitted on the boiler. The steam temperature may try to fluctuate because of the
following reasons:

(i) Variation in heat produced due to varying amounts of fuel burnt according to
changing loads.
(ii) Fluctuation in quantity of excess air.
(iii) Variation in moisture content and temperature of air entering the furnace.
(iv) Variation in temperature of feed water.
(v) The varying condition of cleanliness of heat absorbing surface.

The efficiency of steam turbines can be increased:

(i) By using super heated steam.
(ii) Use of bled steam reduces the heat rejected to the condenser and this increases the
turbine efficiency.

11-STEAM TURBINE TESTING

Steam turbine tests are made for the following:
(i) Power
(ii) Valve setting
(iii) Speed regulation
(iv) Over speed trip setting
(v) Running balance.
Steam condition is determined by pressure gauge, and thermometer where steam is super
heated. The acceptance test as ordinarily performed is a check on (a) Output, (b) Steam
rate or heat consumption, (c) Speed regulation, (d) Over speed trip setting.
Thermal efficiency of steam turbine depends on the following factors:
(i) Steam pressure and temperature at throttle valve of turbine.

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(ii) Exhaust steam pressure and temperature.
(iii) Number of bleedings.
Lubricating oil should be changed or cleaned after 4 to 6 months.

12-CHOICE OF STEAM TURBINE

The choice of steam turbine depends on the following factors:
(i) Capacity of plant
(ii) Plant load factor and capacity factor
(iii) Thermal efficiency
(iv) Reliability
(v) Location of plant with reference to availability of water for condensate.

13- Lube Systems

Lube systems for steam turbines are not significantly different from oil supplies for
centrifugal compressors or other turbo-machines. Al-though lube oil supply systems
come in numerous layouts and configurations, they would essentially embody the
principal components shown in Fig. 7. The oil supply system is designed to cope with
the requirements of the turbo-set or equipment train. Figure 7.1 shows the lubricating
system for a turbine used to drive a generator direct, i.e., without gearing. When a
process machine is driven through gearing, the main oil pump (1) is often driven by a
gear shaft. In high-reliability units, three independent oil pumps ensure that the bearings
receive sufficient lubricating oil at all operating conditions.

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Figure 7 Lubricating oil system for an industrial steam turbine.

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Steam Nozzles

 The process 1-2 is the isentropic expansion. The change of phase will begin to
occur at point 2
 vapor continues to expand in a dry state
 Steam remains in this unnatural superheated state unit its density is about eight
times that of the saturated vapor density at the same pressure
 When this limit is reached, the steam will suddenly condense
 Point 3 is achieved by extension of the curvature of constant pressure line
from the superheated region which strikes the vertical expansion line at 3 and
through which Wilson line also passes. The point 3 corresponds to a met stable
equilibrium state of the vapor.
 The process 2-3 shows expansion under super-saturation condition which is not in
thermal equilibrium
 It is also called under cooling
 At any pressure between and i.e., within the superheated zone, the
temperature of the vapor is lower than the saturation temperature corresponding to
that pressure
 Since at 3, the limit of super-saturation is reached, the steam will now condense
instantaneously to its normal state at the constant pressure, and constant enthalpy
which is shown by the horizontal line where is on normal wet area pressure
line of the same pressure .
 is again isentropic, expansion in thermal equilibrium.
 To be noted that 4 and are on the same pressure line.

Thus the effect of super-saturation is to reduce the enthalpy drop slightly during
the expansion and consequently a corresponding reduction in final velocity. The
final dryness fraction and entropy are also increased and the measured discharge
is greater than that theoretically calculated.

Degree of super heat =

= limiting saturation pressure

= saturation pressure at temperature shown on T-s diagram

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degree of under-cooling - -

is the saturation temperature at

= Supersaturated steam temperature at point 3 which is the limit of super-saturation.

Supersaturated vapor behaves like supersaturated steam and the index to

expansion,

Figure 1 Super Saturated Expansion of Steam in a Nozzle

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STEAM TURBINES

The Single-Stage Impulse Turbine

The single-stage impulse turbine is also called the de Laval turbine after its inventor.
The turbine consists of a single rotor to which impulse blades are attached. The steam is
fed through one or several convergent-divergent nozzles which do not extend
completely around the circumference of the rotor, so that only part of the blades is
impinged upon by the steam at any one time. The nozzles also allow governing of the
turbine by shutting off one or more them.

The velocity diagram for a single-stage impulse has been shown in Fig. 2. Figure 3,
shows the velocity diagram indicating the flow through the turbine blades.

Figure 2 Schematic diagram of an Impulse Turbine

and = Inlet and outlet absolute velocity

and = Inlet and outlet relative velocity (Velocity relative to the rotor blades.)

U = mean blade speed

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= nozzle angle, = absolute fluid angle at outlet

It is to be mentioned that all angles are with respect to the tangential velocity ( in the
direction of U )

Figure 3 Velocity diagram of an Impulse Turbine

and = Inlet and outlet blade angles

and = Tangential or whirl component of absolute velocity at inlet and outlet

and = Axial component of velocity at inlet and outlet

Tangential force on a blade,

or,

Power developed =

Blade efficiency or Diagram efficiency or Utilization factor is given by

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Or

Stage Eff.

Optimum blade speed of a single stage turbine

where, = friction coefficient

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= Blade speed ratio

is maximum when also

Or

is of the order of 180 to 220

Now, (For single stage impulse turbine)

The maximum value of blade efficiency

For equiangular blades,

If the friction over blade surface is neglected

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Compounding in Impulse Turbine

If high velocity of steam is allowed to flow through one row of moving blades, it
produces a rotor speed of about 30000 rpm which is too high for practical use. It is
therefore essential to incorporate some improvements for practical use and also to
achieve high performance. This is possible by making use of more than one set of
nozzles, and rotors, in a series, keyed to the shaft so that either the steam pressure or the
jet velocity is absorbed by the turbine in stages. This is called compounding. Two types
of compounding can be accomplished: (a) velocity compounding and (b) pressure
compounding. Either of the above methods or both in combination are used to reduce
the high rotational speed of the single stage turbine.

The Velocity - Compounding of the Impulse Turbine

The velocity-compounded impulse turbine was first proposed by C.G. Curtis to solve the
problems of a single-stage impulse turbine for use with high pressure and temperature
steam. The Curtis stage turbine, as it came to be called, is composed of one stage of
nozzles as the single-stage turbine, followed by two rows of moving blades instead of
one. These two rows are separated by one row of fixed blades attached to the turbine
stator, which has the function of redirecting the steam leaving the first row of moving
blades to the second row of moving blades. A Curtis stage impulse turbine is shown in
Fig. 4 with schematic pressure and absolute steam-velocity changes through the stage. In
the Curtis stage, the total enthalpy drop and hence pressure drop occur in the nozzles so
that the pressure remains constant in all three rows of blades.

Figure 4 Velocity Compounding arrangement

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Velocity is absorbed in two stages. In fixed (static) blade passage both pressure and
velocity remain constant. Fixed blades are also called guide vanes. Velocity
compounded stage is also called Curtis stage. The velocity diagram of the velocity-
compound Impulse turbine is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Velocity diagrams for the Velocity-Compounded Impulse turbine

The fixed blades are used to guide the outlet steam/gas from the previous stage in such a
manner so as to smooth entry at the next stage is ensured.

K, the blade velocity coefficient may be different in each row of blades

Work done =

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End thrust =

The optimum velocity ratio will depend on number of stages and is given

by

• Work is not uniformly distributed (1st >2nd )

• The fist stage in a large (power plant) turbine is velocity or pressure compounded
impulse stage.

