SUBJECT FORENSIC SCIENCE

Paper No. and Title Paper No. 1: General Forensic Science

Module No. and Title Module No. 10: Principles of Forensic Science

Module Tag FSC_P1_M10

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 1: GENERAL FORENSIC SCIENCE

MODULE No. 10: Principles of Forensic Science
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Learning Outcomes
2. Locard’s Principle of Mutual Exchange
3. Law of Individuality
4. Law of Progressive Change
5. Principle of Comparison
6. Principle of Analysis
7. Law of Probability
8 Problem of Proof
8.1 Oral Evidence
9. Summary

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 1: GENERAL FORENSIC SCIENCE

MODULE No. 10: Principles of Forensic Science
 1. Learning Outcomes

After studying this module, you shall be able to

 Know Locard’s principle of mutual exchange

 Learn about the principle of comparison
 Know about the Law of Individuality

2. Locard’s Principle of Mutual Exchange

Edmond Locard is unarguably most famous for his formulation of Locard's Principle of
Mutual Exchange, a theory that relates to the transfer of the trace evidence between
objects to which they come in contact with. The principle can also be stated as :

"EVERY CONTACT LEAVES A TRACE"

This principle was first enunciated by the French scientist Edmond Locard. It states that
whenever a contact is established between two surfaces, there will be a mutual exchange
of matter across the contact boundary i.e. when a criminal or his instruments of crime
comes in contact with the victim or the objects in its vicinity, they will always exchange
some traces with each other. According to this principle, it is virtually impossible for a
criminal to commit a crime without leaving evidence behind and carrying away with him.
Likewise, the criminal or his instruments also pick up traces from same contact. If these
trace evidences left on the crime scene and accused are properly examined, these can
establish a decisive link between the suspect and the victim or ascertain their presence
with the scene of crime, which forms the basis of scientific crime investigation.

Although Locard's exchange principle largely states that "when a contact occurs between
two items, there will always be an exchange of matter between them," Edmond Locard
never actually wrote those words in the vast amount of material he produced, nor did he
mention anything concerning this principle. Locard, however, did write the following:

"It is practically impossible for a criminal to commit the crime, especially considering the
intensity of a crime, without leaving traces of his presence."

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 1: GENERAL FORENSIC SCIENCE

MODULE No. 10: Principles of Forensic Science
 This elaborates the fact that Locard had a strong belief that no matter wherever the
criminal escapes or what a criminal does, how efficient he is, he will always leave
something or the other at the scene of crime. At the same time, he will also take
something back from there along with him. A criminal can leave all sorts of evidences,
including fingerprints, footprints, hair, skin, muscles, blood, bodily fluids, pieces of
clothing and other types of evidences possible according to the nature of crime. By
coming into contact with these things at the crime scene, a criminal also takes a part of
that scene with him, whether it's dirt, hair or any other type of trace evidence.

Dr. Locard justified this principle during many of his scientific investigations. In one of
the investigations in the year 1912, when he investigated the case of a Frenchwoman
named Marie Latelle who was found dead in her parents' home. Her then boyfriend,
Emile Gourbin, was interrogated by the police. He claimed he had been playing a game
of cards with some of his friends on that fateful night of the death of her girlfriend. Later
when his friends were questioned, it became clear that he was telling the truth.

Later when Locard examined at the body of Marie Latelle, however, he was led to
believe otherwise. He first examined Latelle's body and found a clear evidence that
certainly she was strangled to death. He then scraped underneath the fingernails (trace
evidence in this case) of Gourbin for taking the skin cell sample. He later viewed the
results underneath a microscope. Very soon, Locard noticed a pink dust among the
samples he collected from his prime suspect, which he figured to be from ladies makeup.
Thus, the principle of mutual exchange helped Locard to come a decisive output as to the
involvement of Gourbain in Marie’s strangulation.

