A Seminar Report on

DNA –the code of life.

Paper – II , Unit - I
 A presentation on
DNA –the code of life.
THE DISCOVERY OF DNA DOUBLE HELIX IS ONE OF THE GREATEST FINDINGS OF
ALL TIME, BUT IT’S ALSO ONE OF THE MOST CONTROVERSIAL.
KEY SCIENTISTS INVOLVED
 Erwin Chargaff
Phoebus levene
James Watson Francis Crick

Rosalind Franklin Maurice Wilkins

  TOPICS TO COVER -:

 What is DNA?
 DNA structure
 Scientific thinking before 1953

 Watson and Crick’s Contribution.

 Different forms of DNA double Helix.

WHAT IS DNA?
DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)

DNA is a double stranded molecule

that is twisted into a Helix (Spiraling
Staircase)

DNA Double Helix

Each strand consists of:

1) A Sugar Phosphate Backbone

Each strand consists of:

1) A Sugar Phosphate Backbone

2) Four Base Chemicals

(Attached in pairs)
Adenine pairs with Thymine
Guanine pairs with Cytosine
 STRUCTURE
Basic structure of DNA is a sugar-phosphate backbone with 4
variable nitrogenous bases. This structure is called a nucleotide.

P
sugar Nitrogen
base
Phosphate molecule:
HYDROPHILIC 5-carbon sugar:
DEOXYRIBOSE Nitrogen base:
HYDROPHOBIC

BACKBONE BASE
 NUCLEIC ACIDS

 Nucleic acids are polymers

 Nucleotides are monomer
 Nitrogenous bases
• Purines
• Pyrimidine
Nucleosides
 Sugar
• Ribose
• Deoxyribose

 Phosphates + nucleoside = nucleotide

 Structure
Does DNA fit the requirements of a hereditary material?

REQUIREMENT DNA Component

Has biologically useful information to Genetic code: 3 bases code for 1

make protein amino acid(protein)
Must reproduce faithfully and transmit Complementary bases are faithful:
to offspring found in germ cells
Must be stable within a living organism Backbone is strong covalent :
hydrogen bonds
Must be capable of incorporating stable Bases can change through known
changes mechanisms
 THE EARLY EFFORTS
• By the early 1900’s it was known that the chromosomes
carry the genetic (hereditary) information

• Chromosomes consist of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

Gregor Mendel:
Introduces the concept of heredity

1865 1909 1911 1929 1944 1950

Wilhelm Johannsen:
Coins the term “Gene

1865 1909 1911 1929 1944 1950

Thomas Hunt Morgan:
Discovers that genes are responsible for inheritance

1865 1909 1911 1929 1944 1950

Phoebus Levene:
Discovers that DNA is made up of nucleotides, phosphates, sugars and 4 bases

1865 1909 1911 1929 1944 1950

Oswald Avery:
Shows that DNA can transform the property of cells

However, this idea was not universally

accepted

1865 1909 1911 1929 1944 1950

Erwin Chargaff:
Shows that: A + G = T + C = 50%

1865 1909 1911 1929 1944 1950

 Franklin’s Work
TWO FORMS OF DNA
In 1951 Rosalind Franklin discovers the Two Forms of DNA
through her X-ray diffraction images.

A – Dry Form B – Wet Form

X-Ray Crystallography
SOON AFTER WWII THE RACE TO DISCOVER THE “SECRET OF LIFE” WAS ON. SCIENTISTS KNEW
THIS WOULD BE THE DISCOVERY OF THE CENTURY AND WOULD GUARANTEE A NOBEL PRIZE.
The Watson-Crick Model of the Structure of DNA
On Feb. 28, 1953, Francis Crick walked into the Eagle pub in Cambridge,
England, and, as James Watson later recalled, announced that "we had found
the secret of life." Actually, they had. That morning, Watson and Crick had
figured out the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA. And that
structure — a "double helix" that can "unzip" to make copies of itself —
confirmed suspicions that DNA carries life's hereditary information.
 Watson and Crick’s Work
• In 1951 James Watson traveled from the United States to
work with Francis Crick at Cambridge University.

• Watson and Crick used the “Model Building” approach.

• They physically built models out of wire, sheet metal, nuts

and bolts to come up with the structure of DNA.

Why did they build models?

“Sometimes the fingers can grasp what the mind cannot”
(Biology the Science of Life)
• DNA consists of two chains of nucleotides in a ladder-like
structure which is twisted (Double Helix)

• Used data of M.H.F. Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin, early

50’s

• Wilkins and Franklin studied

the structure of DNA crystals
using X-rays.

• The X pattern suggested

the structure of DNA was a
helix.
• Used data of Erwin Chargaff, 1940’s and
early 50's

• Chargaff’s Rule: His data showed that in each

species, the percent of A equals the percent of
T, and the percent of G equals the percent of
C.