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Reaction Turbine

A reaction turbine, therefore, is one that is constructed of rows of fixed and rows of
moving blades. The fixed blades act as nozzles. The moving blades move as a result of
the impulse of steam received (caused by change in momentum) and also as a result of
expansion and acceleration of the steam relative to them. In other words, they also act as
nozzles. The enthalpy drop per stage of one row fixed and one row moving blades is
divided among them, often equally. Thus a blade with a 50 percent degree of reaction, or
a 50 percent reaction stage, is one in which half the enthalpy drop of the stage occurs in
the fixed blades and half in the moving blades. The pressure drops will not be equal,
however. They are greater for the fixed blades and greater for the high-pressure than the
low-pressure stages. The moving blades of a reaction turbine are easily distinguishable
from those of an impulse turbine in that they are not symmetrical and, because they act
partly as nozzles, have a shape similar to that of the fixed blades, although curved in the
opposite direction. The schematic pressure line (Fig. 1) shows that pressure continuously
drops through all rows of blades, fixed and moving. The absolute steam velocity
changes within each stage as shown and repeats from stage to stage. Figure 24.3 shows a
typical velocity diagram for the reaction stage.

Figure 1 Three stages of reaction turbine indicating pressure and velocity

distribution

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Pressure and enthalpy drop both in the fixed blade or stator and in the moving blade
or Rotor

Degree of Reaction =

Or

A very widely used design has half degree of reaction or 50% reaction and this is known
as Parson's Turbine. This consists of symmetrical stator and rotor blades.

The velocity triangles are symmetrical and we have

Energy input per stage (unit mass flow per second)

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From the inlet velocity triangle we have,

Work done (for unit mass flow per second)

Therefore, the Blade efficiency

Put then

For the maximum efficiency and we get

From which finally it yields

Figure 2 Velocity diagram for maximum efficiency

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Absolute velocity of the outlet at this stage is axial (see figure 2). In this case, the energy
transfer

can be found out by putting the value of in the expression for

blade efficiency

is greater in reaction turbine. Energy input per stage is less, so there are more number
of stages.

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Exercise Problems (for Steam Turbines)

Q1. The adiabatic enthalpy drop in a given stage of a multi-stage impulse turbine is 22.1
KJ/kg of steam. The nozzle outlet angle is and the efficiency of the nozzle, defined
as the ratio of the actual gain of kinetic energy in the nozzle to adiabatic heat drop, is
92%. The mean diameter of the blades is 1473.2 mm and the revolution per minutes is
1500. Given that the carry over factor is 0.88, and that the blades are equiangular (the
blade velocity coefficient is 0.87). Calculate the steam velocity at the outlet from
nozzles, blade angles, and gross stage efficiency.

Q2. The following particulars relate to a two row velocity compounded impulse wheel
which forms a first stage of a combination turbine.
Steam velocity at nozzle outlet = 579.12m/s
Mean blade velocity = 115.82m/s
Nozzle outlet angle =
Outlet angle first row of moving blades =
Outlet angle fixed guide blades =
Outlet angle, second row of moving blades =
Steam flow rate = 2.4 kg/s
The ratio of the relative velocity at outlet to that at inlet is for all blades. Determine
for each row of moving blades the following
• The velocity of whirl
• The tangential thrust on blades
• The axial thrust on the blades
• The power developed

What is the efficiency of the wheel as a whole?

Q3. A velocity compounded impulse wheel has two rows of moving blades with a mean
diameter of 711.2 mm. The speed of rotation is 3000rpm, the nozzle angle is and the
estimated steam velocity at the nozzle outlet is 554.73m/s. The mass flow rate of the
steam passing through the blades is 5.07 kg/s.

Assuming that the energy loss in each row of blades (moving and fixed) is 24% of the
kinetic energy of the steam entering the blades and referred to as the relative velocity,
and that the outlet angles of the blades are:

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(1) first row of moving blades ,
(2) intermediate guide blade ,
(3) second row of moving blades is , draw the diagram of relative velocities and
derive the following.
• Blade inlet angles
• Power developed in each row of blades
• Efficiency of the wheel as a whole
Q4. The following particulars refer to a stage of an impulse-reaction turbine.
Outlet angle of fixed blades =
Outlet angle of moving blades =
Radial height of fixed blades =100mm
Radial height of moving blades =100mm
Mean blade velocity = 138m/s
Ratio of blade speed to steam speed = 0.625
Specific volume of steam at fixed blade outlet =1.235
Specific volume of steam at moving blade outlet =1.305
Calculation the degree of reaction, the adiabatic heat drop in pair of blade rings, and the
gross stage efficiency, given the following coefficients which may be assumed to be the
same in both fixed and moving blades :

Q5. Steam flows into the nozzles of a turbine stage from the blades of preceding stage
with a velocity of 100m/s and issues from the nozzles with a velocity of 325 m/s at angle
of to the wheel plane. Calculate the gross stage efficiency for the following data:

Mean blade velocity=180m/s

Expansion efficiency for nozzles and blades = 0.9

Carry over factor for nozzles and blades = 0.9

Degree of reaction = 0.26

Blade outlet angle =

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Chapter Four
Gas Turbine Power Plants

The gas turbine obtains its power by utilizing the energy of burnt gases and air, which
is at high temperature and pressure by expanding through the several ring of fixed and
moving blades. It thus resembles a steam turbine. To get a high pressure (of the order of
4 to 10 bar) of working fluid, which is essential for expansion a compressor, is required.
Thus, a simple gas turbine cycle consists of
(1) a compressor,
(2) a combustion chamber and
(3) a turbine.

1- CLASSIFICATION OF GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT

The gas turbine power plants which are used in electric power industry are classified
into two groups as per the cycle of operation.
(a) Open cycle gas turbine.
(b) Closed cycle gas turbine.

1-1 OPEN CYCLE GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT

A simple open cycle gas turbine consists of a compressor, combustion chamber and a
turbine as shown in Fig.1. The compressor takes in ambient air and raises its pressure.
Heat is added to the air in combustion chamber by burning the fuel and raises its
temperature.

Fig.1. Open cycle gas turbine

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The heated gases coming out of combustion chamber are then passed to the turbine
where it expands doing mechanical work. Part of the power developed by the turbine is
utilized in driving the compressor and other accessories and remaining is used for power
generation. Since ambient air enters into the compressor and gases coming out of turbine
are exhausted into the atmosphere, the working medium must be replaced continuously.
This type of cycle is known as open cycle gas turbine plant and is mainly used in
majority of gas turbine power plants as it has many inherent advantages.
(A) Advantages
1. Warm-up time. Once the turbine is brought up to the rated speed by the starting motor
and the fuel is ignited, the gas turbine will be accelerated from cold start to full load
without warm-up time.
2. Low weight and size. The weight in kg per kW developed is less.
3. Fuels. Almost any hydrocarbon fuel from high-octane gasoline to heavy diesel oils
can be used in the combustion chamber.
4. Open cycle plants occupy comparatively little space.
5. The stipulation of a quick start and take-up of load frequently are the points in favor
of open cycle plant when the plant is used as peak load plant.
6. Component or auxiliary refinements can usually be varied to improve the thermal
efficiency and give the most economical overall cost for the plant load factors and other
operating conditions envisaged.
7. Open-cycle gas turbine power plant, except those having an intercooler, does not
require cooling water. Therefore, the plant is independent of cooling medium and
becomes self-contained.

(B) Disadvantages

1. The part load efficiency of the open cycle plant decreases rapidly as the considerable
percentage of power developed by the turbine is used to drive the compressor.
2. The system is sensitive to the component efficiency; particularly that of compressor.
The open cycle plant is sensitive to changes in the atmospheric air temperature, pressure
and humidity.
3. The open-cycle gas turbine plant has high air rate compared to the other cycles,
therefore, it results in increased loss of heat in the exhaust gases and large diameter
ductwork is necessary.
4. It is essential that the dust should be prevented from entering into the compressor in
order to minimize erosion and depositions on the blades and passages of the compressor
and turbine and so impairing their profile and efficiency. The deposition of the carbon
and ash on the turbine blades is not at all desirable as it also reduces the efficiency of the
turbine.

