BASIC HARDWARE UNITS OF A COMPUTER

Hardware units (Devices) of a computer can be categorized into five units;

I. Input
II. Output
III. Central processing unit (CPU) or processor
IV. Main Memory
V. Secondary storage/Backing Storage

1. Input Devices
An input device lets you communicate with a computer. They are used to enter information and
issue commands to the computer. Commands tell the computer to do something, like save the file.
A keyboard, mouse, scanner, digital camera, touch pads and joystick are examples of input devices.

 Keyboard Used to type data into the computer. It has special keys for giving the computer
commands called command or function keys. The popular keyboard used today is the 101-
keys QWERTY keyboard.

Pointing Devices Pointing devices move some object on the screen and can do some action. Mouse is a
common pointing device. A mouse is a small hand-held device that fits in a user’s palm comfortably.
It rolls on a small bearing and has one or more buttons on the top. When a mouse that is connected
to a user terminal is rolled on a flat surface, a graphics cursor moves on the terminal screen in the
direction of the mouse’s movement.
  Scanner allows you to scan documents, pictures, or graphics and view them on the
computer. You can also use software to edit the items you scan. Used to put printed pictures
and text into a computer. It converts an image into dots that the computer can understand
.To scan text, optical character recognition (OCR) software is needed.

 Digital Camera Used to take electronic pictures of an object. The pictures taken by a digital
camera can be used directly by a computer.

 Microphone Used to put sound into a computer. Need sound recording software.

 Video Capture Card Usually placed inside the computer's case. Used to put videos into a
computer. Need a video source, either a video camera or video recorder.

 Voice input device-A computer I/O device in which vocal commands may be entered into
a computer system.
 Optical character recognition (OCR) is computer software designed to translate images
of handwritten or typewritten text (usually captured by a scanner) into machine-editable
text, or to translate pictures of characters into a standard encoding scheme representing them
(e.g. ASCII or Unicode).
 Optical Mark Reader (OMR) A special scanning device that can read carefully placed
pencil marks on specially designed documents. OMR is frequently used in forms,
questionnaires, and answer-sheets
 Magnetic Stripe reader Cards with magnetic stripes are used as credit cards, debit cards,
railway tickets, phone cards and many other applications. The magnetic stripe can be
encoded with up to 220 characters of data. A magnetic stripe reads the information held in
the magnetic stripe.
 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) In this method, human readable characters
are printed on documents such as cheque using special magnetic ink. The cheque can be
read using a special input unit, which can recognize magnetic ink characters.

2. Output devices
An output device displays information on a screen, creates printed copies or generates sound. A
monitor, printer, and speakers are examples of output devices.

 Monitors and Displays: Shows the processed information on a screen. A monitor uses a
Picture Tube like a television with the image displayed on the front of the tube, which is
called the screen.

 Printers produce a hard copy. The information is printed on paper and can be used when
the device is off. It is also called a printout. There different types of printers;

 Dot-matrix printers (impact printer)

‒ Uses metal pins to strike an inked ribbon to make dots on a piece of paper.
‒ Lowest print quality of all of the printers.
‒ Very low in cost per page to use.
  Ink jet printers (non-impact printer)
‒ Use drops of magnetic ink to produce dots on a page to produce text or images.
‒ The print quality is almost the same as a laser printer's.
‒ The ink is very expensive
‒ The ink is water soluble and will run if the paper gets wet
‒ Highest cost per page of all the printers
‒ For producing color documents, it has the highest quality at a reasonable price.

 Laser printers (non-impact printer)

‒ A laser or LEDs make dots on a light sensitive drum
‒ Toner (very tiny particles of plastic) stick to the drum where the dots where made
‒ For black and white printouts, very low cost per page
‒ Printout is permanent
‒ Color laser printers are still fairly expensive

 Speakers Used to output sound

 LCD Projectors Similar to monitors but projects an image on to a screen. They are mainly
used for presentations.

3. Central Processing Unit (CPU)/Processor:

It is the main part of a computer system like the brain of a human being. It interprets the instructions
in the program and executes one by one. The CPU of a microcomputer is called a microprocessor.
Central Processing Unit is implemented in a single piece of silicon device known as a computer
chip. The processor and main memory of a PC are commonly held on a single board called a
motherboard. The processor has the following functions:
a) It controls the transmission of data from input devices to memory;
b) It processes the data held in main memory;
c) It controls the transmission of information from main memory to output devices.

