Unit-3

Perception and learning

- Perception is the process of getting information from environment through

sense organs and attempting to organize it in systematic way and interpret
such information for providing response.
- Perception is cognitive process.
- It provides a unique picture of the world.
- Peoples are unique they have individual differences. Their behavior is based
on the perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.
- Perception is an important determinant of individual behavior. It provides
individual view of reality. Two individual may perceive the same situation
differently. It differs from person to person and situation to situation.
- It involves selecting, organizing and interpreting information to make sense
of the world around us.
For the better understanding of perception here are some of the perpetual
illusions:
Perceptual process

OR

a. Environmental stimuli
Environment is the source of stimuli. The perception process starts with
external stimuli. Environmental forces provide stimuli through the
senses of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting and feeling.
b. Perceptual Selection
An individual gives selective attention to information received from the
environment. Perception filters, modifies or changes the stimuli for
processing purposes.
c. Perceptual Organization
The processed information is ordered and classified in a logical manner.
The selected stimuli is grouped into recongnisable patterns.
d. Perceptual Interpretation
 Meaning is assigned to the stimuli to make sense out of them. It is the
most important aspect of perception. Every person has a unique filter to
interpret the stimuli within the framework of existing knowledge.

e. Outcome
Perceptual process leads to attitudes and behavior.

Factors affecting/influencing perception

 Specific application of perception in organization

 Employee loyalty

individual decision making

Link between perception and individual decision making organization

Individuals in organizations make decisions. That is, they make choices
from among two or more alternatives. Top managers, for instance,
determine their organizations goals, what products or services to offer,
how best to finance operations, or where to locate a new manufacturing
plant. Middle and lower-level managers determine production schedules,
select new employees, and decide how pay raises are to be allocated. Of
course, making decisions is not the sole province of managers. Non-
managerial employees also make decisions that affect their jobs and the
organizations for which they work. The more obvious of these decision
might include whether or not to come to work on any given day, how much
effort to put forth once at work, and whether or not to comply with a
request made by the boss. In addition, an increasing number of
organizations in recent years have been empowering their non managerial
employees with job-related decision making authority that historically was
reserved for managers. Individual decision making, therefore, is an
important, part of organizational behavior. But how individuals in
organizations make decisions and the quality of their final choices are
largely influenced by their perceptions.

Decision making occurs as a reaction to a problem. That is, there is a

discrepancy between some current state of affairs and some desired state,
requiring the consideration of alternative courses of action. So if your car
breaks down and you rely on it to get to work, you have a problem that
requires a decision on our part. Unfortunately problems donot come neatly
packaged with a label problem clearly displayed on them. One persons
problem is another persons satisfactory state of affairs. One manager may
view her division two percent decline in quarterly sales to be a serious
problem requiring immediate action on her part. In contrast, her
counterpart in another division of the same company, who also had a two
percent sales decrease, may consider that percentage quite acceptable. So
the awareness that a problem exists and that a decision needs to be made
is a perceptual issue.

Moreover, every decision requires the interpretation and evaluation of

information. Data are typically received from multiple sources, and they
need to be screened, processed, and interpreted. Which data, for
instances, are relevant to the decision and which are not? The perceptions
of decision maker will answer that question. Alternatives will be developed,
and the strengths and weakness of each will need to be evaluated. Again,
because alternatives donot come with red flags identifying them as such or
with their strengths and weakness clearly marked, the individual decision
makers perceptual process will have a large bearing on the final outcome.
Finally, throughout the entire decision process, perceptual distortions often
surface that have the potential to bias analysis and conclusions.