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1-2 CLOSED CYCLE GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT

Closed cycle gas turbine plant was originated and developed in Switzerland. In the year
1935,J. Ackeret and C. Keller first proposed this type of machine and first plant was
completed in Zurich in1944. It used air as working medium and had a useful output of 2
MW. Since then, a number of closed cycle gas turbine plants have been built all over the
world and largest of 17 MW capacity is at Gelsenkirchen, Germany and has been
successfully operating since 1967. In closed cycle gas turbine plant, the working fluid
(air or any other suitable gas) coming out from compressor is heated in a heater by an
external source at constant pressure. The high temperature and high-pressure air coming
out from the external heater is passed through the gas turbine. The fluid coming out from
the turbine is cooled to its original temperature in the cooler using external cooling
source before passing to the compressor. The working fluid is continuously used in the
system without its change of phase and the required heat is given to the working fluid in
the heat exchanger.

The arrangement of the components of the closed cycle gas turbine plant is shown in
Fig.2.

(A) Advantages

1. The inherent disadvantage of open cycle gas turbine is the atmospheric backpressure
at the turbine exhaust. With closed cycle gas turbine plants, the backpressure can be
increased. Due to the control on backpressure, unit rating can be increased about in
proportion to the backpressure. Therefore the machine can be smaller and cheaper than
the machine used to develop the same power using open cycle plant.
2. The closed cycle avoids erosion of the turbine blades due to the contaminated gases
and fouling of compressor blades due to dust. Therefore, it is practically free from
deterioration of efficiency in service. The absence of corrosion and abrasion of the
interiors of the compressor and turbine extends the life of the plant and maintains the
efficiency of the plant constant throughout its life as they are kept free from the products
of combustion.
3. The need for filtration of the incoming air which is a severe problem in open cycle
plant is completely eliminated.
4. Load variation is usually obtained by varying the absolute pressure and mass flow of
the circulating medium, while the pressure ratio, the temperatures and the air velocities
remain almost constant. This result in velocity ratio in the compressor and turbine
independent of the load and full load thermal efficiency maintained over the full range
of operating loads.

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Fig.2. Closed Cycle Gas Turbine Plant

5. The density of the working medium can be maintained high by increasing internal
pressure range, therefore, the compressor and turbine are smaller for their rated output.
The high density of the working fluid further increases the heat transfer properties in the
heat exchanger.
6. As indirect heating is used in closed cycle plant, the inferior oil or solid fuel can be
used in the furnace and these fuels can be used more economically because these are
available in abundance.
7. Finally the closed cycle opens the new field for the use of working medium (other
than air as argon, CO2, helium) having more desirable properties. The ratio γ of the
working fluid plays an important role in determining the performance of the gas turbine
plant. An increase in γ from 1.4 to 1.67 (for argon) can bring about a large increase in
output per kg of fluid circulated and thermal efficiency of the plant.
Whether CO2 or Helium should be adopted as working medium is matter of
controversy at present. Blade material poses a problem to use helium as working fluid.
In case of CO2, a new kind of compressor must be designed to compress the fluid. The
main advantage of CO2 is that it offers 40% efficiency at 700°C whereas helium would

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need 850°C or more to achieve the same efficiency. A helium turbine would also need to
run faster imposing larger stresses on the rotor.
8. The maintenance cost is low and reliability is high due to longer useful life.
9. The thermal efficiency increases as the pressure ratio (Rp) decreases. Therefore,
appreciable higher thermal efficiencies are obtainable with closed cycle for the same
maximum and minimum temperature limits as with the open cycle plant.
10. Starting of plane is simplified by reducing the pressure to atmospheric or even below
atmosphere so that the power required for starting purposes is reduced considerably.

(B) Disadvantages

1. The system is dependent on external means as considerable quantity of cooling water

is required in the pre-cooler.
2. Higher internal pressures involve complicated design of all components and high
quality material is required which increases the cost of the plant.
3. The response to the load variations is poor compared to the open-cycle plant,
4. It requires very big heat-exchangers as the heating of workings fluid is done
indirectly. The space required for the heat exchanger is considerably large. The full heat
of the fuel is also not used in this plant.
The closed cycle is only preferable over open cycle where the inferior type of fuel or
solid fuel is to be used and ample cooling water is available at the proposed site of the
plant.

The inherent disadvantage of open cycle is the atmospheric backpressure, which limits
the unit rating. This disadvantage can be eliminated in the closed cycle plant by
increasing the backpressure of the cycle. With conventional closed cycle gas turbine
plants, advantage can be taken of this only to a limited extent as the air heater limits the
unit rating. This disadvantage does not apply to closed cycle plant with a nuclear reactor
as heat source. Manufacturers of closed cycle gas turbine plant believe that with these
sets, unit-rating up to 500 MW may be possible.

A typical closed cycle gas turbine plant using helium as working medium and helium
cooled fast breeder reactor is shown in Fig.3 and corresponding T-s diagram is shown in
Fig. 4.

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Fig. 3. Direct Turbine for Helium Cooled Fast Reactor

Fig.4. The Processes are Presented on T-s Diagram.

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2- ELEMENTS OF GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT
It is always necessary for the engineers and designers to know about the construction
and operation of the components of gas turbine plants.

2-1 COMPRESSORS

The high flow rates of turbines and relatively moderate pressure ratios necessitate the
use of rotary compressors. The types of compressors, which are commonly used, are of
two types, centrifugal and axial flow types.

The centrifugal compressor consists of an impeller (rotating component) and a diffuser

(stationary component). The impeller imparts the high kinetic energy to the air and
diffuser converts the kinetic energy into the pressure energy. The pressure ratio of 2 to 3
is possible with single stage compressor and it can be increased up to 20 with three-stage
compressor. The compressors may have single or double inlet. The single inlet
compressors are designed to handle the air in the range of 15 to 300 m3 /min and double
inlets are preferred above 300 m3/min capacity. The single inlet centrifugal compressor
is shown in Fig.5. The efficiency of centrifugal compressor lies between 80 to 90%. The
efficiency of multistage compressor is lower than a single stage due to the losses.

Fig.5. Single Stage Single Entry Centrifugal Compressor.

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The axial flow compressor consists of a series of rotor and stator stages with decreasing
diameters along the flow of air.
The blades are fixed on the rotor and rotors are fixed on the shaft. The stator blades are
fixed on the stator casing. The stator blades guide the air flow to the next rotor stage
coming from the previous rotor stage. The air flows along the axis of the rotor. The
kinetic energy is given to the air as it passes through the rotor and part of it is converted
into pressure. The axial flow compressor is shown in Fig. 6. The number of stages
required for pressure ratio of 5 is as large as sixteen or more.

Fig.6. Axial Flow Air Compressor.

A satisfactory air filter is absolutely necessary for cleaning the air before it enters the
compressor because it is essential to maintain the designed profile of the aerofoil blades.
The deposition of dust particles on the blade surfaces reduces the efficiency rapidly.
The advantages of axial flow compressor over centrifugal compressor are high
isentropic efficiency (90-95%), high flow rate and small weight for the same flow
quantity. The axial flow compressors are very sensitive to the changes in airflow and
speed, which result in rapid drop in efficiency. In both types of compressors, it has been
found that lowering of the inlet air temperature by 15 to 20°C gives almost 25% greater
output with an increase of 5% efficiency.