The processor contains the control unit and the arithmetic/logic unit (ALU). The control unit
coordinates and controls all the operations carried out by the computer. The control unit operates
by repeating three operations which are:
a) Fetch – cause the next instruction to be fetched from memory;
b) Decode – translate the program instruction into commands that the computer can process
c) Execute – cause the instruction to be executed

The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) plays two roles:

a) Arithmetic operations – these operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division.
b) Logical operations – it compares two data items to determine whether the first one is
smaller than, equal to or greater than the second item.
 4. Main Memory:
The cycle (input - processing - output) would not be possible without a holding place for the
instructions and data that the processors (CPU) can easily reach. This holding place is known as
memory also called main storage and is internal to the computer consisting of RAM and possibly
ROM.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

‒ Is the basic kind of internal memory that holds data and instructions while the computer is
in use.
‒ It can be read from and written to.
‒ It is called random access because the processor or computer can access any location in
memory in any order as contrasted with sequential access devices which must be accessed
in order.
‒ RAM is volatile; losing the stored information in an event of power loss, and quite
expensive.

There are two basic types of RAM:

1. Static RAM does not need to be refreshed, which makes it faster; but it is also more
expensive than dynamic RAM.
2. Dynamic RAM needs to be refreshed thousands of times per second. Both types of RAM
are volatile, meaning that they lose their contents when the power is turned off.

ROM (Read only memory)

‒ Is also random access but only for reads, once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it
cannot be removed and can only be read.
‒ It refers to special memory used to store programs that boot the computer and perform
diagnostics. Most personal computers have a small amount of ROM (a few thousand bytes).
‒ Retains its contents even when the computer is turned off and is therefore referred to as
being nonvolatile.

5. Secondary storage
These are devices which are used to store huge information for future use. This is mostly hard
drives and removable media such as floppy disks, optical media (CD ROM) etc.

Hard Drive: A hard disk drive (sometimes abbreviated as Hard drive, HD, or HDD) is a device
used to permanently store and also retrieve information. There are many variations, but their sizes
are generally 3.5" and 2.5" for desktop and laptop computers respectively. A hard drive consists
of one or more platters to which data is written using a magnetic head, all inside of an air-sealed
casing. Internal hard disks reside in a drive bay, connect to the motherboard using an ATA, SCSI,
or SATA cable, and are powered by a connection to the PSU (power supply unit).
Floppy Disk: Floppy disks allow information to be transported easily from one computer to
another. They have limited storage capacity, generally 1.44 MB. Saving and retrieving information
from a floppy disk is slower than on a hard drive. They are more susceptible to physical damage
and viruses than the hard drive. The size of a hard drive is usually expressed in terms of megabytes
and gigabytes.

Flash Drive (Pen Drive)

Flash drive is a compact device of the size of a pen, comes in various shapes and stylish designs
(such as pen shape, wallet shape, etc.), and may have different added features (such as with a
camera, with a built-in N1P3lWMA/FM Radio play back for music on the go, etc.). It enables easy
transport of data from one computer to another. It is a plug-and-play device that simply plugs into
a USB (Universal Serial Bus) port of a computer. The computer detects it automatically as
removable drive. Now one can read, write, copy, delete, and move data from the computer’s hard
disk drive to the flash drive or from the flash drive to the hard disk drive. One can even run
applications, view videos, or play MP3 files from it directly. Once done, it can be simply plugged
out of the USB port of the computer and kept into the pocket for being carried anywhere. A flash
drive does not require any battery cable, or software, and is compatible with most PCs, desktop,
and laptop computers with USB 2.0 port. All these features make it ideal external data storage for
mobile people to carry or transfer data from one computer to another.

Available storage capacities are 8MB, 16MB, 64MB, 128MB, 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 2GB, 4GB,
and 8GB. A: of 16MB capacity has 5600 times more storage capacity than a IAMB floppy disk.

Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD ROM): CD ROMs are read only storage medium. Typically, a
CD ROM holds up to 650 MB of information. While information retrieval is faster than from a floppy disk,
it is still not as fast as from the hard drive. These disks come pre-recorded and information stored on
them cannot be altered.