Relationship between perception and decision making

Every individual faces a point where he is expected to make an important decision
from a vastarry of alternatives. The fact that the choices made at that point affects
the outcome, it is to, an individual is required to go through all the alternatives and
make a rational decision.If done so, there is a least chance of any negative outputs.
But, to the dismay, this does not happen in the real world. People cannot process
all the informations and scrutinize every single problem. As a result, they make a
habit of deciding on the basis of perception. The quality of the final decision,
hence made, has a great deal of influence of their perception. However, µwhat
one perceives can be substantially different from the objective reality. In this
world, where everybody is habituated to perceptive decision making, it is hard to
state the possibility of rational decisions. People have less time and economic
constrains to scrutinize over  problems individually. This has led individuals and
firms to overlook the basic criterion: Unlike nonliving objects, Humans are Living
beings capable of various emotional behaviors. Common observation on human
provides a reason to believe that every individual act in a certain way. And, the
level of information, an individual emits, from his behavior is very high that
any perceiver cannot withhold the amount of information at a first go. So, Instead
of deriving the decision from the information perceived, the perceiver takes the
information which he thinks is true about the target. This already limits the
possibility of a rational decision making. So, we can conclude that the perfect
rational decision is not feasible, if not impossible, in our work place.The
knowledge of perception, instead, can help an individual understand others
effectively and improve the decision-making skills.
Individual differences and organizational constraints

The influences of Individual Differences in DecisionMaking:

1.Personality: It involves sum total of inernal and external qualities of an
individual. It shows an individuals ability of dealing with peoples problem and
environments. It provides impact on individual decision.
Achievement strivers are likely to increase commitment.
Dutiful people are less likely to have this bias.
High self-esteem people are susceptible to self-serving bias.

2. Gender
Women analyze decisions more than men – rumination.
Women are twice as likely to develop depression.
Women feel for hard to solve problems, feel regret when past decisions give any
negative outcome and it increases depression.
It is reason that women are spending more time for taking decision.

3. Mental abitity
All the human beings donot have equal and similar mental ability.
Individuals having high mental ability are able to process information more
quickly, learn faster and solve problem more accurately. Therefore, they do less
error in decision making process. Sometimes, overconfidence can do mistake in
decision making.
More talent individual learn more quickly and can take any decisions in any
situation.

Organizational constraints: The following are the common organizational

constraints for decision making.
1.Performance Evaluation: Managerial evaluation criteria influence actions.

2.Reward Systems: Managers will make the decision with the greatest personal
pay off for them.

3.Formal Regulations: Limit the alternative choices of decision makers.

4.System-imposed Time Constraints: Restrict ability to gather or evaluate

information.

5.Historical Precedents: Past decisions influence current decisions

Concept of Learning

- Learning is relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of

experience.
- It is acquired through practice, training and experience.
- It brings some modification in the behavior and once learned, an
individual is capable of retaining it for at least a certain period of time.
- It is directly or indirectly related to organizational behavior in terms of
increasing competency, leadership ability, and motivation at work.
- It is necessary to generate new concept, idea, knowlodge, strategies
and technology to cope with changing environment of society.
- Learning influence individual behavior.
- Learning involves change in behavior. Such changes can be good or
bad for organization.
- People learn both favourable as well as unfavourable behavior.
- Learning needs reinforcement through practice.
 Factors influencing learning

Motives

Stimuli

Response

Reward

Reinforcement
Factors
affecting Retention
learning
Repetition

Feedback

Physiological factors

Psychological factors

Social factors
Environmental factors

1. Motives
Motives are drives that prompt people to action. They energize behavior.
They represent mental feelings of human beings. They determine the
direction of individual behavior. Learning cannot occur without motives. An
individual should be motivated to learn and should have interest and
aptitude to learn.

2. Stimuli
They are objects in the environment in which a person lives. Environmental
objects provide stimuli through seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting and
feeling.

3. Response
Stimulus results in response. It is the act which the learner performs. It
should be physically observable. It can be in terms of attitudes or
perceptions.

4. Reward
Learning should provide reward to the learner. It can be monetary or non-
monetary. It provides incentive to learn. It satisfies motive of the learner.
Promotion, personality development and opportunity to work in challenging
jobs are rewards.