2-2 INTERCOOLERS AND HEAT EXCHANGERS

The intercooler is generally used in gas turbine plant when the pressure ratio used is
sufficiently large and the compression is completed with two or more stages. The
cooling of compressed air is generally done with the use of cooling water. A cross-flow
type intercooler is generally preferred for effective heat transfer. The regenerators,
which are commonly used in gas turbine plant, are of two types, recuperator and
regenerator.

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In a recuperative type of heat exchanger, the air and hot gases are made to flow
in counter direction as the effect of counter-flow gives high average temperature
difference causing the higher heat flow. A number of baffles in the path of air-flow are
used to make the air to flow in contact for longer time with heat transfer surface.
The regenerator type heat exchanger consists of a heat-conducting member that is
exposed alternately to the hot exhaust gases and the cooler compressed air. It absorbs the
heat from hot gases and gives it up when exposed to the air. The heat, capacity member
is made of a metallic mesh or matrix, which is rotated slowly (40-60 r.p.m.) and
continuously exposed to hot and cold air.
Prof. Ritz suggested the first application of regenerative heat exchanger to gas turbine
plants of Germany and the heat exchanger was titled against his name. The arrangement
of Ritz heat exchanger is shown in Fig.7.

Fig.7. Ritz Regenerative Heat Exchanger.

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The performance of the heat exchanger is determined by a factor known as

effectiveness. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger is defined as

2-3 COMBUSTION CHAMBERS

The gas turbine is a continuous flow system; therefore, the combustion in the gas turbine
differs from the combustion in diesel engines. High rate of mass flow results in high
velocities at various points throughout the cycle (300 m/sec). One of the vital problems
associated with the design of gas turbine combustion system is to secure a steady and
stable flame inside the combustion chamber. The gas turbine combustion system has to
function under certain different operating conditions which are not usually met with the
combustion systems of diesel engines. A few of them are listed below:
1. Combustion in the gas turbine takes place in a continuous flow system and,
therefore, the advantage of high pressure and restricted volume available in diesel
engine is lost. The chemical reaction takes place relatively slowly thus requiring
large residence time in the combustion chamber in order to achieve complete
combustion.
2. The gas turbine requires about 100:1 air-fuel ratio by weight for the reasons
mentioned earlier. But the air-fuel ratio required for the combustion in diesel
engine is approximately 15:1.Therefore, it is impossible to ignite and maintain a
continuous combustion with such weak mixture. It is necessary to provide rich
mixture fm ignition and continuous combustion, and therefore, it is necessary to
allow required air in the combustion zone and the remaining air must be added
after complete combustion to reduce the gas temperature before passing into the
turbine.
3. A pilot or recirculated zone should be created in the main flow to establish a
stable flame that helps to ignite the combustible mixture continuously.

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4. A stable continuous flame can be maintained inside the combustion chamber
when the stream velocity and fuel burning velocity are equal. Unfortunately most
of the fuels have low burning velocities of the order of a few meters per second;
therefore, flame stabilization is not possible unless some technique is employed to
anchor the flame in the combustion chamber.

The common methods of flame stabilization used in practice are bluff body method and
swirl flow method. Two types of combustion chambers using bluff body and swirl for
flame stabilization are shown in Fig.8 and Fig.9. The major difference between two is
the use of different methods to create pilot zone for flame stabilization.

Fig. 8. Combustion Chamber with Upstream Injection with Bluff-body Flame Holder.

Fig. 9. Combustion Chamber with Downstream Injection and Swirl Holder.

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3- REGENERATION AND REHEATING

Generally, the thermal efficiency of the simple open cycle is only about 16 to 23% as lot
of heat energy goes waste in the exhaust gases. Moreover the cycle efficiency directly
depends upon the temperature of the inlet gases to the turbine. And as the metallurgical
limitations do not permit the use of temperatures higher than about 1000°C, a sizeable
increase in efficiency cannot be expected through the increased temperature of the gases.
Of course, this efficiency handicap can be overcome by incorporating thermal
refinements in the simple open cycle e.g. regeneration, reheating. But the plant will
become complex in contrast to the simple open cycle plant which is compact, occupies
very little space, does not need any water and can be quickly run up from cold. The
thermal refinements can raise the plant efficiency to over 30% and thereby obliterate the
advantage of fuel efficiency possessed by diesel or condensing steam power plants.

3-1 REGENERATION

In regeneration, the heat energy from the exhaust gases is transferred to the compressed
air before it enters the combustion chamber. Therefore, by this process there will be a
saving in fuel used in the combustion chamber if the same final temperature of the
combustion gases is to be attained and also there will be a reduction of waste heat.
Fig.10. shows a regenerative cycle.

Fig. 10 regenerative cycle.

It is clear from Fig. 11, that the compressor turbine works are not affected by
regeneration. However, the heat to be supplied in the combustion chamber is reduced
and also it is added at higher temperature as compared to the cycle without regeneration.
Thus, the thermal efficiency of the cycle increases.

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Fig. 11

For regeneration to take place T5 should be greater than T2.

In the heat exchanger, the temperature of air is increased from T2 to T3, and the
temperature of the exhaust gases is reduced from T5 to T6. If the regeneration is perfect,
the air would be heated to the temperature of the exhaust gases entering the H.E. the
effectiveness of the regeneration is defined as:

The common values of effectiveness would be from

70 to 85%. The heating surface of the generator, as well
as the dimensions and price of the gas turbine increases
with the regeneration fraction. But to justify the regen-
eration economically, the effectiveness should at least be
50%. The regenerative cycle has higher efficiency than
the simple cycle only at low-pressure ratios. If the pres-
sure ratio is raised above a certain limit, then the regen-
erator will cool the compressed air entering the combus-
tion chamber instead of heating it and the efficiency of
the regenerative cycle drops. This is clear from Fig.12. Fig. 12

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3-2 REHEATING
In reheat cycle, the combustion gases are not expanded in one turbine only but in two
turbines. The exhaust of the high-pressure turbine is reheated in a reheater and then
expanded in a low-pressure turbine. By reheating, the power output of the turbine is
increased but the cost of additional fuel may be heavy unless a heat exchanger is also
used. A reheat cycle is shown in Fig.13. Considering the adiabatic expansions, the total
work done in the two turbines will be equal to

Fig. 13

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Fig. 14

If the combustion gases were expanded in one turbine only down to point 7a for the
same pressure ratio, then the work output would have been: (I3 – I7a).

Now the constant pressure lines on the H-Φ chart diverge away from the origin and
converge towards the origin. Therefore the line 5–6a will be greater than 4a–7a. Hence
reheating increases the power output. By reheating, the average temperature of heat
addition is raised resulting in higher output and efficiency of the cycle. If reheat cycle is
to be adopted then the pressure ratio must be high as at low pressure ratios, the thermal
efficiency is lowered by reheating Fig. 9.14. Reheating reduces the airflow through the
cycle resulting in decreased input to the compressor. For ideal reheating; the working
fluid temperature after reheating is equal to the maximum permissible turbine inlet
temperature. That is

4- GAS TURBINE EFFICIENCY

Gas turbines may operate either on a closed or on an open cycle. The majority of gas
turbines currently in use operate on the open cycle in which the working fluid, after
completing the cycle is exhausted to the atmosphere. The air fuel ratio used in these gas
turbines is approximately 60:1.

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The ideal cycle for gas turbine is Brayton Cycle or Joule Cycle. This cycle is of the
closed type using a perfect gas with constant specific heats as a working fluid. This
cycle is a constant pressure cycle and is shown in Fig.15. On P-V diagram and in Fig. 16
on T-φ diagram. This cycle consists of the following processes:

Fig. 15 Fig.16

The cold air at 3 is fed to the inlet of the compressor where it is compressed along 3-4
and then fed to the combustion chamber where it is heated at constant pressure along 4-
1. The hot air enters the turbine at 1 and expands adiabatically along 1-2 and is then
cooled at constant pressure along 2-3.

