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MIZAN-TEPI UNIVERSITY
COLLEGUE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF SURVEYING ENGINEERING

Course Title: Research Methodology for Engineers

Course Number: SEng4083
Degree Program: B.Sc. in Surveying Engineering
Credit Hours:EtCTS 5
Academic Year: 2019

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Assessment/evaluation
 Test (20%)
 Write a research proposal and presentation (40%),
 Final Exam (40%)

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 Research Methodology for Engineers
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 Objective of this course
Upon successful completion of the course, students will
be able to:
 Generate research topics,
 Strengthen their ability to execute scientific research,
be able to present scientific research at a standard
acceptable to the scientific community, in correctly
structured, logical and fluent technical English .
 Find, evaluate, and summarize the most relevant and
up-to date scientific literature, structure a research
proposal according to academic expectations
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What is science?
Characteristic and implication of
scientific method
Types of sciences
Scientific explanation
The deductive-inductive scientific
method
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• What is science?
According to concise Oxford English
Dictionary the word ‘science’ implies that:
1.the intellectual and practical activity encompassing
the systematic study of the structure and behavior of
the physical and natural world through
observation and experiment.
2.a systematically organized body of knowledge on
any subject.

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What does it mean to “do science”?

• To “do science” is to follow a prescribed
method to arrive at knowledge.
• The “scientific method” is a manner of
thinking and working towards more complete
knowledge of the world. Including:
–the built world
–systems in the world
–humans in the world

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Characteristics of scientific knowledge

1. Self‐criticism
– Inherently self‐critical; never “complete”
– Built‐in mechanism to check and revise itself
– self‐consistent, same methods used to reach
conclusions can be used to challenge or revise
them
–Does not allow for any super‐natural
reasoning

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Characteristics of scientific knowledge …

2.Evidence‐based
– Knowledge is built up step‐by‐step from
experience, including experiments and systematic
observations.
– Can not be deduced from abstract ideas of how
the world “should” work or on folk “wisdom”
– Scientific knowledge advances by accumulating
more evidence.

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Characteristics of scientific knowledge …

3.Theory‐based
– Science is not a disorganized collection of facts
– It is a way of explaining the world
– So, must construct theories (also called models)
that explain the available evidence
– Scientific knowledge advances by constructing
better theories from the available evidence.

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Characteristics of scientific knowledge …

4.Transparent
– All methods used in a scientific investigation . . .
– and all results of applying the methods . . .
must be unambiguously specified and
communicated

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Implications of these characteristics

• Science is reproducible: another worker can perform the
same experiment or observation, and expect to obtain the
same result, within the limits of experimental error.
– Note: In social sciences, and with historical approaches it
may be impossible to exactly reproduce an observation;
however the methods used are traceable.
• Traceability: it is clear how observations were made;
so, another worker could follow the same procedure in
a different setting and expect to obtain similar results,
with differences due to the differences in the two
situations.

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Implications of these characteristics…

Science has a built‐in self‐correction mechanism –
other scientists can verify, modify, contradict or extend
‘surprising’ or controversial results
– There is no occult (hidden) knowledge in science –
in principle any person can acquire all the
knowledge needed to do and understand science
– No appeal to authority

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Types of sciences
1. Experimental- Natural science
– controlled conditions under which measurements are
made
– quantifiable level of control
2. Observational-Social Science
– No experiment is possible
– but observations are made in uncontrolled or semi–
controlled conditions
– Sampling design: the observations are representative
of the process to be modeled.

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Scientific explanation
 For clear and better understanding of the term
research, we have to know the meaning of scientific
method.
 The two terms, research and scientific methods are
closely related.
 The researcher is not interested in particular
results; rather he is interested in the repeatability
and validity of results and their application to
more complicated and general solutions.

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 Research methodology and technique are mostly

different from one science to another or can be different
from research to research.
 The philosophy is common to all research methodology
and technique is called Scientific methods.

-According to Pearson (1968), “the scientific method is one

and the same in the branches (science) and that method is the
methods of all logically trained minds.”

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Steps in scientific method

OBSERVATION: the first or initial step in the scientific method is
a minute and careful observation of the subject matter of research.
RECORDING: The next step to observation in scientific method is
a careful recording of all information (data) obtained in the first
step, i.e., observation.
CLASSIFICATION: The classification implies systematically
arranging and organizing the recorded data on the logical basis so
that they will become viable for the analysis and to make
generalization.

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Steps in scientific method…

GENERALIZATION: It is an extension of general laws and
principles on the basis of the pattern exhibited by the classified
material. This general law is known as scientific law.

VERIFICATION: the scientific method does not stop only at the

formulation of general law. The general principle must be also
verified. The validity of scientific principles can be confirmed by
examination.

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Forms of scientific methods

There are six primary forms of scientific methods.
Induction: the movement of knowledge from particular facts to general
rule or principle.
 To make generalization based on our knowledge from a particular
event or assessment.
E.g. Socrates is mortal and Socrates is a man; therefore, man is mortal.
Deduction: a movement in knowledge from a general rule to a particular
case.
E.g. Man is mortal and Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal
Historical: historical method is a back ward movement in knowledge to
trace the cause of a phenomenon.
Darwin theory of evolution and Marx’s law of economic determinism are
example of historic forms of scientific method.

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Forms of scientific methods…

Comparative: This method is used for the analysis and comparison of
two contemporary (coexisting and present) phenomenon. It is always
undertaken in order to discover new facts or relations.
Studies of two government or political system

Structural: a study of what a things, what are its outline and significant
feature is a structural study (the composition of a thing)
Anatomy is a structural study

Functional: in contrast to the structural method, functional method

studies the processes and their cause, that is, how and why of a thing.
Physiology is a good example

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•General structure of research

• Types of research
• Research stages

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•General structure of research

Meaning of Research
Actually research is simply the process of
arriving as dependable solution to a problem
through the planned and systematic collection,
analysis and interpretation of data(Singh, 2006)

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•TERM RESEARCH
The term ‘Research’ consists of two words:
Research = Re + Search
‘Re’ means again and again and ‘Search’
means to find out something, the following
is the process:

Source: Singh, 2006

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Therefore, research is a process of which a person
observes the phenomena again and again and
collects the data and on the basis of data he draws
some conclusions.

Source: Singh, 2006

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GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

The following characteristics may be gathered from the
definitions of ‘Research’
1. It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand
sources.
2. It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.
3. It is an exact systematic and accurate investigation.
4. It uses certain valid data gathering devices.
5. It is logical and objective.
6. The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data
that support his hypotheses.