The basic requirement of the principle is the correct answer to the question 'What are the
places or objects with which the criminal or his tools actually came in contact during the
commission of the crime? If the investigating officer manages to somehow establish the
correct points of contact, and thus a correct investigatory lead, he is most likely to be
benefited in the investigation. The followings are the most probable locations:

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 1: GENERAL FORENSIC SCIENCE

MODULE No. 10: Principles of Forensic Science
 Point of entry:
If a criminal enters the premises through a ventilator, he leaves his footprints/fingerprints
in dust on the shelf.

At crime scene:
While committing a crime, if he breaks a window or a door, the jimmy leaves its mark
over the wooden frame or the burglar, who opens the safe by using an explosive or by
any other means – hammering etc, leaves the area around and the clothes (including
shoes) covered with insulating material as well as some exploded and unexploded
material.

Point of exit:
After committing the crime when the criminal tends to leave the crime scene, he is most
likely to leave and carry some minute traces for example his footprints at the point of
exit. It is although very rare that he dares to or neglects to leave or carry gross objects or
traces on a thorough search, (the ambiguous traces will always be found in all the types
of crimes one does). These trace evidences left owing to the principle of exchange; help
to connect the crime and the criminals as effectively as the bigger objects or traces.

3. Law of individuality

'Every object, natural or man-made, has an individuality which is not

duplicated in any other object or in other words
No two things in this universe are alike even when they are manufactured in
the same machine one after the other.

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MODULE No. 10: Principles of Forensic Science
 This principle, at first seems to be contrary to the common beliefs and observations made.
The minute grains of sand or common salt, seeds of plants or twins look exactly alike.
Similarly, the man-made objects like coins of the same denominations manufactured,
currency notes printed with the same printing blocks one after the other (excluding serial
number of the currencies) and typewriters of the same make, model and batch appear to
be indistinguishable. Yet the individual characteristics are always there. There are small
flaws in the materials, through mixing of raw material; fluctuation in electricity; wear and
tear defects of the machine; in the arrangement of the crystals, imperfect stamping or due
to inclusion of some extraneous matter. These individual characteristics can be useful in
distinguishing intra and inter batch variations.

The most extensive work has been carried out on fingerprints. Several fingerprints, up to
the order of millions, have been examined but no two fingerprints; even from two fingers
of the same person have ever been found to be identical.

In a series of experiments carried out by the scientists on superimposition techniques for

fingerprints, footprints, tool marks, obtained from various parts of firearms, it was
observed that with the best of efforts, exactly alike superimpositions even imprints from
the same finger could not be produced. The fingerprints were taken one after the other, on
the same paper with the same ink and by the same person; yet they failed to give perfect
superimpositions. Imperfect inking, unequal pressure, slight differences in the text the
surface of the paper or interferences from extraneous matter always introduced some
differences.

The law of individuality has fundamental importance and form the basis for forensic
identification. Anything and everything involved in a crime has individuality. If the same
is established, it link the crime and the criminal.

4. Law of Progressive Change

Another important principle which affect the quality of analysis and their results in
the lab or otherwise is the law of progressive change. According to this principle
‘Everything changes with the passage of time’

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MODULE No. 10: Principles of Forensic Science
 The rate of change varies tremendously with different type of objects. It has a giant
impact on the forensic science investigations. For example

1. The criminals undergo several progressive changes with time. If he is not

apprehended in time, he becomes unrecognizable except perhaps through his
fingerprints, bone fractures or any other characteristics of permanent nature,
which may or may not be always available, therefore not dependable.

2. The scene of crime also undergoes rapid changes. The weather, the vegetable
growth, and the living beings (especially human-beings) make extensive changes
in comparatively short periods (longer the delay in examining the scene, greater
will be the changes. After some time, the scene may become unrecognizable).

3. The evidences involved in crime may be affected by external conditions, change

gradually like the firearm barrels loosen, metal objects rust, the shoes or shoe
prints suffer additional wear and tear and the tools acquire new surface patterns.
The degree of change depends upon the time, the upkeep and the use or the
misuse of the particular object. In course of time the object may sometimes lose
all practical identity vis-à-vis a particular crime.

So, the principle demands prompt action in criminal investigations.