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5- EFFECT OF BLADE FRICTION

In a gas turbine there is always some loss of useful heat drop due to frictional resistance
offered by the nozzles and blades of gas turbine thus resulting drop in velocity. The
energy so lost in friction is converted into heat and, therefore, the gases get reheated to
some extent. Therefore, the actual heat drop is less than the adiabatic heat drop as shown
in Fig.17, where 1-2′ represents the adiabatic expansion and 1-2 represents the actual
expansion.

Fig.17

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In the compressor also reheating takes place, which causes actual heat increase to be
more than adiabatic heat increase. The process 3-4 represents the actual compression
while 3-4′ represents adiabatic compression.

6- IMPROVEMENT IN OPEN CYCLE

The fresh atmospheric is taken in at the

point 3 and exhaust of the gases after expansion in turbine takes place at the point 2. An
improvement in open cycle performance can he effected by the addition of a heat
exchanger that raises the temperature of the compressed air entering the turbine by
lowering exhaust gas temperature that is a waste otherwise. Less fuel is now required in
the combustion chamber to attain a specified turbine inlet temperature. This is called a
regenerative cycle (Fig. 18).
This regenerative cycle is shown on T-φ diagram in Fig.19. Where φ = entropy.

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Fig. 18 Fig.19

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Example 1. A gas turbine plant of 800 kW capacities takes the air at 1.01 bar and 15°C.
The pressure ratio of the cycle is 6 and maximum temperature is limited to 700°C. A
regenerator of 75% effectiveness is added in the plant to increase the overall efficiency
of the plant. The pressure drop in the combustion chamber is 0.15 bars as well as in the
regenerator is also 0.15 bars. Assuming the isentropic efficiency of the compressor 80%
and of the turbine 85%, determine the plant thermal efficiency. Neglect the mass of the
fuel.

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Chapter Five
Fans in Power Plants
The fan is an essential and one of the most important components of almost all air
conditioning systems. The centrifugal fan is most commonly used in air conditioning
systems as it can efficiently move large quantities of air over a large range of pressures.
The operating principle of a centrifugal fan is similar to that of a centrifugal compressor.
The centrifugal fan with forward-curved blades is widely used in low-pressure air
conditioning systems. The more efficient backward-curved and airfoil type fans are used
in large capacity, high-pressure systems.

5-1 Fan Operation

Fans cause pressure increase by:
1- Centrifugal force created by rotation of the column of air trapped between two blades
2- Kinetic energy is supplied to the air through the impeller
Total pressure = velocity head + static pressure

5-2 Draught System

The combustion in the boiler requires supply of sufficient quality of air and removal of
exhaust gases.
The Circulation of air is caused by difference of pressure is known as draught. Thus
draught is the differential in pressure between the two points.
* A draught tube may be
1. Natural Draught
2. Mechanical Draught
1- Natural Draught
* A natural Draught is provided by the chimney or stack.
* Natural draught has its limitation . Modern plants has high rate of heat transfer and
Draught losses are very high. in view of this Natural draught is used only for small
boilers.

2- Mechanical Draught
* Modern large size plants use very large size of boilers of capacity above 1000,000 kg
per hour. such boiler needs tremendous volume of air (around 200000 m3) Per minute.
A chimney provide this. Therefore mechanical draught is used.
* In a mechanical draught the system the movement air is due to the action of fan. A
mechanical Draught consist of forced Draught or induced draught or both.
* In forced draught system the fan is installed near the boiler .the fan force the air
through then furnace , economizer, air pre-heater and chimney. The pressure of air,

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throughout the system, is above atmospheric and air is forced to flow through the
system.
* In an induced draught system the, the fan is installed near the base of the chimney
.The burnt gases are sucked out from the boiler, thus reducing the pressure inside the
boiler. to less than atmosphere. This induces fresh air to enter the furnace.
* A mechanical Draught need additional capital investment and maintenance .But it
required for proper operation of modern power plant. In super thermal power plant, each
boiler may used two forced fans and two induced fan.
Fig.1 show the Draft system of steam power plant.

Fig.1 Draught System

5-3 SYSTEM RESISTANCE

When a gas is forced through a duct system, a loss in pressure occurs. This loss in
pressure is called system resistance.
System resistance is composed of two components:

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5-4 Fan Classification

Designated as dynamic pumps
Centrifugal
Further classification by entry and exit of fluid/gas through impeller
Four Aerodynamic classifications:
Axial flow
Radial flow : referred to as “centrifugal fan”
Cross flow
Mixed flow

Centrifugal Fans

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Components of Centrifugal Fan

Centrifugal Fan Operation

Fans cause a pressure increase through two methods
– Centrifugal force is created by the rotation of the column of air trapped between two
blades.
– Kinetic energy is supplied to the air through the impeller
– Total pressure = velocity head + static pressure
Blades are airfoil-type, backward-curved, forward-curved, or radial (straight)
– Airfoil-types are complex and expensive but very efficient; they’re used for large
systems where the cost is justified.

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Wheel Blade Types and Rotation

Applications where the fans will handle clean air or clean gas, the highly efficient
backward inclined airfoils are the preferred design. In an application where the fan is
subject to erosion due to heavy dust loading, a straight radial type fan provides erosion
resistance, but at the expense of efficiency.

5-5 Backward-Curved Fan Blades

Have a self-limiting power characteristic,

so if sized correctly the motor won’t
over-heat or burn out even if conditions
change.

High efficiency and stable operation

make this blade type popular.

Choose the operating point to be just to

the right of the peak pressure flow rate to
achieve both high efficiency and a stable
flow rate.

This type of fan operates stably because

the pressure difference provided by the
fan drops if the flow rate goes up. If the
opposite were true, increased an
increased flow rate would cause increase
fan power, which is unstable.

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Radial Blades

Similar performance to a
backward-curved except that it’s
easier to overheat because as flow
rate goes up, so does power.

Easier to maintain, so it’s used in

dirty situations (easy to clean
straight blades, and they don’t
collect as much)
Blades are stronger than other
types.

Used primarily in industrial systems

in a corrosive or erosive
environment, such as material
handling of airborne particulate or
where high static pressure is
required.

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Forward-Curved Blades

Have problems with instability

because a specified pressure
rise can fit three different flow
rates.

Burnout can also be a

problem because fan power
increases with flow rate.

Quieter than other fans; used

for most furnace blowers

Usually limited to clean

service applications

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Axial Flow Fans

Common types: propeller,
Tube-axial,
vane-axial

Tube-axial: impeller is inside a tube

to guide airflow and improve
performance
Vane-axial: like a tube-axial except
vanes either up or downstream of
the impeller are used to reduce
swirl and improve performance

Used to deliver large flow rates but

small increase in pressure

Examples include fans used for

ventilation without ductwork, mobile
room fans, and fans used to cool
computers

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Two-Stage Axial Fan Assembly

System Pressure Effects

Fan curves are typically given in terms of total pressure vs. volumetric flow rate
A typical fan running at a fixed speed can provide a greater volumetric flow rate for
systems with smaller total pressure drops (if we’re to the right of the peak in the fan
curve).
Total pressure loss=static pressure loss+dynamic pressure loss

If exit and inlet area of a duct are about the same, the dynamic pressure loss (or gain)
may be minimal.

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Fan Curves

Manufacturer will provide a fan curve for each fan

The fan curves predict the pressure-flow rate performance of each fan.
Choose a fan that gives you the volumetric flow rate you need for your system pressure
drop.
Choose a fan that has its peak efficiency at or near your operating point.
Sometimes will provide data in a table rather than in a graph.