Source: Singh, 2006

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GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH…

7. The researcher eliminates personal feelings and
preferences.
8. It endeavours to organise data in quantitative
terms.
9. Research is patient and unhurried activity.
10. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures
to the conclusions that may be unpopular and bring
social disapproval.
11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.
12. Conclusions and generalisations are arrived at
carefully and cautiously.
Source: Singh, 2006

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The function of research

(a) The function of research is to aid to making a decision
concerning the refinement or extension of knowledge in
this particular area.
(b) The function of research is to improve the students
learning and classroom problem with which teacher is
encountering with problems. The more effective techniques
for teaching can be developed.
(c) Another function of research is to aid social studiesal
administrators to improve the Social Studiesal systems.

Source: Singh, 2006

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THE MAIN SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

1. A sound philosophy of social studies as the basis of
research
2. Research is based on insight and imagination
3. Research requires an inter-disciplinary approach
4. Research usually employs deductive reasoning process
5. Research should come out of a desire to do things
better
6. Research is not as exact as research in physical science

Source: Singh, 2006

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THE MAIN PECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH…

7. Research is not the field of the specialist only
8. Research generally requires inexpensive material
9. Research is based on the subjectivity and intangibility of
social phenomena

10. Research is perhaps incapable of being dealt through

empirical method

11. Research is based on inter dependence of causes and effect

12. Research cannot be a mechanical process

Source: Singh, 2006

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OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The research has the following three objectives:
1. Theoretical objective
2. Factual objective and
3. Application objective.

Source: Singh, 2006

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OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH…
1. Theoretical Objective
Those researches whose objectives are theoretical
formulate the new theories, principles or laws. Such
type of research is explanatory because it explains the
relationships of certain variables.
These researches contribute some basic knowledge to the
human knowledge. The researches in different disciplines
i.e., Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics etc. have the
theoretical objective.

Source: Singh, 2006

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OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH…
2. Factual Objective
Those researches whose objective is factual find out
new facts. This objective is by nature descriptive.
These researches describe facts or events which
happened previously. Such type of research is done in
history.

Source: Singh, 2006

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OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
3. Application Objective
The research having application objective does not
contribute a new knowledge in the fund of human
knowledge but suggests new applications.
By application we mean improvement and
modification in
practice. For example if anyone gives a new application
of electricity then such type of research has
application objective.

Source: Singh, 2006

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Methods versus Methodology

Research Techniques: Refers to the behavior and
instruments we use in performing research operation
such as making observation, recording data, techniques
processing data and the like.

Research Methodology: is a way to systematically solve the

research problem. Method can be understood as a science of
studying how research is done scientifically.
Research Method: can be understood as all those
approaches and techniques that are used in conducting a
particular research.

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Methods versus Methodology…

Research methodology; thus, refer to the techniques
researchers use in performing research operations.
Research methodology can be put into three groups:
• The first group include approaches or techniques of data
collection
• The second group consists of those statistical techniques
used to established relationship between variables.
• The third group consists of those techniques involved in
evaluating the accuracy of the result obtained
Generally, research methods have many dimension where as
research methodology constitute only a part of the research
methods.

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Types of research
Generally research can be classified on the basis of the following
traits.
I). On the basis of the outcome of the research: Whether the
research tries to solve a particular problem or makes a general
contribution to the knowledge, research can be:
a) Fundamental Research
=Fundamental research is also called academic or basic or pure research.
=Such research is aimed at investigating or search for new principles and laws.
=It is mainly concerned with generalization and the formulation of a theory.
=Fundamental research is organized only for the attainment of knowledge and truth. With
the change of time and space, it is necessary to make a change in the fundamental
principles in every branch of science; thus, this type of research also verifies the old
established theories, principles and laws.
In general, fundamental research is concerned with the theoretical aspect of science. In other words it
studies the laws of nature, with out or regardless of the immediate application of its findings. E.g.,
• Darwin Theory of Evolution
• Newton’s Law of Motion
• Einstein Theory of Relativity

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Types of research…
b) Applied research
 A research aimed at finding a solution for an immediate problem
facing a society, a group or industry (business organization).
 The results of such research would be used by either individuals or
groups of decision-makers or even by policy makers.
 While pure research discovers principles and laws, applied research
discovers their application in solving some social, economical or any
other problems. E.g.,
• The improvement of safety in the working place
• The reduction of wastage in the working places is example of applied
research.

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Types of research…
Types of Applied researches
1). Social impact Analysis: - The major purpose of social impact
assessment is to estimate the likely consequences of a planned change.
Such an assessment can be used for planning and making choices among
alternative policies.
Researcher conducting social impact assessment examines many
outcomes and often works in an interdisciplinary research team.
Potential areas assessed in social impact analysis.
• Community service (School enrolment, speed of policy respond)
• Social conditions (crime rate etc)
• Economic impact (change in income level)
• Demographic consequences (change in the mix of old and young people,
population movement in or out of the area)
• Environment impact
• Health outcomes

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Types of research…
Types of Applied researches
2)Evaluation research: - Evaluation research is widely used type of
applied research that addresses the question, “did it work?’ Evaluation is
a process of establishing value judgment based on evidence.
Evaluation research measures the effectiveness of a program, policy, or
way of doing something.
E.g. Does the environmental policy improve the environmental problem
of the city?
There are two types of evaluation research; Formative
and Summative.
 Formative evaluation is built in monitoring or continuous feed back
on a program used for program management.
 Summative evaluation looks at final program outcome.

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Types of research…
∑ Applied research being impact analysis or evaluation research uses two tools
namely; Need assessment and Cost Benefit Analysis.
Need assessment: A researcher collects data, to determine major needs and
their severity.
 It is often a preliminary step before deciding on a strategy to help people.
 A researcher may confirm dilemmas or difficult issues.
 A good need assessment identifies both the expressed and less valuable needs
of a target group, as well as the more serious or widespread needs.
 A researcher must trace links among related needs to identify those of highest
priority.
Cost benefits analysis: This is commonly used in social impact analysis.
Economists developed cost benefit analysis, in which the researcher estimates the
future costs and the expected benefits of one or several proposed actions and gives
them monetary values.

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Types of research…
II. On the basis of the purpose (The reason why a research is conducted)
a) Exploratory research (Pilot Survey)
It is also called preliminary research. As its name implied, such research is
aimed at discovering, identifying and formulating a research problem and
hypothesis. When there are few or no studies that can be referred such
research is needed.
b) Descriptive Research
The main purpose of such research is description of the state of nature or affairs,
as it exists at present. In social science and business research we often use the
term ex-post
facto research for descriptive research. The main characteristic of such research is
that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has
happened or what is happening. E.g; qualification, frequency, preferences etc.
related data.
Goals of Descriptive research
• To provide an accurate profile of a group
• To describe a process, mechanism or relationship
• To provide a verbal or numerical picture about a phenomenon
• To find information to stimulate new explanations
• To present basic background information on a context
• To create a set of categories or classify types
• To document information that contradicts prior beliefs about a subject

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Types of research…
II. On the basis of the purpose (The reason why a research is conducted)

c). Analytic research : it goes beyond a simple description of the state of nature. When a
researcher encounters an issue that is already known and have a description of it, you may
begin to ask “why” things are the way they are. Analytical research uses facts or
information already available, and analyzes them to make a critical evaluation of the
material. Not only describe the characteristics, but also
it analyzes and explains why and how it happened or is happening. The information or facts
used here can be either Qualitative or Quantitative.