Compact Disk-Writable (CD-R)/WORM Disk/CD-Recordable (CD-R) Disks: WORM stands for

write-once, read-many. WORM disks allow users to create their own CDROM disks by using a
CD-recordable (CD-R) drive attached to a computer as a regular peripheral device. WORM disks
look like standard CD-ROM disks, are purchased blank, and later encoded using a CD-R drive.
The information recorded on a WORM disk by a CD-R drive can be read by any ordinary CD-
ROM drive. As the name implies, data can be written only once on a WORM disk but can be read
many times. That is, like a CD-ROM disk, once data has been etched on the surface of a WORM
disk it becomes permanent and can be read but never altered. However, all the data to be recorded
on a WORM disk can be written on its surface in multiple recording sessions. The session after
the first one are always additive and cannot alter the etched/burned information of earlier sessions.
The information added in a session can be hidden in a subsequent session by creating the File
Allocation Table (FAT at a new location but the etchings on the surface cannot be removed. Such
disk is called Multi-Session Disk. Laser beam technology is used for data recording/ reading.
A CD-R is highly effective for storing a large amount of data. Can hold up to 700MB of
information. A CD-R is a one-time recordable compact disc.

Compact Disk Read/Write (CD-RW): A CD-RW allows you to read, write, erase and write
again. Writing takes place in a single pass of the focused laser beam. This is sometimes referred
to as direct overwriting and can be repeated several thousand times per disc.

Digital Video (or Versatile) Disk (DVD)

DVD was designed primarily to store and distribute movies. However, it is fast becoming
mainstream optical disk as prices are reducing and need for large capacity storage is increasing. It
is similar to CD-ROM in principle but is denser in recording data. There are variants of DVD—
single-layer disk and double-layer disk. Single-layer disk has storage capacity of 4.7GB, whereas,
double-layer disk has storage capacity of 8.5 GB.

Like CD-ROM, DVD also has many types—DVD-R/RW, DVD+R/RW, DVD-Video, and DVD-
Audio. DVD-Video is now the most dominant movie storage format used.

6. Computer units interaction diagram

The diagram above shows how the units interact with each other in the processing of data. Input
devices enter information to be processed by the processor. The processor can read and write into
the secondary storage devices.

The processor also stores the instructions being currently executed into the main memory. So can
be able to read and write into the main memory (RAM). Once the data has been processed by the
processor, the data can be displayed by the output devices. Please note the direction of the arrows
as it depicts the flow of the data and instructions.

7. How information is stored in computers

Information is stored in computers in the form of bits. A bit is used to represent information in the
computer. They are referred to as binary digits i.e. the 0’s and 1’s with 0 representing an OFF state
and 1 representing an ON state. The stored bits are usually retrieved from computers memory for
manipulation by the processor.

A single bit alone cannot represent a number, letters or special characters, to represent information;
bits are combined into groups of eight. A group of eight bits is called a byte. Each byte can be
used to represent a number, letter or special character.

Byte – a string of 8 bits

Kilobyte – 1,000 bytes

Megabyte – 1,000,000 bytes

Gigabyte – 1,000,000,000 bytes

Terabyte – 1,000,000,000,000 bytes

 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Software is a Program commercially prepared and tested in software by one or a group of
programmers and system analyst to perform a specified task. Software is simply set of instructions
that cause a computer to perform one or more tasks. The set of instructions is often called a
program or, if the set is particularly large and complex, a system. Computers cannot do any useful
work without instructions from software; thus a combination of software and hardware (the
computer) is necessary to do any computerized work. A program must tell the computer each of a
set of tasks to perform, in a framework of logic, such that the computer knows exactly what to do
and when to do it. Data are raw facts and ideas that have not been processed while Information is
data that has been processed so as to be useful to the user.

1. Classification of software
Software can be broadly classified into system software and application software.
 1.1 System software
Consists of programs that control operations of the computer and enable user to make efficient use
of computers. They coordinate computer activities and optimize use of computers. They are used
to control the computer and develop and run application programs, examples of jobs done by the
system software are management of computer resources, defragmentation etc. They can be divided
into;

(i) Operating system – is a complex program and most important program that runs on a
computer and which controls the operation of a computer. It perform basic tasks, such
as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping
track of files and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk
drives and printers. In general the operating system supervises and directs all the
software components and the hardware components. Sophisticated operating system
could handle multi-processors, many users and tasks simultaneously. Examples of
computers operating systems are UNIX, Microsoft windows 95/98, Windows NT,
Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista and Linux.
(ii) Service programs are programs designed for general support of the processes of a
computer; "a computer system provides utility programs to perform the tasks needed
by most users". The service programs can further be divided into;
 Utilities: Performs a variety of tasks that maintain or enhance the computer’s operating
system. Utility programs are generally fairly small. Each type has a specific job to do.
Below are some descriptions of utilities.
‒ Anti-virus applications protect your computer from the damage that can be caused
by viruses and similar programs.
‒ Compression utilities make files smaller for storage (or sending over the Internet)
and then return them to normal size.
‒ Data recovery utilities attempt to restore data and files that have been damaged or
accidentally deleted.
‒ Disk defragmenters reorganize the data stored on disks so that it is more efficiently
arranged.
‒ Firewalls prevent outsiders from accessing your computer over a network such as
the Internet.