Centrifugal Fan Performance Curve

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Fan Laws

Law 1 – relates to effect of changing size, speed, or density on volume flow, pressure,
and power level
Law 2 – relates to effect of changing size, pressure, or density on volume flow rate,
speed, and power
Law 3 – shows effect of changing size, volume flow, or density on speed, pressure, and
power
The laws only apply to aerodynamically similar fans at the same point of rating on the
performance curve.

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Fan Applications in Power Plant

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Chapter Six
CIRCULATING WATER SYSTEMS

However, designing a more efficient circulating water system to achieve lower

condenser temperatures and pressures typically results in higher system capital and
operating costs. During the power plant conceptual design phase, a detailed economic
analysis is performed to determine the optimum balance between power cycle efficiency
and circulating water system capital expenditures and operating costs.

1- Once-Through Cooling
In a once-through circulating water system, water is taken from a body of water such as
a river, lake, or ocean, pumped through the plant condenser, and discharged back to the
source. A schematic of this type of circulating water system is shown in Fig. 1. The
circulating water flowing through the condenser is heated in the process of condensing
the turbine exhaust steam. The temperature rise (TR) of the circulating water in the
condenser may be calculated from the following equation:

A once-through circulating water system has two significant advantages. First, the
relatively low temperature of most water sources used for once-through cooling makes
this the most efficient cycle heat rejection system design. Second, the simple system
arrangement typically makes once-through cooling the cycle heat rejection system
design with the lowest capital and operating costs. The disadvantage of this system is
that the heated water is discharged back to the original water source, where the added
heat is gradually dissipated to the earth's atmosphere. However, it may take a long time
for the source water temperature to return to normal, or a new equilibrium temperature
may be reached at a level higher than the normal temperature as long as the plant is in
operation. Before construction of a once-through cooling system, environmental permits

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typically require determination of flow and temperature patterns around the circulating
water discharge to estimate the thermal impact.
For existing plant locations with a once-through circulating water system that may face
revised environmental regulations on the heated circulating water discharge, a helper
cooling tower system may be required. As shown in Fig. 2, helper cooling towers can be
retrofitted to the existing once-through system to reject a portion of the circulating water
heat load directly to the atmosphere rather than to the water source.

2- Cooling Pond
Given the scarcity of environmentally acceptable large bodies of water available for
once-through cooling, alternative cooling system arrangements must be developed
economically. A cooling pond can be the simplest and least expensive alternate method
for providing plant circulating water. The key to the economic viability of cooling pond
construction is the availability of sufficient land at reason-able cost and geographic
conditions suitable for pond or lake construction. A cooling pond is a body of water into
which the circulating water rejects the power cycle waste heat. The cooling pond then
ultimately rejects the acquired heat to the atmosphere. The plant circulating water
system arrangement is similar to that of the once-through circulating water system.
Cooling ponds require large surface areas because they have low heat transfer rates.
The processes involved in the heating and cooling of the cooling pond water mass can
be summarized as follows:

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3- Recirculating Cooling System

Waste heat eventually finds its way to the earth's atmosphere. In the once-through
cooling water system, heat is removed from the steam turbine exhaust and transferred to
water bodies such as oceans, rivers, and lakes. The heat is then gradually transferred to
the atmosphere by evaporation, con-vection, and radiation. However, the body of water
may be negatively affected in this waste-heat transfer process. In a recirculating cooling
system, the circulating water serves as an intermediate heat transfer medium from which
the waste heat is directly rejected to the atmosphere. The most common recirculating
cooling water system arrangement incorporates an evaporative cooling tower as shown
in Fig.3. In this arrangement, waste heat removed from the steam turbine exhaust is
carried by the circulating water to the cooling tower, which rejects the heat to the
atmosphere.

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4- CIRCULATING WATER SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND
ARRANGEMENTS
Only a few major equipment components comprise most circulating water systems.
Basic descriptions of the components are provided in this section, including the most
common equipment arrangements used in power plant circulating water systems.

4-1 Condenser
The power plant condenser is essentially a shell-and-tube heat exchanger (Fig.4). The
function of the condenser is to condense exhaust steam from the main power cycle steam
turbine and boiler feed pump turbine. The condenser has other functions, as well:
• Recover condensed steam as condensate.
• Provide for short-term storage of condensate.
• Provide a low-pressure collection point for condensate drains from other systems in the
plant.
• Provide for deaeration of the collected condensate.
Steam from the turbine is condensed by rejecting the heat of vaporization to the
circulating water. The condensate is collected in the condenser hot well from which the
condensate pumps take suction. Condensers are classified as single pressure or multi-
pressure, depending on whether the circulating water flow path creates one or more
turbine back pressures. The condenser is described further by the number of shells
(which is dependent on the number of low-pressure turbine casings) and as either a
single-pass or a two-pass type depending on the number of parallel water flow paths
through each shell.

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4-2 Cooling Tower
The cooling tower rejects waste heat from the steam cycle to the atmosphere. The use of
cooling towers has become increasingly widespread as the availability of large water
sources required for once-through systems has decreased and as environmental
restrictions on thermal discharges associated with once-through systems have increased.
The conventional wet cooling tower transfers heat principally through evaporation.
Because of the evaporative heat transfer process, water losses are actually higher for this
recirculating cooling system arrangement than for a once-through system. However,
withdrawals of water from the plant water source are reduced dramatically and no
significant thermal impact to the water source occurs. In areas where water conservation
is a top priority, air-cooled condensers and dry cooling towers, using only sensible heat
transfer, are available to reduce water usage to near zero. Also, hybrid wet-dry cooling
tower designs are available that can be custom configured to merge the respective
benefits of wet and dry cooling as may be required for a particular plant site.

4-3 Circulating Water Pumps

Circulating water pumps supply cooling water at the required flow rate and head to the
power plant condenser and the plant auxiliary cooling water heat exchangers. The
circulating water pumps must operate economically and reliably over the lifetime of the
plant. The three types of pumps most commonly used for circulating water service are
vertical wet pit, horizontal dry pit, and vertical dry pit pumps. Typical arrangements of
these pump types are shown in Fig. 5. For once-through cooling systems, vertical wet pit
pumps are most commonly used, with occasional use of horizontal dry pit pumps and
vertical dry pit pumps. For recirculating cooling systems, vertical wet pit and horizontal
dry pit pumps are used about equally, with occasional use of vertical dry pit pumps.

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4-4 Circulating Water Piping
Circulating water piping carries the cooling water from the circulating water pumps to
the condenser and returns the water to the cooling tower (or discharge structure, in the
case of once-through cooling). The routing of this piping includes above-and below-
grade piping between the following components:
• The circulating water pumps and auxiliary cooling water pumps to the condenser inlet
water boxes,
• The condenser outlet water boxes to the cooling tower riser (or discharge structure),
and
• The circulating water pump suction piping (where required).
The large flow rates associated with circulating water systems typically require the use
of large-diameter piping. Common pipe sizes range from 36 to 96 in. (900 to 2,400 mm)
in diameter, although much larger pipe diameters have been used.

The water from these sources can contain high concentrations of corrosive contaminants.
Any pipe materials considered must include measures to protect the pipe for the service
life of the plant. For example, carbon steel pipes in seawater service usually require an
internal coating or an impressed current cathodic protection system, or both. Concrete
pipe may require a special dense concrete mix to withstand chloride attack. These
protective measures significantly increase the capital cost of an installation such that it
can be as economical to install fiberglass-reinforced plastic pipe to obtain the same
service life.