Goals of analytical research

• To determine the accuracy of a principle or a theory
• To find out which competing explanation is better
• To advance knowledge about an underling process
• To link different issues or topics under a common general statement
• To build and elaborate a theory so it becomes more completes
• To extend a theory or principle into new areas or issues
• To provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction
E.g.,
• How can we reduce the numbers of complaints made by customers?
• How can we expand the range of our services?
• How can we improve the delivery times of our products?

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Types of research…
II. On the basis of the purpose (The reason why a
research is conducted)
Case studies:-is a type of analytical research in which a researcher
examine many features of a very few elements in-depth over duration
of time.
 Case can be individual, group, organization, movement, events, or
geographic units.
 The data in case study are usually more detailed, varied and
extensive. Mostly data involved are qualitative data about a few
cases.
 In a case study a researcher may intensively investigate one or two
cases or compare a limited set of cases focusing on a several factors.

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Types of research…
II. On the basis of the purpose (The reason why a research is conducted)
Tracer study is also known as follow up study. It is a type of explanatory
research that aims at investigating the subsequent development of individuals
after a specified treatment or condition.
Tracer study is used to make an investigation on the direction of movements
and predicts what is likely to take place to the future.
Tracer study is designed to establish patterns of change in the past in order to
predict future patterns or conditions by analyzing data collected about
subjects and environment.

E.g Whether there is a new environmental trends that justify the need of change.

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Types of research…
d) Predictive research :Such research goes beyond explaining why and how
things happened. It predicts (forecast) the possible (probability of happening similar
situation in other places.
It tries to explain about the probability of happening similar thing in the future. E.g.,
• How would an increase in interest rate affect our profit margin?
• What type of packaging will improve the sales of our products?

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Types of research…
III. On the basis of the process of research: That is, on the basis
of data used in the research process research can be:
a) Qualitative research: Such research is applicable for a
phenomenon that cannot be expressed in terms of quantity.
 Things related to quality and kind. Research designed to find out
how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or
institution is an example of such research.
b) Quantitative research: it is on the other hand is concerned with
quantitative phenomenon.
 It is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
 It is applicable for phenomenon that can be expressed in term of
quantity.

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Types of research…
IV. On the basis of the environment in which the research is
carried out research can be
a) Field research: It is a research carried out in the field. Such
research is common in social science, agricultural science, history
and archeology.
b) Laboratory research
=>It is a research carried out in the laboratory. These are
commonly experimental research.
=>Such researches are common in medical science, agriculture
and in general in natural sciences.
c)Simulation research
<+>Such research uses models to represent the real world.
<+>Simulation is common in physical science, economics and
mathematics.
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Types of research…
V. On the basis of the time required to
complete the research, research can be
a) One -time research:It is a research limited to a
single time period.
b) Longitudinal research:Such research is also
called on-going research.
 It is a research carried out over several time
periods ( it requires time interval).

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To Summarize
 Any research activity is designed to discover and answer to questions through
the application of scientific procedure.
 It is an activity amid at finding out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered yet or to verify or reject that the existing phenomenon (theory,
principle or law) accepted as true.
Though each research study has its own specific objectives, any research has got
the following common (general) objectives:
To generate new knowledge, principle and scientific law
• To review and synthesize existing knowledge. That is, to verify the validity of the
previous work.
• To investigate some existing situation or problem
To explain new phenomenon
To examine the cause of the problem
To examine the nature of the problem
• To provide solution to a problem
• To construct or create a new procedure and new system
• A combination of any one of the above

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 Research stages (process)

Before starting the details of research methods, it is appropriate to
have a brief overview of the research processes.
Research processes consist of a series of actions or steps, which are
necessary to successfully carry out research activities .

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Research stages (process)

the following order of steps provides a useful procedural guideline
regarding the research processes.
1)Identification and Formulating the research problem
2)Extensive literature survey
3)Developing a working hypothesis
4)Preparing the research design
5)Determine sample design
6)Collecting data
7)Execution of the project
8)Analysis of the data
9)Hypothesis testing
10)Generalization and interpretation
11)Reporting the result

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FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Defining a research problem is the first step happens
to be identifying properly in research process.
The researcher first must find any social, economic,
planning, business problem and formulate it into
research problem.
The best way of understanding a problem is to discuss
it with colleagues or those having some experience in
the matter.

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FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

What is a Research problem?
A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty, which a
researcher faces (experiences) in the context of both a theoretical
or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
More specifically,
 It is the topic we would like to address, investigate, or study,
whether descriptively or experimentally.
 It is the focus or reason for engaging in our research.
 It is typically a topic, phenomenon, or challenge that we are
interested in and with which we are at least somewhat familiar
applications

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FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM…

Defining the Problem
Defining the research problem is crucial and very hard part of a
research process.
 It is crucial because, the problem identified will provide us with the
topic of the designed research and the objective of the research.
 It is the most difficult and hard part of the research study because;
there is a cause and effect issue.
 It is commonly difficult to distinguish effect of a problem from the
cause of the problem.
There is a common say in research that “The problem clearly stated is a
problem half solved”. This signifies the importance of properly defining
the problem.

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FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM…

Defining the Problem
A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to find
answers to question such as:
 What kind of data and information are relevant and needed to be
studied?
 What relationship is to be explored among variables?
 What technique has to be used to collect and analyze data? And etc…
Therefore, defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for
any study and a very important step.

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FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM…

Techniques involved in defining a problem
I. Statement of problem in a general way: First of all the
problems should be stated in a broad general way keeping with some
practical, scientific and intellectual interest.
II. Understanding the nature of the problem: the next step is to
understand clearly the nature and the origin of the problem.
III. Survey the available literature: All available literature
concerning the problem must be studied and examined before
defining research problem.
IV. Developing ideas through discussion: Discussion on a problem
produces useful information that can be discovered and developed
various new ideas through it.
V. Rephrasing the research problem (reformulation of the
problem): Finally the researcher at this stage should be able to
reformulate the problem that has been stated in broad and general
way in to working proposition.
The researcher should narrow and break down the problem into its
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FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM…

Techniques involved in defining a problem…
The following points must be considered while redefining the research
problem.
 Technical terms and words or phrased, with special meanings used in
the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.
 Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research
problem should be clearly defined.
 A straightforward statements of the value of the investigation, i.e., the
criteria for the selection of the problem) should be provided.
 The suitability of the time period and the sources of data available
must also be considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
 The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is
to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining the research
problem.

