Phonology in Language learning and

teaching
Dr. Ali Saleh Jarrah
Languages and Translation Department, College of Art and
Humanities, Taibah University, Madinah, Saudi Arabia
[email protected]

Abstract:
This article aims at absorbing the pronunciation teachers task and how much phonology should
teachers know. Teachers and future teachers need a well-rounded concept of the phonology of the
language they are going to teach and the native language of learners. Emphasis must be placed on the
understanding of language as a system of rules and as a network of interrelated parts. They should be
respectably solvent in both segmental and suprasegmental features of the two languages and they
should have a solid grounding in theory and knowledge about how the sound systems of the two
languages work . Thus the phonological training must involve our students learning about the sounds of
English and Arabic as well as learning how to produce them. It is expected that this interplay of
theoretical and practical aspects will be highly beneficial in helping students to become both proficient
speakers of English and effective teachers of the language. Dziubalska-Kołaczyk (2002) states that
“Making the learner metalinguistically aware of phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax as well as
socio-pragmatics will facilitate his/her acquisition of a second language, i.e. the development of second
language competence.” It is our belief that our students’ future teaching practice will demand precisely
this: heightened quality of competence originated by metalinguistic awareness. Trainees will become
linguistic models for their pupils and as stated by Gimson (2001) one of their major responsibilities
will be centered around providing as close approximation to a chosen model of pronunciation as
possible.

Related resources by keyword:

Phonetics, Phonology, Pronunciation, learning, Teaching

Introduction

Teaching English phonology is one of the most interesting and difficult

subjects. Students at languages and translation department, college of
Education and College of Arts and Humanities, Taibah University, Saudi
Arabia, Madinah Munawwarah, learn phonology among other courses to
become English as a foreign language teachers. And we call them future
teachers here.
When students reach the university level they already took primary
courses in English in the public schools for six years, which are not
enough for them to master the language. The writer has been teaching

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English phonetics and phonology for 15 years there for those future
teachers.

Some of the problems that face our Arab students are phonological,
i.e., they do not know how to articulate English sounds correctly. For
example, the alveolar sounds [d, t, s] are pronounced dental as in Arabic,
so, their effects on their neighboring sounds differ from those of English
language. The books used here are Roach, P (2009), and Hancock, M
(2003)

For several decades of the 20th century, the main interest of

pronunciation teaching research was in applying contrastive analysis
techniques to the sound segments of the L1 and L2 to identify differences
between them and so, it was assumed, to highlight areas where L1
transfer errors were likely to occur. Later in the century, pronunciation
teaching research began to move on both by embracing more
sophisticated approaches to interlanguage phonology, taking universal,
developmental, and other processes into account as well as transfer (see,
e.g., the range of research interests documented in Ioup & Weinberger,
1987), and by focusing increasingly on suprasegmental features along
with segmental. Still more recently and radically, a number of researchers
have ceased treating pronunciation as a somewhat isolated, self-contained
linguistic and pedagogic phenomenon, but are forging links with research
into other aspects of language and language teaching and also
maximizing the opportunities offered by technological advances.

The term phonology refers to the patterns of phonetic elements used in

the phonological forms of meaningful entities of a language. These
elements, i,e, phonemes, are abstractions and have no content. They are
described in opposition to each other: change of a phoneme in a word
creates a different word (eg. /kæp tæp læp/).

Errors in pronunciation can be either allophonic or phonological.

When, for instance, the word 'pat' is perceived as 'bat' by the listener, the
error is phonological; when the word 'milk' is pronounced with the clear
/l/ instead of the dark one, the word can be perceived correctly and the
error is allophonic. Individual phonological errors, like the one above, do
not very often occur in real conversation, because the redundancy
embedded in the context makes it possible for listeners to amend what
they hear. The importance of phoneme contrasts is often overemphasized
in teaching at the cost of some other, more important aspects of
phonology. Phenomena that are important to learn are, for instance, .the
way in which the foreign language links phonemes together, physically

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carries out sequences of sounds in stressed and unstressed positions in
connected speech, shapes words and builds up word combinations, and
gives them their rhythm in sentences and longer stretches of discourse.
(Lehtonen et al. 1977: 9-10).

The phoneme paradigm constituting the phonological system of a

given language makes part of the native speakers competence. It makes it
possible for him to expect certain types of constructions and recognize
certain physical differences of sounds. The phonemic system of the
language also allows the speaker-hearer to subconsciously overlook
differences and constructions that could be predicted theoretically.