4-5 Liquid Transient Analysis

The large flow rates of a typical circulating water system with flow velocities ranging
from 6 to 12 ft/s introduce the potential for significant pressure transients that could be
damaging. Liquid transient analyses are performed on circulating water systems to
prevent costs associated with damage to system components from water-hammer and
other unsteady flow phenomena. The potential risk of destruction of the large capital
investment of a circulating water system and the threat of forced shutdown of the power
plant are compelling reasons to perform such an analysis.

The typical analysis reviews normal valve and pump operating scenarios and foreseeable
abnormal operating scenarios. The following is a non-exhaustive list of mechanical
equipment operating scenarios that warrant study:
• The tripping of one or more large circulating water pump,
• The starting of one or more circulating water pump,
• The closure or opening of a valve within a circulating water system, and
• The filling of a circulating water system with velocities greater than 1 to 2 ft/s.

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4-6 Intake and Outfall Structures
Intake pumping structures are required for most wet type cycle heat rejection systems.
Intake structure applications fall into two basic categories: intake structures located on a
river, lake, ocean, or cooling pond for use in a once-through cooling system, and intake
structures for cooling tower systems. The circulating water intake structure provides the
following:
* Housing for the circulating water pumps,
• Proper hydraulic flow conditions to the pump suction, and
• Environmentally acceptable withdrawal conditions from the water source.

An outfall structure typically is included as part of a once-through circulating water

system as a means to return the discharge circulating water flow to the waterway.
4-6-1 Once-Through Cooling System Intake Structure.
Plan and elevation views of a typical intake structure for vertical wet pit pumps are
shown in Figs. 6 and 7. Two major design parameters are considered for the once-
through intake structure. The first parameter is the hydraulic/hydrologic characteristics
of the water source. For a river or lake intake structure, the water level may vary on a
seasonal basis. For an ocean intake structure, the water level varies hourly depending on
tidal influences. In either case, the intake structure must be designed to provide adequate
pump submergence and net positive suction head at low water levels,
while assuring that the pumps and motors will not be flooded at high water level.

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4-6-2 Cooling Tower Intake Structure.
The cooling tower intake structure receives water from the cooling tower basin. The
design of the cooling tower intake structure is similar to the once-through system.
However, since the cooling tower system is a closed system, the pump structure water
level varies over a narrow range, keeping the operating region well-defined, which
allows for a much more shallow structure. Also, the intake structure does not interface
with a river, lake, or ocean, so most of the associated concerns with environmental
regulations are avoided.

4-6-3 Intake Structure Screening Systems.

Intake structures located on a lake, river, ocean, or cooling pond requires a screening
system for debris removal. To be considered practical for use in protected power plant
circulating water pumps, a screening system must meet the following criteria:
• Effectively screen the required amount of water without clogging or allowing bypass
of screened materials.
• Be cost effective.
• Use proven mechanical components for reliable long-term performance in typically
severe operating conditions.
• Be maintainable without interfering with the requirements of the cooling water supply.
• Use corrosion-resistant materials and protective coatings as required for long-life
operation with the expected circulating water quality.
• Be effective in screening and protecting aquatic life.
There are several disadvantages associated with the vertical traveling screens.
Experience has shown that the screens require high maintenance, especially if located in
a high debris or sediment-laden environment, or if located in a severely corrosive
environment such as seawater. In through-flow arrangements there is sometimes debris
carryover to the pump side of the screen. Also, the screens may be environmentally
unacceptable because of damage to aquatic life. A fish handling and bypass system is
available to attempt to save fish impinged against the screens. The major difference
between traveling screens and passive screens is that passive screens have no moving
parts. A typical passive screen arrangement is shown in Fig.8. Passive screens are
typified by low approach velocities, low through-screen velocities, and minimum debris
impingement and blockage. Any debris or material that may become impinged on the
screens is removed by a periodic air or water backwash.

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4-6-4 Outfall Structures.

Outfall structures have two components: the seal well and the discharge channel. The
seal well provides a minimum discharge elevation for the circulating water to maintain a
siphon and prevent flashing in the outlet condenser water box and circulating water
piping. The required seal well elevation is based on maintaining the back pressure
needed to prevent flashing of the circulating water at the lowest absolute pressure point
in the system (usually the top of the outlet condenser water box). A minimum 6 ft (1,800
mm) of water absolute pressure head at any point in the circulating water system is
recommended. The elevation of the water in the seal well is typically maintained by a
sharp-crested weir formed with adjustable stop logs.

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4-7 COOLING TOWERS
The cooling towers described in this section are evaporative towers that derive their
primary cooling effect from the evaporation that takes place when air and water are
brought into direct contact. The efficiency of the cooling process depends on the
ambient conditions and the heat rejection load within which the tower must operate.
Other factors that influence efficiency, and over which the cooling tower manufacturer
has some measure of control, are the amount of heat transfer surface area, the time
duration that the water surface is exposed to the air-stream, and the ratio of airflow to
water flow in the cooling tower. Cooling towers can be characterized in several ways.
The most common ways are by type of draft (mechanical or natural) or by the
relationship between the air and water flows (crossflow or counterflow). They can also
be classified according to the main mode of heat transfer (evaporative, or wet, tower
versus sensible, or dry, tower). This section de-scribes the salient features of evaporative
cooling tower classifications. Portions of this section were compiled from documents
published by the Marley Cooling Tower Company.

4-7-1 Mechanical Draft

A mechanical draft cooling tower uses large fans to produce airflow through the tower
fill. Water is distributed over the tower fill, and heat transfer takes place by evaporation
and convection as a result of water to air interface.
There are two types of mechanical draft towers: forced draft and induced draft (Fig.9).
Although Fig.9 shows a counterflow cooling tower design, both fan arrangements are
also applicable for crossflow cooling towers. Forced draft cooling towers have the fans
mounted at the base of the tower. Air is forced in at the bottom and discharged through
the top of the tower. This arrangement has the advantage of locating the fan and drive
motor outside the tower, where it is convenient for inspection, maintenance, and repairs.

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Since the equipment is out of the hot, humid area of the tower, the fan is not subjected
to corrosive conditions. The distinguishing airflow characteristic is a high inlet air
velocity and a low exit air velocity. This characteristic can lead to excessive
recirculation and decreased stability of thermal performance when compared to the
induced draft tower. Recirculation describes the phenomenon of portions of the warm,
moist air of the tower exit air plume being drawn back into the tower air intake, raising
the inlet wet-bulb temperature. The location of the tower fans in the entering airstream
also makes them subject to potential icing problems. Icing can be aggravated in periods
when the forced draft tower is experiencing recirculation, because of the high moisture
content of the recirculated air. There are two primary types of mechanical draft tower
arrangements: rectangular, in-line fan arrangement, and round, clustered fan
arrangement. The round tower arrangement allows cooling of very large water flows
with less plant site area than required by multiple-cell rectangular cooling towers. The
round tower arrangement offers other advantages over the rectangular cooling tower:
• Reduced ground level effects of fog resulting from a consolidated, more buoyant
plume;
• Reduced circulating water piping lengths; and
• Less thermal performance degradation caused by recirculation.

4-7-2 Natural Draft

The natural draft cooling tower produces airflow through utilization of the stack, or
chimney, effect. The density difference between the warm (less dense) air inside the
stack and the relatively cool (more dense) ambient air outside produces the required
airflow. These towers tend to be very large, both in height and in the amount of water
flow each tower can cool. The hyperbolic natural draft cooling tower derives its name
from the geometric shape of the shell. Early natural draft towers were nearly cylindrical
in shape and made of wood. As the design of natural draft towers evolved and the towers
became very tall and large, the hyperbolic shape of today's reinforced concrete towers
was found to offer superior strength and resistance to ambient wind loadings. The
hyperbolic shape of the tower shell has little to do with the heat transfer process
occurring within the tower. Figures 10 and 11 show schematics of crossflow and
counterflow hyperbolic natural draft towers. As the figures indicate, the fill is located
within the lower portion of the shell, with the upper 85% to 90% of the shell empty and
used solely to achieve the chimney effect. A ring-shaped foundation supports the tower.
Columns rising from the foundation provide an open air inlet base with the hyperbolic
curved shell above.