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FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM…

EVALUATION OF THE PROBLEM
The feasibility of research problem should be evaluated in
terms of the following criteria :
A. IS THE PROBLEM RESEARCHABLE?
 Some problems cannot be effectively solved through the process
of research.
 Particularly, research cannot provide answers to philosophical
and ethical questions that do not show the relationship existing
between two or more variable clearly.
 Therefore, the problem must be stated in workable research
question that can be answered empirically.

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FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM…

EVALUATION OF THE PROBLEM…
The feasibility of research problem should be evaluated in terms of
the following criteria:
B. IS THE PROBLEM NEW?

=As much as possible, the research problem needs to be new.

=One should not target his investigation of the problem that had
already been thoroughly investigated by other researchers
=To be safe from such duplication, the researcher has to go
through the record of previous studies in a given field

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FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM…

EVALUATION OF THE PROBLEM…
The feasibility of research problem should be evaluated in
terms of the following criteria :
C. IS THE PROBLEM SIGNIFICANT?
The question of significance of the problem usually relates to what a
researcher hopes to accomplish in a particular study.
 What is his purpose in undertaking to solve the particular problem he has
chosen?
 What new knowledge does he hopes to add to the sum total of what is
known?
And what value is this knowledge likely to have?
 When all these questions are answered clearly by the researcher, the
problem should be considered for investigation.
The findings should become a basis for theory generalization, or principles
and should lead to new problems further research.
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FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM…
EVALUATION OF THE PROBLEM…
The feasibility of research problem should be evaluated in terms of the following criteria:
I D. IS THE PROBLEM FEASIBLE?
Researcher Competence: The problem should be in an area in which the researcher qualified
and competent.
Interest and enthusiasm: The researcher has to make sure that the problem really interests
him.
Financial consideration: Research is an expensive endeavor, which requires a great deal of
money to invest. An estimate of the expenditure involved in the data gathering equipment,
printing, test material, travel, and clerical assistance to be specified.
Time requirement: Research should be undertaken within a given scope of time, which was
allocated, with careful analysis of the prevailing situation.
Administrative consideration: The researcher has to pay for all administration matters that
are necessary to bring his study to its full administrative matters that are necessary to bring his
study to its full completion.
In this regard, the researcher should consider the kinds of data equipment, specialized
personnel.

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FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM…

Generally, Considerations in Selecting a Research Problem
These help to ensure that your study will remain manageable and that you will
remain motivated.
1. Interest: a research endeavor is usually time consuming, and involves hard
work and possibly unforeseen problems. One should select topic of great interest
to sustain the required motivation.
2. Magnitude: It is extremely important to select a topic that you can manage
within the time and resources at your disposal. Narrow the topic down to
something manageable, specific and clear.
3. Level of expertise: Make sure that you have an adequate level of expertise for
the task you are proposing since you need to do the work yourself.
4. Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge,
bridges current gaps and is useful in policy formulation. This will help you to
sustain interest in the study.
5. Availability of data: Before finalizing the topic, make sure that data are
available.
6. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study and how ethical
problems can be overcome should be thoroughly examined at the problem
formulating stage.

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FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM…
SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
 Professional experience: own experience as a professional in a given
field. The day-to-day observation of the incidences is the working place and
out of the working environment.
 Inference from theory. A research problem can be derived from a
critical look into different theories.
 Technological and social changes: Technological and social change
directly or indirectly exerts an influence in the function of an organization.

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FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM…
CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM
The following are detailed list of criteria for the choice of research
problem.
Novelty-It should be sufficiently original so that it does not involve
objectionable duplication.
Interesting-The problem should be interesting for the investigator
himself.
Importance-If it is not worth-while, if adds to neither knowledge nor
lead to any improvements in the current practices.
Immediate Application-The investigator should ask himself the
question, will my research help in solving an urgent problem
Feasibility or Amenability-Feasibility issue of research includes the
following
Availability of data
Availability of cooperation
Availability of guidance
Availability of other facilitates
Experience and creativity
Coverage and confidence
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 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE AND RESEARCH

QUESTION
Research Objective
It is about what you intended to do.
You should state the General objective and Specific
objective in proposal/research paper.
The General objective and The Specific objective

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RESEARCH OBJECTIVE AND RESEARCH QUESTION

General objective:
It provides a short statement of the scientific goal being
pursued by the research.
It is ultimate goal which is achieved in there search out
come
It is not detailed
Specific Objectives:
Are operational in nature a means so as to achieve the
general objective activities in detail discuss.
These are the objectives against which the success of the
research will be judged.
It is important to distinguish the social objectives from
the means of achieving them.

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RESEARCH OBJECTIVE AND RESEARCH QUESTION

RESEARCH QUESTION
Some research objective need Research question or research
hypotheses.
Research question – to be answered
Research hypotheses- to be proved or disproved
Research question simply means putting research objectives
in question form
The clearer the question, the more convincing the research
project.

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IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELEVANT TO RESEARCH DESIGN

The research design is the conceptual structure within which research is
conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data.
Dependent variable: If one variable depends upon or a consequence of the other
variable is called a dependent variable. Is a variable that is to be predicted or
explained?
Independent variable: is a variable that is expected to influence the dependent
variable.
Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose
of a study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous
variable.
Control: A good research design has to minimize the influences of extraneous
variable.
Experimental and control groups: In experimental research when a group is
exposed to usual condition is called control group, but when a group is exposed
to special condition is an experimental group.

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RELATED LITERATURE REVIEW

Review of the Literature is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the
published and unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the areas of
specific interest to the researcher.
The literature review is an integral part of the entire research process and makes a
valuable contribution to almost every operational step.
A literature review has a number of functions:
Bring clarity and focus to your research problem
Improve your methodology
Broaden your knowledge base in your research area
Contextualise your finding

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RELATED LITERATURE REVIEW

 Advantages of Literature Review
1. Focus and clarify our research problem
2. To avoid duplications
3. To give credit for those who have laid the foundation for the field of study.
4. Assist in identifying ‘gaps’ in research
5. Expose to and enable to demonstrate the knowledge of the area
that we are doing research in
6. To define the boundaries of our field of research
7. Assisting in the choice of the approaches, methods, procedures
and instruments to be used
8. Highlight the key debates, terms and concepts employed your topic area
9. To learn from the successes and failures of others

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RELATED LITERATURE REVIEW….