How Much Phonetics and Phonology should teachers know?

Phonetics is defined as the study of sounds, while Phonology extends
to the study of sounds within a language system. Teachers must be well
informed about articulatory phonetics and the phonetics of the mother
tongue(s) and target language of learners; target languages cannot be
addressed in isolation. The amount of phonetic knowledge appropriate is
age-dependent. School-age learners need guiding (virtually no theory but
lots of carefully structured, phonetically-informed practice); older
learners need guiding and informing (facilitating self-help, including use
of interactive websites). The effectiveness of ear-training (based on
knowledge that hearing and recognition of sounds must precede attempts
to make them, see Jones 1948) is supported by Pisoni, et al. 1994,
Rvachew & Jamieson 1995, etc.; the value of theoretical understanding as
part of the learning process is convincingly illustrated by Catford &
Pisoni 1970. Additionally, the ability to read transcription is essential to
access information in a pronouncing dictionary for languages without
phonetic spelling; pronunciation must be learnt in parallel with meaning
and use for every new word.

Here, at the languages and translation department, we begin teaching

phonetics with an intensive contrastive course in articulatory phonetics.
This teaching focuses on the mechanism of sounds production in Arabic
and English to our future teachers. Teachers need a good grasp of
articulatory phonetics; a well-trained ear; knowledge of the phonology
contrasts, major allophones, processes and prosodies of both the mother
tongue and the target language. Teachers will anticipate likely problems

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arising from the interface between the first and the target languages
(utilising knowledge of comparative phonetics and phonology), notice
and analyse actual problems as they occur (using practical phonetic skills
derived from ear-training experience), remedy the situation with bespoke
exercises (applying knowledge of articulatory phonetic theory and
pedagogy).

Differences in sound systems have a phonological basis: they depend

on variation in speech organs positions or breath control. Teachers must
understand the physical aspects of sound production. This brings us back
to the notion that any language use in the classroom involves matters of
phonology. Teachers will not necessarily teach these to students, but this
knowledge will provide a basis for teachers to identify the physical
reasons for inaccurate approximations of foreign language sounds,
enabling them to give precise instructions which will help students
correct their incorrect pronunciation. Unless teachers understand how
students are using their speech organs in producing a native language
sound and what they should be doing to reproduce the foreign language
sound acceptably, teachers will not be able to help students beyond a
certain stage of earnest but inaccurate imitation. Incorrectly articulated
consonants will affect the production of vowels, as vowels will affect
consonants. Students therefore require steady practice and muscle
training. Pronunciation is a motor skill that needs practice. Teachers must
know the applied theory. The applied theory provides in depth study of
the sound system of Arabic and English. Emphasis is placed on the
understanding of languages as systems of rules and as a network of
interrelated parts. The goal of this application is to enable students to
understand the principles of phonology as they are applied to English and
apply those principles to teaching. Phonology can be divided into a
number of categories:

a. sounds and phonemes: vowels and consonants, Hearing: physical

demonstration. Discrimination exercises e.g. ship or sheep? /ɪ/ or /i:/ ?
Which vowel sounds occur in: "it", "bit", "beat", "fit", "feet", "seat",
"sit" ? Which vowel sounds occur in: "it", "bit", "eat", "fit", "feet",
"seat", "sit"?

b. Production: Physically making sounds.

c. Expanded contexts with longer utterances. Phrases and sentences as

well as phonemes between closed consonants

d) stress (word and sentence) and rhythm

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e) features of connected speech

f) intonation

All higher units such as words, phrases, clauses, and sentences, are
made up of sounds and ultimately analysable as sounds.

The phonological systems of two languages differ in a number of ways

(Lehtonen et al. 1977:9,Wiik 1965, 1966). The difference is physical
when certain target language speech sounds are physically new to a
learner (e.g. the English /v, p, and ŋ / are physically new to Arabic). The
difference is relational when similar sounds in both languages are related
to each other in a phonologically different way (e.g. t, d, s, z , n, l,r] are
alveodental in Arabic, but in English they are alveolars. When the
distribution of similar sounds in both languages is not the same, the
difference is distributional (in English the distribution of the dark
allophone of /l/ is different from that of the Arabic /1/). A difference in
segmentation occurs when phonetically similar fragments are found in
both languages but they are segmented into phonemes in different ways
(reduced vowels between consonants are in Arabic perceived as
belonging, in a way, to the consonant segments, while in English they are
perceived as vocalic ones.