• Watson was shown this picture by Wilkins in

early 1953.
From the picture it was possible to calculate:
1) the distance between bases (3.4A)
2) the length of the period (34A)
3) the rise of the helix (36 degrees)
• Francis Crick and James
Watson with Maurice Wilkins
received the 1962 Nobel Prize
for discovering the molecular
structure of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA).

• Widely regarded as one of the most important discoveries of

the 20th century it has led the way to the mapping and
deciphering of all the genes in the human chromosomes
 Watson and Crick Model:

• The sides of the ladder are made up of alternating molecules

of phosphate and deoxyribose.
• The bases make up the rungs of the ladder are attracted by a
weak chemical bonds called hydrogen bonds.
• The DNA double helix is anti-parallel, which means that the
5' end of one strand is paired with the 3' end of its
complementary strand (and vice versa).
• 5'--------------->3‘
3'<---------------5'
• Two hydrogen bonds connect T to A; three hydrogen bonds
connect G to C.
 “Nature”
Watson & Crick quickly published their Scientific Journal called
“Nature” on April 25th 1953
 The Nobel Prize
• In 1962 Watson, Crick & Wilkins won the Nobel Prize for their
discovery of the structure of DNA.
 A-DNA
• A-DNA is one of the many possible double
helical structures of DNA.

• It is most active along with other forms.

• Helix has left-handed sense, shorter more

compact helical structure.

• It occurs only in dehydrated samples of

DNA, such as those used in
crystallographic experiments.
 Structure
• A-DNA is fairly similar to B-DNA.

• Slight increase in the number of bp/ rotation (resulting in a

tighter rotation angle), and smaller rise/turn.

• deep major groove and a shallow minor groove.

• Favoured conformation at low water concentrations.

• In a solution with higher salt concentrations or with alcohol

added, the DNA structure may change to an A form, which is
still right-handed, but every 2.3 nm makes a turn and there are 11
base pairs per turn.
 Function

• A transition from B-DNA to A-DNA occurs during

Transcription.
A-DNA also plays a imp role in some processes that do not
involve RNA.

For Example:
• In sporulating bacteria, there is a protein which can bind
to DNA in the B-conformation & induce a change to the
A-DNA helix

• Also, Long terminal repeats (LTRs) of transposable

elements, these regions often contains purine stretches
which favour the A-DNA conformation.
 B-DNA
• Most common DNA conformation in
vivo.

• Favoured conformation at high water

concentrations.

• Also known as Watson & Crick model

of DNA.

• First identified in fibre at 92% relative

humidity.
The B-DNA structure
 Structure

• Narrower, more elongated helix than A.

• Wide major groove easily accessible to proteins & Narrow

minor groove.

• Base pairs nearly perpendicular to helix axis

• One spiral is 3.4nm or 34Ǻ.

• Distance between two H-bonds is 0.34nm or 3.4Ǻ.

 Z-DNA

• Z-DNA is one of the many possible

double helical structures of DNA.

• Helix has left-handed sense.

• It is most active double helical

structure.

• Can be formed in vivo, given proper

sequence and super helical tension, but
function remains obscure.
 Structure
• Z-DNA is a transient form of DNA.

• Narrower, more elongated helix than A or B.

• Z-DNA was first discovered in 1979,certain proteins bind very

strongly to Z-DNA.

• Z-DNA plays an important biological role in protection against

viral disease.

• One turn spans 4.6 nm, comprising 12 base pairs.

• The DNA molecule with alternating G-C sequences in alcohol

or high salt solution tends to have such structure.
 Function
• While no definitive biological significance of Z-DNA has been
found, it is commonly believed to provide torsional strain relief
(supercoiling) while DNA transcription occurs.

• Toxic effect of ethidium bromide on ttrypanosoma is caused by

shift of their kinetoplastid DNA to Z-form.

• Scientists have since discovered that certain proteins bind very

strongly to Z-DNA, suggesting that Z-DNA plays an important
biological role in protection against viral disease.
Direction of Helix
 The helix axis of A-, B-, and Z-DNA.

Helix sense : Right-handed Right-handed Left-handed

Bp/turn : 11 10 12
Diameter : 23Ǻ 20Ǻ 18Ǻ
Axial rise(nm) : 0.26 0.34 0.45
 Factors involved for different DNA conformations:
There are at least three factors on which the DNA conformation
depends

1) Ionic or hydration environment

2) DNA sequences.
3) Presence of specific proteins

In a living cell, DNA is a Mixture of A-& B-DNA conformation

with a few regions capable of forming Z-DNA
 REFERENCE
 Molecular Biology & Biotechnology by H. D. Kumar
 DNA Technology the awesome skills by I. Edward Alcamo
 The Molecular Biology A Structural Approach by C. U. SMITH
 Fundamentals of Molecular Biology by Jayanta.K.Pal
 Molecular Biology of the Gene by James.D.Watson