 PROBLEMS OF LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Lack of organization or structure- citation +referencing
2. Lack of focus and coherent.
3. Is being repetitive and verbose
4. Failing to cite influential papers
5. Failing to keep up recent documents
6. failing to critically evaluate cited papers
7. Citing irrelevant or trivial references
8. Depending too much on secondary sources

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RELATED LITERATURE REVIEW….

Processes in reviewing literature
1. Identifying the relevant literature
2. Read the literature
3. 3.Analyzing and interpreting the notes from different literature

Sources of Information
There are several major sources of information for you to use when conducting a
literature review.
ƒ Books is a good starting point. It gives you an overview and a summary of
relevant research and theory.
ƒ Journals is another excellent source. Journals provide more recent information
than books and provide full length empirical research articles for you to carefully
examine.
 Report papers- like research papers etc.

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Formulation of Research Hypotheses

Hypothesis form is employed when the state of the existing
knowledge and theory permits formulation of reasonable
prediction about the relationship among variables.
Research hypothesis differs from research question in
that, hypothesis both indicate the question in testable form
and predict the nature of the answer.
In other words, hypothesis is a theory entertained in order
to study the facts and examine the validity of the theory.

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Formulation of Research Hypotheses

Establishing a hypothesis should follow rules like:
The variables must be clearly specified and
measurable by some techniques we know
The relationship between them must be stated
precisely.

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• Formulation of Research Hypotheses

Importance of Hypothesis
A well-grounded hypothesis provides the following advantages
Represents specific objective, which determine the nature of the data needed to
test the proposition
Offer basis for selecting the sample, the research procedure, and the statistical
analysis needed.
Keeps the study restricted in scope thereby preventing it from becoming too
broad
Sets a framework for reporting the conclusion of the study.

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• Formulation of Research Hypotheses

Criteria of usable hypotheses
Hypotheses can be useful if and only if they are carefully
formulated. There are several criteria used to evaluate hypothesis. These include
the following.
Hypotheses should be clearly and precisely formulated
Hypotheses should be formulated in such way that, they can be tested or verified
(should be testable)
Hypothesis should state explicitly the expected relationship between variables
Hypotheses should be limited in scope. Hypotheses of global significance are not
usable as they are not specific and simple for testing and drawing conclusions.

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• Formulation of Research Hypotheses

Criteria of usable hypotheses
 Hypotheses should be consistent with the known facts. In other words
hypotheses should be grounded in a well-established facts, theories or laws.
 Hypotheses should be stated as much as possible in simple terms. The simple
statement helps to gain the following advantages
i. It becomes easily understandable to others (readers)
ii. It become easily testable
iii. It provides a basis for a clear and easily comprehended report at the
completion of the study.
 The hypotheses selected should be amendable to testing with in a reasonable
time.

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Sample design
CENSUS AND SAMPLE SURVEY
Sampling means, selection of individuals from the population in such a way that every
individual has the equal chance to be taken into the sample population.
A complete enumeration of all items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry.
 The respondents selected should be as representative of the total population as possible in
order to produce a miniature cross-section.
 The selected respondents constitute what is technically called a ‘sample’
and the selection process is called ‘sampling technique.’
 The survey so conducted is known as ‘sample survey’.
 Algebraically, let the population size be N and if a part of size n (which is < N) of this
population is selected according to some rule for studying some characteristic of the
population.
 The group consisting of these “n” units is known as ‘sample’.

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Sample design
Some basic definitions concerning sampling :
 Population: Is the theoretically specified aggregation of survey elements from which the
survey sample is actually selected.
 Sampling Frame: Is the list of elements from which the sample is drawn
 Sample: A subset or some part of a larger population
 Sample design: Is a definite plan for obtaining a sample frame
 Sampling: Is the process of using a small number or part of a larger population to make
conclusion about the whole population.
 Element: Is unit from which information is collected and which provides the basis of
analysis
 Statistic: Is a characteristic of a sample
 Parameter: Is a characteristic of a population.
 Unit of Analysis: The actual sample taken/being studed in the sample.

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Sample design

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Sample design…
IMPLICATIONS OF A SAMPLE DESIGN
 A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given
population.
 It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in
selecting items for the sample.
 Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the
sample i.e., the size of the sample.
 Sample design is determined before data are collected. There are many sample
designs from which a researcher can choose.
 Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to apply than others.
Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable and
appropriate for his research study.

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Sample design…
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
(i) Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly
define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied.
 The universe can be finite or infinite.
(i) Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before
selecting sample.
 Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village,
etc., or a construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social
unit such as family, club, school, etc., or it may be an individual.
(iii) Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be
drawn.
 It contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe
only).

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Sample design…
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
(iv) Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the
universe to constitute a sample.
 The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small.
 It should be optimum.
 An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency,
representativeness, reliability and flexibility.
 While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired
precision as also an acceptable confidence level for the estimate.
(v) Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must
consider the question of the specific population parameters which are of interest.
 For instance, we may be interested in estimating the proportion of persons
with some characteristic in the population, etc…

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Sample design…
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
(vi)Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view,
have a major impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but
also to the type of sample.
 This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
(vii) Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of
sample s/he will use i.e., s/he must decide about the technique to be used in
selecting the items for the sample.

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Sample design…
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN
(a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
(b) Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
(c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study.
(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.
(e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied.
In general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

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Sample design…
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS
Based on the representation basis, there are two types
1. Probability Sampling- is based on the concept of random selection.
is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’.
Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of
inclusion in he sample.
each item in the entire population to have an equal chance of being included in the
sample.

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Sample design…
1. Probability Sampling
There are number of probability sampling. Some of them are discussed below:
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Multi-stage Sampling
Area sampling

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Sample design…
Simple Random Sampling
 It is the basic sampling method in every statistical computation.
 Each element in the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
 The sampling process is simple because it requires only one stage of sample selection.
 Each element in the sample frame is assigned a number.
 Then each number is written on separate pieces of paper, properly mixed and one is selected.
 If say the sample size is 30, then the selection procedure is repeated 30 times.

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Sample design…
Systematic Sampling
 Systematic sampling involves only a slight difference from simple random sampling.
 The mechanics of taking a systematic sample are rather simple.
 If the population contains N ordered elements, and sample size of n is required or desired to
select, then we find the ratio of these two numbers, i.e., N/n to obtain the sampling interval.
 E.g., Say the population size N= 800 and the desired sample size is 80 (n = 80),
then the sample interval will be 800/80 = 10
Random number at the 10 interval will be selected, i.e., if the researcher starts from the fourth
element then 6th, 16th, 26th etc., elements will be selected.