As is obvious on the basis of what has been said above, however, the
contrasting of two languages cannot be a simple one-to-one equation
between the best possible structural descriptions of the two, if we want to
produce materials for the purposes of language learning and teaching.
There is a very obvious reason for this: many of the difficulties in
language learning and language use in the area of pronunciation cannot
be accredited to phoneme paradigms. What is necessary for us to be able
to explain the reasons for the difficulties is a more profound view
of language reception and production and of the actual operations that are
needed when speakers are faced with the need to produce or receive
chains of speech. Within this kind of approach, contrastive linguistics
means the study of how people communicate in two or more languages
and what the consequences are for language learners and foreign
language users when the systems of the languages clash in foreign
language learning situations.

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Sound systems of Arabic and English
This study is both descriptive and explanatory in that it provides a
phonetic description of Arabic (L1) as opposed to English (L2). The
factors influencing the phonetic and phonological transfers are
systematically highlighted. I observed my university English major
students who are going to be future English language teachers for a full
year, (two consecutive semesters), and found out that most of their
difficulties were due to the phonological differences between the two
languages.

Segmental phonology

1. Consonants

BILABIALS: [b, p, w, m], these sounds are pronounced by the two lips,
the difference between Arabic pronunciation and English pronunciation is
that Arab students do not bring the two lips very tight together like in
English, but they sound Arabic because of the affect of the Arabic
pronunciation on students which are produced with a slight or a fast touch
between the two lips from inside the two lips then the two lips are
released fast. This means lips are not as tight as it is in English
pronunciation of these sounds. In addition [p] is not part of Arabic sound
system, it is pronounced [b] instead.

LABIODENTALS, [f, v] the same with bilabials the upper teeth barely
touches the lower lip leaving a bigger space between the upper teeth and
the lower lip than that of English, and [v] is pronounced [f] because
Arabic do not have this sound in its sound system.

ALVEALARS: [t, d, s, z, n, l] these sounds are produced while the tip of

the tongue touches the back of the upper teeth in Arabic and the blade
touches the alveolar ridge, students pronounce them as such and get
foreign accent. While in English they are pronounced with the blade of
the tongue touching the alveolar ridge without letting the tip of the tongue
touching the back of the upper teeth. [tʃ] is replaced by[ʃ], [z] is replaced
by [dʒ]

PALATO-ALVEOLARS: [tʃ, dʒ] big problem because of the closeness of

the places of articulation of the first and second members of the sounds
and because of clustering of these the first and second members.

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PALATAL [j] the front of the tongue is not raised as high against hard
palate as it is in English.

VELARS [k, g, ŋ] [k, and g] are pronounced little further front than the
English ones, and [ŋ] is the most difficult among Arab students, it is
always pronounced [n] instead of [ŋ]

GLOTTALS: [h, ʔ] no problems

The foreign accent students have, then, is a result of not articulating

English sounds from their exact places of articulation. Those places differ
even in similar sounds like [t, d].

Pre and post vocalic 'r': all are pronounced but mostly our students tend to
pronounce the flap [r] instead of the retroflex [r]. While in English the
post-vocalic 'r' is not pronounced, our students tend to pronounce it like in
‘part’ [pa:t] is pronounced [bart].

[l] is only pronounced clear pre and post vocalic, no dark 'l' whatsoever
except in the word ‘ALLAH’ (God)

2. Vowels

Vowels are more problematic for Arab students than consonants.

Arabic language has only three vowels and their long counterparts, while
English has twelve vowels.

English vowels:

[i, i:, e, æ, ʌ, a:, o, o:, u, u:, ə:, ə]

Arabic vowels

[a, a: i, i:,, u, u:]

/e/ is always pronounced like /i/ 'set', /set/ is pronounced /sit/

/a:/ is pronounced like /æ/ specially before /r/, car /ka:/ is pronounced
/kær/

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/o/ is pronounced /u/

/ei/ is pronounced /e:/ 'late' is pronounced like [le:t]

/eə/ is pronounced /ea/ 'dear' /deə/ is pronounced /dear/

/iə/ is pronounced /ia/, deer /iə/ is pronounced /diar/

/əu/ is pronounced /au/ or /o:/ 'note' is pronounced like [no:t]