 Development programs are used in the creation of new software. They comprise of sets
of software tools to allow programs to be written and tested. Knowledge of appropriate
programming language is assumed. Tools used here are:
‒ Text editors that allows one to enter and modify programs statements.
‒ Assembler- allows one to code in machine programs language .i.e. processor
specific
‒ Compilers-makes it possible for programmer to convert source code to object code
which can be stored and saved on different computers.
‒ Interpreters-used to convert source programs statement by statement as it executes
the program without being compiled first.
 ‒ Libraries- commonly used parts or portions of a program which can be called or
included in the programmer’s code without having to recode that portion.
‒ Diagnostic utilities-used to detect bugs in the logic of program during program
development
 Communication programs- refer to programs that make it possible to transmit data.

1.2 Application software

Are programs that help users to do their jobs e.g. typing, recording keeping, production of financial
statements, drawing, and statistics.

 General/ready-made software is developed to perform a variety of tasks, usually

determined by use. Such software can be customized by user to achieve specific goals e.g.
MS Office which is a suit of programs performing a variety of tasks e.g. word processing
for producing documents, database for storing, retrieving and manipulating data and
various calculations on spreadsheets. General purpose programs are discussed below;
‒ Word processing applications. Writing tasks previously done on typewriters with
considerable effort can now be easily completed with word-processing software.
Documents can be easily edited and formatted. Revisions can be made by deleting
(cutting), inserting, moving (cutting and pasting), and copying data. Documents can
be stored (saved) and opened again for revisions and/or printing. Many styles and
sizes of fonts are available to make the document attractive. Example: MS Word,
Word Pad etc.

‒ Spreadsheet applications. Spreadsheet software permits performance of an almost

endless variety of quantitative tasks such as budgeting, keeping track of inventory,
preparing financial reports, or manipulating numbers in any fashion, such as
averaging each of ten departmental monthly sales over a six-month period. A
spreadsheet contains cells, the intersection of rows and columns. Each cell contains
a value keyed in by the user. Cells also contain formulas with many capabilities,
such as adding, multiplying, dividing, subtracting, averaging, or even counting. An
outstanding feature is a spreadsheet's ability to recalculate automatically. If one
were preparing a budget, for example, and wanted to change a variable such as an
increase in salary or a change in amount of car payments, the formulas would
automatically recalculate the affected items and the totals. Example: Excel, Lotus1-
2-3 etc.

‒ Database software: A database contains a list of information items that are similar
in format and/or nature. An example is a phone book that lists a name, address, and
phone number for each entry. Once stored in a database, information can be
retrieved in several ways, using reports and queries. For example, all the names
listed for a given area code could be printed out and used for a commercial mailing
to that area. Examples of database software is MS Access, Dbase, Oracle etc.
‒ Presentation software: For making slide shows. Allows users to create visual
presentation A speaker may use presentation software to organize a slide show for
an audience. Text, graphics, sound, and movies can easily be included in the
 presentation. An added feature is that the slide show may be enhanced by inclusion
of handouts with two to six slides printed on a page. The page may be organized to
provide space for notes to be written in by the audience as the presentation ensues.
An example of this is Power Point. Preparation of the software is simplified by the
use of 'wizards' that walk the user through the creation of the presentation.
‒ Desktop publishing software: This software permits the user to prepare
documents by using both word-processing devices and graphics. Desktop
publishing software uses word-processing software, with all its ease of entering and
revising data, and supplements it with sophisticated visual features that stem from
graphics software. For example, one can enhance a printed message with virtually
any kind of illustration, such as drawings, paintings, and photographs. . Examples
of Desktop publishing software is PageMaker, Corel Draw, and MS Publisher.
‒ Multimedia applications for creating video and music. Allows users to create
image, audio, video etc. Example: Real Player, Media Player etc.
‒ Activity management programs like calendars and address books

NB: Nowadays most of the general purpose software is being sold as complete software suites
such as Microsoft office or Lotus SmartSuite. These suites offer four or more software products
packaged together at a much lower price than buying the packages separately.

 Tailor-made/special purpose software: Tailor-made computer system refers to computer

applications developed by in-house IT personnel or outside software house according to
specific user requirements in a firm. They are developed for given purpose e.g. Payroll
system, stock control system etc.