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Sample design…
Stratified Sampling
 This method of sampling is a mixture of deliberate and random sampling
technique.
 If population from which the sample to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, stratified sampling technique is used in order to
obtain a representative sample.
 Under this technique, the population is divided into various classes or sub-
population, which is individually more homogeneous than the total
population.
 The different sub-populations are called strata.
 Then certain items (elements) are selected from the classes by the random
sampling technique.
 Since each stratum is more homogeneous than the total population, we are able
to get more precise estimate for each stratum.
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Sample design…
Stratified Sampling
 Suppose a researcher wishes to collect information regarding
income expenditure of the male population of, Tepi Town.
 First we shall split the whole male population in the town into
various strata on the basis of, say special professions like:
 Class of service giving people
 Business men
 Shop keepers
 From these different groups the researcher will select elements
using random sample technique.
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Sample design…
Stratified Sampling
How many items to be selected from each stratum (sample size)?
 Stratified sample size can be made proportionate to its size
in which case the sample that is drawn from each stratum
is made proportionate to the relative size of that stratum.
 E.g., suppose Rx is the proportion of population included
in stratum “x” and “n” represents the total sample size.
Then, the sample size of stratum “x” will be Rx *n.

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Sample design…
Cluster sampling
 In cluster sampling the primary sampling unit is no more the
individual elements in the population rather it is say manufacturing
unit, city or block of city, etc.
 After randomly selecting the primary sample unit (city, part of city),
we survey or interview all families or elements in that selected
primary sample unit.
 The area sample is the commonly used type of cluster sampling.

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Sample design…
Cluster sampling…
 In cluster sampling the total population is divided into a number of
relatively small subdivisions which are themselves clusters of still
smaller units and then some of these clusters are randomly selected
for inclusion in the overall sample.
 Suppose we want to estimate the proportion of machineparts in an
inventory which are defective.
 Also assume that there are 20000 machine parts in the inventory at a
given point of time, stored in 400 cases of 50 each.
 Now using a cluster sampling, we would consider the 400 cases as
clusters and randomly select ‘n’ cases and examine all the machine
parts in each randomly selected case.
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Sample design…
Area sampling
 If clusters happen to be some geographic subdivisions,
in that case cluster sampling is better known as area sampling.
 In other words, cluster designs, where the primary sampling
unit represents a cluster of units based on geographic area,
are distinguished as area sampling.
 The plus and minus points of cluster sampling are also
applicable to area sampling.

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Sample design…
multi-stage sampling
 Multi-stage sampling is applied in big inquires extending to a
considerable large geographical area, say, the entire country.
There are two advantages of this sampling design viz.,
(a) It is easier to administer than most single stage designs
mainly because of the fact that sampling frame under
multi-stage sampling is developed in partial units.
(b) A large number of units can be sampled for a given cost
under multistage sampling because of sequential clustering,
whereas this is not possible in most of the simple designs.

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Sample design…
2. Non-probability sampling -is ‘non-random’ sampling
 is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating the
probability that each item in the population has of being included in the sample.
 It is also known by different names such as deliberate sampling, purposive
sampling and judgement sampling.
 In such a design, personal element has a great chance of entering into the
selection of the sample.
There are number of non-probability sampling.
Quota Sampling
Judgment sampling
Snowball sampling
Convenience sampling

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Sample design…
Quota Sampling
 In this sampling approach, the interviewers are simply given quotas to be full-filled
from the different strata (groups).
 E.g., an interviewer in a particular city may be assigned say 100 interviews. He will
assign this to different subgroups (say 50 far male respondents and 50 for female
respondents).
 Even though quota sampling is not probabilistic, the researcher must take precaution
to keep from biasing selection and makes sure that the sample is as representative
and generalize-able as possible.

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Sample design…
Judgment (Purposive or deliberate)
 The experienced individual (researcher) select the sample based upon his
judgment. about some appropriate characteristics required from the sample members
 This involves the selection of a group from the population on the basis of
available information thought. It is to be representative of the total
population.
 Its advantage is its low cost, convenient to use, less time-consuming, and as
good as probability sampling.
 E.g.. The Consumers Price Index (CPI) is based on a judgment
sampling. That is, based on prices of basket of goods and services
purchased by average households.

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Sample design…
Snowball Sampling
 The term snowball comes from the analogy of the snowball, beginning
small but becomes bigger and bigger as it rolls downhill.
 Snowball sampling is popular among scholars conducting
observational research and in community study.
 The major purpose of snowball sampling is to estimate characteristics
that are rare in the total population.
 First initial respondents are selected randomly but additional
respondent are then obtained from referrals or by other information
provided by the initial respondent.

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Sample design…
Snowball Sampling…
 E.g., consider a researcher use telephone to obtain referral. Random
telephone calls are made; the respondents (answering the call) are
asked if they know someone else who meets the studies respondent
qualification. Like “whether they know the some one who survived
the September eleven terrorist attach in New York “
SAY,
 A researcher wants to study the impact of the September Eleven
Terrorist attack on the social life and life style of the survivals.
 Major advantages of this type sampling are that it substantially
increases the probability of finding the desired characteristic in the
population and lower sampling variance and cost.
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Sample design…
Convenience Sampling
 This is a "hit or miss" procedure of study. No planned effort is made to
collect information.
 The researcher comes across certain people and things and has transaction
with them then he tries to make generalization about the whole population.
 This sampling technique is not scientific and has no value as a research
technique.
 However, as it is characterized by "hit or miss" method sometimes hits are
secured.
 In general, the availability and willingness to respond are the major
factors in selecting the respondents.
Commonly such a sample is taken to test ideas or even to gain ideas about a
subject of interest.

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1)Execution of the project

2)Analysis of the data
3)Hypothesis testing
4)Generalization and interpretation
5)Reporting the result

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1) Method of Data Collection

Any research is based on various types of information.
In order to carry on any research activity, information should
be gathered from proper sources that can lead to correct and
reliable conclusion.
Generally, the sources of information are of two types,
i.e., primary sources and secondary sources of
information.

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1. Primary sources of information: The information obtained from

primary sources is often called as primary data.
 Primary data: Are those information gathered by the researcher
himself/herself and are gathered for the first time, thus, happening
to be original.
 These data are obtained by means of questionnaires and schedules or
some other techniques.
 In some fields primary data are collected through interview and
observation method.
 The observation method, for collecting primary data, may be either
participant or non-participant

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Methods of Primary Data Collection

The most commonly used methods of collecting primary data are
discussed below:
1) Observation method
2) Interview
3) Questionnaires
4) Focus Group Discussion (FDG)

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Methods of Primary Data Collection

I. Observation method
Direct observation is the most reliable method for gathering information
related to the lifestyle, status, conduct, behavior, language, custom and
tradition and the like phenomenon.
 The observer should be absolutely detached and objective in gathering
facts.

 Observation becomes scientific tools and methods of data collection:

When it serves a formulated research purpose
When it is systematically planned and recorded
And it is subject to checks and controls on validity and reliability.