/uə/ is pronounced /u:/ 'poor' is pronounced as /pu:r/ not /puə/

/æ/ and /8/ are mixed up

/ə:/ is pronounced /i/ 'bird', /bə:d/ is pronounced /bird/

Connected speech problems

Supra-segmental phonology

The syllable

In addition to a description of the phoneme inventory of both

languages, a description is required of what happens when sounds are
combined in larger units. Languages differ in what and how much they
include in a syllable, and in how the phonemes are organised within the
syllable. When Arab students learn English at school, they relate their
pronunciation to their syllable system. This means that the students have
problems in pronouncing syllables which are not part of their system.
Arabic syllable structure is simpler than in English. The phonotactic
structure of Arabic syllables is CV(V)C(C) where parentheses indicate
optional elements. In English it is possible to have sequences of up to
three consonants in syllable onset and four in coda position. Consonant
clusters are therefore difficult for the Arab students. The learners modify
the complex syllable structures to make them conform to their present
level of phonetic ability. Underlying this description there are two basic
principles along which Arabic learners seem to operate.

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 The fact that the Arabic syllable is simple and that the distribution rules
are different from English indicates that, and explains why, the Arab
learners of English are facing problems in their pronunciation of English.
The result of the difficulties with consonant clusters is that the borders
between the words are poorly marked and it is difficult to understand the
speech.

English has many consonant clusters in the onset and the coda of a
syllable, the maximum consonant cluster in the onset is three and in the
coda is four. Arabic does not allow consonant cluster in the onset
position, but allow it in the coda, where the maximum consonant cluetr is
two.

English consonant clusters

Onset cluster

1. ccv

2. cccv

Coda clusters

3. vcc

4. vccc

5. vcccc

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 Since there is a tendency of Arabic syllable structure to avoid
consonant clusters, these clusters tend to be simplified. The most frequent
syllable simplification is vowel insertion to break the clusters:

� Onset consonant cluster: The learners tend to insert a vowel between

the first and the second consonant or before the first consonant, 'try' is
pronounced [itrai] or [tirai] while they insert a vowel before the first
consonant in three consonant cluster 'spray' is either pronounced
[isprei] or a vowel is inserted after the first consonant [siprie/

� Word medial consonant cluster: insertion of a consonant after the

second consonant if the there are more than two consonants.

� Coda consonant cluster: there is an insertion of a vowel after the

second consonant with three and four clusters.

Assimilation
This is when a sound changes to become more like another sound
which follows or precedes it, or the influence of a sound on an adjacent
sound. In other words we change a consonant phoneme so that the
manner or place of articulation is more similar throughout the
consonant cluster. For example, the /n/ in the particle in- before labials is
changed into /m/ as the case in the word 'impossible', i.e, the feature
/alveolar/ is changed into the feature /labial/. Arab students pronounce all
consonants in words as they are written. Arabic has limited assimilatory
processes which are different from those of English, but English has
many, Arab students pronounce all written consonants as they are without
assimilating them to the neighboring consonant, as shown bellow:

1. Labialisation:

/ t / changes to / p / before / m / / b / or / p / like in the following words

Basket maker best book

Private property

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/ d / changes to / b / before / m / / b / or / p /

Bad man blood bank blood pressure

/ n / changes to / m / before / m / / b / or / p /

Iron man man plan chicken breast

2. Velarisation

/ t / changes to / k / before / k / or /g/

Short cut best girl first class what glass

/ d / changes to / g / before / k / or / g /

Had cash bad game bird cage red gate

/ n / changes to /ŋ/ before / k / or / g /

In case action group scan good tin can

3. Palatalisation

/ s / changes to /ʃ/ before /ʃ/ or / j / followed by a rounded vowel sound

Nice shirt did you eat dress shop nice yacht

/ z / changes to /ʒ/ before /ʃ/ or / j / followed by a rounded vowel sound

Rose shop prize jeeb

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4. Alveolarisation

/θ/ changes to / s / before / s /

Eighth set bath seat birth certificate fourth season

Stress and Intonation

Stress is the amount of force we put on a particular syllable to make it
louder than the other syllables in a word. As movement of pitch is heard
on stressed syllables in the English language, practice of English
intonation and stress patterns are closely linked. Success or failure in this
area probably has more to do with successful recognition of stress and
intonation patterns and paralinguistic and gestural signals which (together
with the acoustic signals) help in this purpose. The future teachers ability
in identifying the placement of stress, tone and sense groups is vitally
important in the attempt to extract meaning from informal speech.