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10

11

As mentioned previously, the airflow through the natural draft tower is induced by the
density difference between the warm (less dense) air inside the stack and the relatively
cool (more dense) ambient air. The driving force developed by the density differential is
balanced by the pressure drops within the tower as the air passes through. The driving
force ( p , kPa ) is given by the following:

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4-7-3 Fan-Assisted Natural Draft

The fan-assisted natural draft cooling tower is a hybrid de-sign (Fig. 12). The intent of
the design is to augment the airflow produced by fans with airflow produced by the
stack effect of a natural draft tower. Because the fans assist in producing the required
airflow, the cost impact of a large stack is reduced. Because the stack augments the
airflow, fan horsepower requirements are reduced. If designed properly in temperate
climates, the fans may need to be operated only during relatively short periods of high
ambient wet-bulb temperatures and high wind loads.

12

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4-8 COOLING TOWER SIZING
For a new power plant project, the condenser and cooling tower arrangements are
optimized during the conceptual design of the cycle heat rejection system. Condenser
design parameters are determined based on an economic optimization study that
evaluates and compares the numerous potential condenser arrangements and sizes,
which are evaluated in combination with various cooling tower efficiencies
(approaches), to select the most cost-effective condenser arrangement, size, and back
pressure. The optimization is based on the client's preferences as well as the project
economic criteria and projected unit load model.

4-8-1 Design Heat Load

The plant condenser and cooling tower are sized to handle the maximum expected heat
load from the turbine-generator manufacturer's valve-wide-open, 5% overpressure heat
balance. This is also commonly referred to as the maximum continuous rating (MCR)
load point. During the course of the condenser and cooling tower optimization, sufficient
design margins are verified to ensure that plant capacity is never restricted by
insufficient cooling system capacity. For example, many large steam turbines are limited
in maximum steam exhaust pressure to about 5.0 in. HgA. Appropriate design margins
would typically eliminate evaluation of any condenser and cooling tower arrangement
that would produce a back pressure of greater than 4.0 in. HgA (100 mm) under peak
load and the site 1% wet-bulb temperature, or 4.5 in. HgA (150 mm) when the wet-bulb
temperature is at the historical maximum for the site. These design conditions allow
adequate margin for unusually warm weather and ensure that unit capacity is not limited
by excessive back pressures during peak load and peak ambient conditions. Maximum
steam turbine back pressure limitations are specific to turbine-generator manufacturer
and can vary as a function of steam turbine size.

4-8-2 Design Wet-Bulb Temperature

An important cooling tower design parameter is the design wet-bulb temperature. Wet-
bulb temperature is that saturation temperature to which air can be cooled adiabatically
by the evaporation of liquid water at the same temperature. Thus, the wet-bulb
temperature represents the lowest temperature to which the circulating water can
theoretically be cooled in the tower. Since there are inefficiencies in the cooling tower
evaporative cooling process, the cooling tower can cool only to within an approach of
the wet-bulb temperature. Selection of the design wet-bulb temperature must be made on
the basis of historical ambient conditions at the plant site. It is common to select the
design inlet wet-bulb temperature as the 5% ambient wet-bulb temperature at the site
plus an allowance for recirculation (and interference if the site has more than one tower).
The 5% wet-bulb temperature is the wet-bulb temperature that has historically been
exceeded an average of only 5% of the hours in the four warmest summer months

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(typically June through September). The hours in which peak wet-bulb temperatures
exceed the 5% level are seldom consecutive hours and usually occur in periods of
relatively short duration. The 5% wet-bulb temperature is a common design parameter
for industrial cooling applications, and historical weather data is usually readily
available for most proposed plant sites.

4-8-3 Recirculation and Interference

Cooling tower recirculation, as shown in Fig.13, describes the phenomenon of portions
of the warm, moist air of the tower exit plume being drawn back into the air intake of
the cooling tower, thus raising the inlet wet-bulb temperature. Interference is a similar
phenomenon, but is defined as the discharge from one tower that enters another nearby
tower (also shown in Fig. 13). Since the heated discharge air that recirculates or
interferes is essentially saturated, it cannot contribute to the heat transfer process
because the predominant cooling mechanism of a wet cooling tower is evaporation.
Recirculation and interference increases the wet-bulb temperature of the entering air,
negatively affecting tower performance. The cold water temperature to the condenser is
increased, which in turn increases the turbine back pressure. That, in turn, reduces the
turbine-generator output and the plant overall efficiency. The typical mechanical draft
cooling tower specification provides a design inlet wet-bulb temperature defined as
follows:

4-8-4 Cooling Tower Flow, Range, and Approach

The condenser optimization determines the design circulating water flow rate, cold
water temperature, and cooling range based on the turbine-generator heat load at the
maximum continuous rating load point plus a 10% allowance for the heat load of the
auxiliary cooling system. On some projects, an additional margin is included to allow
for deterioration in turbine-generator performance, the calculation of the temperature
rise of the circulating water in the condenser is as follows:

The relationships between the cooling tower range, approach, and wet-bulb temperature
are shown in Fig.14. The design tower cold water temperature is based on the cooling
tower approach to the design inlet wet-bulb temperature. Cooling tower approach is
defined as the temperature difference between the cold water temperature leaving the
tower basin and the wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the tower.

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13

14

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To illustrate further how the condenser and cooling tower perform together as a system,
and how heat rejection system optimization studies must consider the performance and
costs of all system components, Fig.15 shows the condenser and cooling tower design
performance parameters for a typical power plant cycle heat rejection system that
ultimately determine the turbine-generator back pressure for a given heat load:

15

For the cooling tower, reducing the tower approach temperature reduces the turbine back
pressure, but it also increases the capital and operating costs of the cooling tower. Figure
16 shows how the design approach temperature affects cooling tower size. The tower
cost usually increases in proportion to the size of the tower. Note the asymptotic
movement of the curve toward a zero approach. Tower approaches from 5 to 9°F (2.8 to
5.0° C) generally are not cost effective for power plant use, and approaches below 5° F
(2.8° C) usually cannot be guaranteed by cooling tower manufacturers.

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16

4-8-5 Dry-Bulb Temperature and Relative Humidity

Dry-bulb temperature is not usually an essential criterion for sizing wet mechanical
draft cooling towers. However, the design dry-bulb temperature or relative humidity is
used by the tower manufacturer to determine design inlet air properties so an accurate
determination of evaporation can be made. Also, for natural draft, plume abatement,
water conservation, and dry or wet-dry cooling towers, dry-bulb temperature is essential
in sizing the cooling tower.

4-9 Manufacturers’ Performance Curves

Cooling tower thermal performance is determined by the basic parameters of airflow,
water flow, type and quantity of heat transfer surface, inlet wet-bulb temperature, and
heat load imposed on the cooling tower. The design water flow, wet-bulb temperature,
heat load, and cold water temperature are specified. The cooling tower manufacturer
designs the cooling tower to obtain the specified design cold water temperature by
selecting a design airflow rate and heat transfer surface area combination. Once these
have been selected, the tower's performance at off-design conditions is fixed and
performance curves can be drawn.
Figure 17 shows typical cooling tower performance curves for a mechanical draft tower.

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17

A typical natural draft tower performance curve is shown in Fig. 18. As the relative
humidity decreases for a given wet-bulb temperature, the airflow rate decreases and the
cold water temperature increases.

18

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