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Methods of Primary Data Collection

The main advantages of observation method:
 Information obtained under this method relates to what is currently
happening.
 It is not complicated by the either the past behavior or future intention
or attitude.
 It is independent of respondents and is not demanding the active
cooperation of the respondents.
Limitation of observation method
 It is an expensive method
 The information provided by this method is very limited
 Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observation task
 Some phenomenon are rarely accessible to direct observation
.

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Methods of Primary Data Collection

 Participant observation: The researcher lives in the group or in the
community as a member of it and participates in their life.
 Non-participant observation: The researcher does not participate in the group
life but observe
as an external spectator.
 Uncontrolled observation: Is the observation, which takes place in natural
setting.
 The main aim of this type of observation is to get a spontaneous
picture of life or person.
 Controlled observation: Observation takes place according to definite
pre-arranged plans,
 including experimental procedure.
 Controlled observation takes place in various experiments that are
carried out in a laboratory or under controlled condition.

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Methods of Primary Data Collection…

Structured Observation: It is structured and preplanned
observation technique which is characterized by a careful
definition of units and appropriate in descriptive research.
Unstructured observation: The observation takes place without
standardized format and plan which is commonly used in
exploratory research.

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Methods of Primary Data Collection…
2.Interview Method
In an interview, the researcher meets people and discusses his social economic or some
other problem with them.
The researcher may ask any question on the basis of his insight into the problem.
Interview can be two type - structured and unstructured
Structured interview: is usually carried out in a structured and pre-planned way.
 It is highly standardized technique of recording and not possible to change both
the contexts and sequences of questions.
 It is used in descriptive research
Unstructured interview: Such interview is characterized by a flexibility of questions
to questioning.
 It does not follow a system of pre-determined question and standardize techniques
of recording information.’
 Unstructured interview is much more difficult and time consuming than that of the
structured one.
 It also demands deep knowledge and greater skill on the part of interviewer
 This approach is used in exploratory research

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Methods of Primary Data Collection…

Interviewers should follow the following principles
while conducting interview
Ask only one question at a time
Repeat the question if necessary
Listen carefully to the subjects answer
Observe the subjects facial-expression, gesture and
tone of the voice
Allow the subject sufficient time to answer the
question

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Methods of Primary Data Collection…

3. Questionnaires Method
Questionnaire is a list of structured questions, which
will be present, mailed or e-mailed to selected
respondents to obtain reliable response from them
when the subject of study is very wide and direct
observation is not possible.
Types of Questionnaires
=>Interview Questionnaires (Schedules)
=>Mail Questionnaires (Self administered
questionnaires)
=> Questionnaires through Internet (Through
electronics media)
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Methods of Primary Data Collection…

Forms of questions
A)Open-end questions: The respondent is asked to provide his own answer
to the question.
E.g. What are the most important issue facing your neighborhood?

B)Closed ended questions: The respondent is asked to select his answer

from among a list provided by the researcher (yes, no, I don’t know, etc) which
are very popular and easy to process.

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Methods of Primary Data Collection…

4. Focus groups Discussion
 Focus group a group of individuals selected and assembled by
researchers to discuss and comment on, from personal experience, the
topic that is the subject of the research.
 FGD Approximately seven to ten people With common characteristics
relating to discussion topic.
Why use focus groups and not other methods?
 The main purpose of focus group research is to draw upon respondents’
attitudes, feelings,beliefs, experiences and reactions in a way in which
would not be feasible using other methods.
 Enables the researcher to gain a larger amount of information in a
shorter period of time.
 Time, finance, level social interaction, language etc… can be its limitations.

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2. Secondary sources of information: These sources of information

are called “secondary data”.
 Secondary data are those, which have already been collected by
someone and which, have already been passed through statistical
process.
 Secondary data are information, which are gathered or obtained
indirectly.
Main sources of secondary data are:
Personal document such as diaries, letters, photographs and so on.
Public documents such as books, manuscripts, records, census
reports of survey by private and public institution; and various
information published in newspapers and magazines.

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2. Secondary sources of information…

Secondary data to be useful, it must be:
Available
Relevant to the information needed
Accurate and sufficient to meet data requirement.

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Analysis of the data

 Data analysis is further transformation of the processed data
to look for patterns and relations among data groups.
 By analysis we mean the computation of certain indices or
measures along with searching for patterns or relationship
that exist among the data groups.
 Analysis particularly in case of survey or experimental
data involves estimating the values of unknown parameters of
the population and testing of hypothesis for drawing inferences.
 Analysis can be categorized as
a) Descriptive Analysis
b) Inferential (Statistical) Analysis

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Analysis of the data

 Descriptive analysis: Descriptive analysis is largely the study
of distribution of one variable.
 Analysis begins for most projects with some form of descriptive
analysis to reduce the data into a summary format.
 Descriptive analysis refers to the transformation of raw data
into a form that will make them easy to understand and
 interpret.
 Descriptive response or observation is typically the first form of
analysis.
 The calculation of averages, frequency distribution, and
percentage distribution is the most common for of summarizing
data.

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Analysis of the data

The most common forms of describing the
processed data are:
 Tabulation
 Percentage
 Measurements of central tendency
 Measurements of dispersion
 Measurement of asymmetry
 Data transformation and index number

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Findings
 Discussion of parts of Analysis which are
Answer(s) to the Research Question (s)

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conclusion
 The theories (statements) implied by the
findings vs. Literature and Contextual
reviews
 Discussion of the relationship between
the findings and existing theory and the
impact of the findings on existing theory
and practice

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Recommendation
 Discussion of the cause of development
problems in the findings+ the solutions
suggested by literature and contextual
reviews

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Research proposal
 The research proposal is an overall plan, scheme, structure
and strategy designed to obtain answers to the research
questions.
 It consists of a series of tasks which form a logical path that
leads the observer to his/her conclusions.
 It is a plan that should be undertaken to fulfill the research
objectives and test hypotheses.
 It answers what a researcher proposing to do, how is he/she
plan to proceed and how the proposed strategy is selected.

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Research proposal
 Research proposals serve a number of purposes.
 Members of a thesis or dissertation committee read the proposal with a few
simple and direct purposes:
1-To determine what the researcher wants to do, .
2- To establish why the research is important, convincing and worth undertaking.
3- To understand how he/she wishes to do it. Proposal writing
enables researchers to demonstrate expertise and competency
n a particular area, and
4- To learn what benefit will result from the effort or attempt.
This may be fundamental to convince the research funders.

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The Elements of a Proposal

 Views are different about the best arrangement of a research‘ ingredients and vary
markedly from discipline to discipline.
The Proposal Contains Information About the Study, these are:
• Study's objectives.
• A list of study hypotheses need to be tested.
• Study's design proposed to be used.
• The setting of the study.
• Instruments planned to be used.
• A sample design and a sample size.
• Outline the proposed chapters for the report.
• Study's problems and limitations.
• A proposed time frame and budget plan.