In phonology, stress patterns and tunes are all interrelated. To achieve

the correct rhythm, it is necessary to know when to use weak forms [this
frequently involves the neutral vowel "schwa"], which is under-deployed
by many EFL/ESL learners. Learners whose native languages have many
consonant sounds, but relatively few vowel sounds, especially long
vowels and diphthongs [e.g. native speakers of Arabic languages and
dialects], are likely to have poor stress timing and to make insufficient
use of pitch variation (i.e. intonation). Contrastive stress and intonation
practices here are necessary to learn.

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 It would be easy here to list a whole repertoire of auditory and visual
signals which help in identifying stress. Arab learners have problems with
the alternation between stressed and unstressed syllables. They must learn
the stressed syllables, they produce each syllable with the same amount of
stress.

According to Kriedler (2004), stress assignment in English depends on

three factors:

1. syntactic: the part of speech determines stress position

2. morphological: the addition of some morphemes changes the
position of stress
3. phonological: weight of syllables, the existence of light and heavy
syllables determines stress position

Sentence and contrastive stress can also be illustrated and practiced by

writing a long sentence on the board in both languages, which can be
made to carry many different meanings or points of emphasis. Practicing
placement of stress within sentences is also essential if learners are to
become good teachers and listeners, since the same sentence can take on
different meanings depending on where the speaker chooses to place the
primary stress.

Future teachers must learn Features of English and Arabic stress, and
intonation which in turn must be enrich instruction in best practices for
teaching and learning pronunciation, because any EFL course must focus
on the supra-segmental aspects of English pronunciation: stress, rhythm,
pitch and intonation patterns found in connected speech in both formal
and casual situations, if future teachers do not have this type of
phonological aspects, their lessons will be poorly taught. As movement of
pitch is heard on stressed syllables in the English language, practice of
English intonation and stress patterns are closely linked. Teachers with
such knowledge of stress and intonation of both languages will be aware
of the tendency of students to use their first language stress types and
intonation patterns instead, so, they will help their students to use English
stress and intonation patterns instead.

Phonology and Orthography

The difference between spelling and pronunciation in English is very
problematic for Arab students. One of the most important differences
between Arabic and English is the connection between pronunciation and
writing, which is highly misleading for learners. The connection between

13
pronunciation and writing is very essential for teachers and learners,
because speaking and writing are very crucial for them. In Arabic, there is
a regular correspondence between spelling and writing, that is, all
consonants and vowels must be pronounced which means that each
grapheme must be given a phonetic value, while in English, some
consonants and vowels are written but not pronounced, like in words
‘talk’, ‘half’, and ‘beautiful’, and so on; in addition, some vowels are
spelled the same way they are written but are pronounced differently, like
the pronunciation of “oo” in ‘blood’ and ‘spoon’, and some words are
spelled differently and pronounced the same like the words ‘I’, and ‘eye’.
One of the most problematic problems for Arab learners is that some
vowels are reduced into schwa when pronounced, like in the last vowel in
the words ‘beautiful’,’ breakfast’, among many other words.

Teachers are required to offer different types of activities to students

to practice the differences between spelling and pronunciation using
different teaching strategies like using rimes, cards, filling the blank,
finding silent letters, minimal pairs, and so on.

Conclusion
In conclusion I would say that teachers need a good understanding of
articulatory phonetics; a well-trained ear; knowledge of the phonology
contrasts, major allophones, processes and prosodies, orthography and
pronunciation of both the mother tongue (Arabic) and the target language
(English).

Teachers will anticipate likely problems arising from the interface

between Arabic and English, utilising knowledge of comparative
phonetics and phonology, notice and analyse actual problems as they
occur, using practical phonetic skills derived from ear-training
experience, remedy the situation with bespoke exercises, applying
knowledge of articulatory phonetic theory and pedagogy. The specific
needs of all engaged in pronunciation teaching are encompassed by a mix
of theoretical knowledge and practical skills: sufficient general phonetic
theory, some comparative phonetics and phonology, practical phonetics
(transcription skills, ear-training, production-training)

At the end of the year, I found out that my future teachers acquired
knowledge and understanding of the different phonemic systems of
Arabic and English languages, of the processes in continuous speech and
their effect on fluency and became capable of identifying their own
mistakes in pronunciation.

14
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