5. Principle of Comparison
This principle is very important particularly in the laboratory investigation i.e. the type of
specimen or sample required for comparison in the lab. It states that
‘Only the likes can be compared’

It emphasizes the necessity to provide like/similar type of samples and specimens for
comparison with the questioned items. For example, in any murder case if a bullet is
found from the body of the deceased and the expert opinion states that the bullet has been
fired from a high velocity firearm, then it becomes useless to send in for a shotgun or
pistols or revolvers for comparison of the firearm under question.

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MODULE No. 10: Principles of Forensic Science
 Similarly, if a bunch of hair is recovered from the hands of a deceased and the expert
opines that the hair belongs to a Negroid person, in such a case, hair from persons of
white races for comparison will not be of any use.

Another example can be if the questioned document contains type written text, then there
is no use in sending handwritten or printed specimens for comparison.

So there is an important requirement, according this principle is to supply

specimen/samples of similar nature for proper comparison with the questioned sample
recovered from the crime scene.

6. Principle of Analysis
This principle have great significance in the laboratory investigation of the clue materials.
It states that

“The analysis can-be no better than the sample analyzed”

Improper sampling, contaminations render the best analysis useless. This principle
emphasizes on the necessity to collect proper sample and properly packed for effective
use of experts.

In any rape case, the investigating officer collects the clothes of the victim, which carry
both blood, and semen stains. The investigating officer after properly drying the clothes
packs them in such a way that the affected area or areas containing stains should not
touch each other and not even to the walls of the container and sends them to forensic
science laboratory for examination. He wants to know if the clothes carry semen stains, if
so, to which blood group does the sample belongs.

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MODULE No. 10: Principles of Forensic Science
 7. Law of Probability

All identifications, be it a definite or an indefinite one, are made - consciously or

unconsciously, always on the basis of law of probability.

'Probability' is largely the most misunderstood phenomenon. If we state that according to

the law of probability, a particular fingerprint has been taken from the given source, then
the defense counsels makes most of the word and plead that it is not a definite opinion i.e
counters the probability. Thus, it is not customary to consider 'probability' or 'probability
figures' in the court of law.

Probability is a mathematical concept, which determines the chances of occurrence of a

particular event in a particular way out of a number of ways in which the event can take
place or fail to take place with equal facility.

If P represents probability, Ns the number of ways in which the event can successfully
occur (with equal facility) and Nf the number of ways in which it can fail (with equal
facility), the probability of success is given by the formula:
P= Ns
Ns + Nf

If the event consists of two occurrences, which can take place independently, the
probability of the second occurrence is also given by the same formula. If we denote
probabilities of the first and second occurrences by attaching digits 1 and 2 to the relevant
letters, the net probability (P,) are given by the formula:

Pt = P1 X P2 = NS1 __ X _ NS2____
NS1 + Nfl Ns2 + Nf2

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MODULE No. 10: Principles of Forensic Science
 8. Problem of Proof
The question of proof in a criminal trial is becoming a difficult problem every day. It is
related with men, law and facts. The behavior of the men is habituated by their education,
temperament, financial status, intelligence and their bias. The law varies from land to
land and is composed of enactments, rulings, conventions and precedences.

Changes in law are comparatively slow. The facts can be proved or may be disproved
owing to the circumstances and physical evidences, through the witnesses. Witness may
be eyewitness or they may be expert witness. The latter base their findings on scientific
observations. The evidence is scrutinized by counsels and evaluated by courts.

8.1 Oral Evidence

The dependence on the oral evidence is placed in accordance with the observations of
eyewitness. Although, experiences and experiments have repeatedly proved that
sometimes these can be unreliable.

9. Summary
 Law of individuality states that 'Every object, whether it is natural or man-
made, has an individuality which cannot be duplicated or copied into any
other object
 Law of progressive change elaborates that 'Every object changes as the
time progresses’.
 Sir Edmond Locard is most famous for his formulation of Locard's
Principle of Mutual Exchange, a theory that relates to the transfer of trace
evidence between objects that comes in contact with it. It can be described
as "EVERY CONTACT LEAVES A TRACE"

FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 1: GENERAL FORENSIC SCIENCE

MODULE No. 10: Principles of Forensic Science