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General Format and Elements of Proposal
The major components (elements) of a scientific research proposal
∑ Title
∑ Acknowledgement
∑ Table of content
∑ List of table (If any)
∑ List of figures(if any)
∑ Acronyms
∑ Background to the research
∑ The research problem
∑ The objectives of the research
∑ Literature
∑ Methodology
∑ Time-scale and budget(Schedule).
∑ Bibliography/References
∑ Annex (… questioners etc)

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General Format
and Elements
of Proposal

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Work Schedule
 This IS a time-frame and plan of actions in which the researcher
sets his dates as he needs to complete his/her research.
 It includes the different activities and the time allotted to begin and
finish each activity.
 It acts as a control measure as each research has a proposed time to
finish.
 The reviewers and the grants funders are greatly concerned by this
table.
 The researcher has to keep some time towards the end in case the
research process does not go as smoothly as planned.

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Work Plan/ Schedule-Example

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Budget
 The researcher usually confronted by the inescapable fact that
research is an increasingly expensive and competitive
business, and knowing how to secure his/her funding he/she
needs can make all the difference.
 The proposal should convince the potential financiers and
partners that the problem is a priority, feasible, cost effective
fits national plans and does not duplicate anything already
being done.
 It may be useful for the researcher to start by listing the
resources which are provided by his/her organization or
institution for the project.
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Budget…
 The researcher must develop a monitoring and evaluation
system and remember that donors usually insist to know how
to measure success or failure of the project.
 For the requested budget list the items needed in each budget
category, the amount needed and the yearly and total cost.
 He/she has to use as accurate figures as possible and does not
forget to include uncertain events and factors for inflation.

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Budget Plan
Example

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The Elements of a thesis…

An eight model suggested by (R. Kumar 1999) are suitable particularly for a graduate
beginner.
The model covers the total spectrum of a research effort, starting from problem
formulation through to writing a research report. These steps are:-
Step I: Formulating a research problem.
Step II: Conceptualizing a research design.
Step III: Constructing an instrument for data collection.
Step IV: Selecting a sample.
Step V: Writing a research proposal.
Step VI: Collecting data.
Step VII: Writing a research report.

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General Format
and Elements of thesis

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Qualities of good research

1. Good research is systematic: Research is structured
with specified steps to be taken in specified sequences in
accordance with the well-defined rules. (This characteristics
will not rule out creative thinking but is certainly does reject
the use of guessing, and intuition in arriving at conclusion
2. Good research is logical: The research is guided by the
rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction
and deduction are of great value in carrying out a research.

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Qualities of good research

3. Good research is empirical: It implies the research is
related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and
deal with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results
4. Good research is replicable: This character allows the
result to be verified by replicating the study and thereby
building a sound basis for decision..

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Notice
 The proposal is generally written in present and future
tense, whereas, the dissertation or thesis is always written
in the past tense, as it is a report of a completed study.

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• Conceptual(theoretical) frameworks
 Should grow logically out of your literature review. Should lead to your
methodology and provide a rationale for why you are proceeding in a
particular way.
 It attempts to connect to all aspects of inquiry (e.g., problem definition,
purpose, literature review, methodology, data collection and analysis).
 It should act like maps that give coherence to your inquiry.
 It is the anticipated cause and effect relationship between conceptual
variables.
 It deals with the inter relationship between key variables or issues to
be studied. It can be changed or modified.
 It is an analytical tool with several variations and contexts.
 It is used make conceptual distinctions and organize ideas.

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Conceptual(theoretical) frameworks
 Most research reports cast the problem statement
within the context of
a conceptual or theoretical framework.
 A description of this framework contributes to a
research report in at least two ways because it:
(1) identifies research variables, and
(2) clarifies relationships among the variables.
Linked to the problem statement, the conceptual
framework “sets the stage” for presentation of the
specific research question that drives the investigation
being reported.

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Conceptual(theoretical)frameworks…
THE COMPONENTS OF THE CF
Identifies and labels the important variables in the
situation that are relevant to the problem
Shows the relationship of variables and elaborates
How and why moderating and intervening
variables are treated.

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and List of references
142

• Literature review- discussed

• Types of sources- discussed
• Citations
• List of references:

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List of references…
143

Citations- is a quotation from or reference to a book or author.

 It is also a mention of a praiseworthy act in an official report.
 a note accompanying an award, giving reasons for it.

Concise Oxford English Dictionary (7th edition).

E.g. Case study evidence can include both qualitative and

quantitative data (Yin, 2004, p. 11).

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and List of references…
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Academic and scholastic integrity demands that any written

presentation should be linked to a list of sources, or
references.
Types of references
1.THE HARVARD SYSTEM OF REFERENCE
This includes the following information:
 surname of the Author in caps
 Comma
 first name of the Author in normal type.
 full stop.
 date of publication
 full stop
 name of the publication
 full stop
 place of publication
 Colon
 name of publisher
 full stop
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and List of references
145

References:
Singh, Y. K., 2006. Fundamental of RESEARCH METHODOLOGY and STATISTICS. 1st ed. New Delhi:

NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS .

H.McCuen, R., 1996. The Elements of Academic Research. 2nd ed. New York: American Society of Civil
Engineers.
Haydar El Hadi Babiki etal., 2011. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY STEP BY STEP GUIDE FOR
GRADUATE STUDENTS. SUDANESE JOURNAL OF PAEDIATRICIANS, Volume 9, pp. 9-22.
KOTHARI, C., 1990. Research Methodology :Methods and Techniques. 2nd ed. New Delhi: NEW AGE
INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS.

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Ethical Issues
 All professions are guided by a code of ethics that has
evolved over years to accommodate the changing values,
needs and expectations of the authorized bodies.
 Being ethical means adhering to these codes of conduct.
 Some professions have very strict guidelines, monitor
conduct effectively and take appropriate steps against
those who do not abide by the guidelines.
 Ethical issues in research can be looked at as they relate
to participants, researchers and sponsoring organization.

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1. Ethical issues concerning research participants include:

 Collecting information.
 Seeking consent.
 Providing incentives.
 Seeking sensitive information.
 The possibility of causing harm to participants.
 Maintaining confidentiality.-
2. Ethical issues relating to the researcher include:
 A voiding bias.
 Provision or deprivation of a treatment.
 Using appropriate research methodology.
 Correct reporting.
 Using information.
3. Ethical issues regarding the sponsoring organization lie in the
use of the collected information.
Intellectual property (misuse of peers property) plagiarism
(stealing data, whole research)
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Have a Nice Time!

Learn to know!!! 12/4/2019