5. Reinforcement
Reinforcement is anything that increases the strength of response. It
includes repetition of learned behavior. It is fundamental conditioning of
learning. Both positive and negative reinforcement results in learning.
Favourable organizational climate positively reinforces learning.

6. Retention
It is remembrance of learned behavior over time. It is learning not forgotten.
It leads to relatively permanent change in behavior.

7. Repetition
Practice through repetition increases learner’s performance. Opportunities
to practice helps learning.

8. Feedback
Feedback about performance of the learner facilitates learning. Actual
learning performance should be compared with standards of performance.

9. Psychological factors
It also affects in learning process. These factors involve interest, mood,
level of perception, need to learn, ability and so on. For example, when
people have self-interest in learning, they devote more time and effort in
learning process.

10. Physiological factors

These factors involve both physical condition and mental ability of the
persons. These factors are beyond the control of an individual. These
factors involve gender, age, health, intelligence, emotion and so on. For
example, an individual suffering from health problem cannot think for
learning.
11. Social factors
Social factor encourage learning for individuals. These factors involve
social needs, incentives, reward and punishment, competition, suggestion,
cooperation e.t.c. Society provides guideline and support individuals in
learning process such social factors involve parents, family, peers,
teachers and reference groups.

12. Environmental factors

It also affects in learning. The factors involve light, temperature, noise, cold
e.t.c. The people feel more difficult to learn new knowledge in high
temperature because it affects on health. Similarly, it is more difficult to
maintain patience to the people for learning in loud noise. In learning
process individuals need proper environment so that they can maintain
patience and careful for learning.

Principles of learning
- Principle of reinforcement
- Principle of punishment
- Principle of generalization
- Principle of discrimination
- Principle of motivation
- Principle of repetition
- Principle of active involvement
- Principle of learning curve
- Principle of feedback

1. Principle of Reinforcement
Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a learned behavior will be
repeated.
Reinforcement increases the strength of a response and increases its
probability of being repeated. It is anything that the learner finds rewarding.
Both positive and negative reinforcement results in learning.
When a response is followed by a desirable consequence, it is positive
reinforcement. When a response is followed by withdrawal of an
undesirable consequence, it is negative reinforcement.

2. Principle of Punishment
 Punishment decreases the likelihood that a learned behavior will be
repeated. It attempts to eliminate an undesirable behavior.
Punishment consists of application of undesirable consequences or
withdrawal of desirable consequences. It decreases the strength and
frequency of a response.

3. Principle of Generalisation
Generalization is to respond to two different stimuli in a uniform
manner. Learners can transfer what they have learned to other
situations through generalization process.
- For example, if classroom training conditions resemble to actual work
situations, what is learned in the classroom can be transferred to
work situations.

4. Principle of Discrimination
Learners behave in a different way when confronted with two distinct
stimuli in terms of their difference.

5. Principle of motivation
Learning is enhanced when learner is motivated to learn. One cannot
be forced to learn.

6. Principle of Repetition
Repetition helps learning. Practice increases a learner’s performance.

7. Principle of Active Involvement

Active involvement of learner facilitates learning.

8. Principle of learning curve

Learning has a curve. It begins rapidly, then increases at a
decreasing rate until a plateau is reached.

9. Principle of feedback
Knowledge of performance feedback facilitates learning. Standards of
performance should be set for the learner.

Case study

Case 1
Aayusha joshi’s dilemma
Aayusha is the owner-manager of a small retail store in Bhaktapur. The store was opened five
years ago. She worked from 9 AM TO 9PM. She had little time to spend with her family.

The business has grown. It employs five full time staff. The sales have increased five-fold in
five years. Aayusha makes all the decisions related to purchasing, pricing, promotion, display,
hiring and firing. She actively participates in selling goods to customers. She does not believe in
delegating. She likes to be in the forefront of the action.

A recent health check-up of aayusha revealed heart problems. The doctor advised her to slow
down and rely more on his staff to help him out. But aayusha thinks slowing down may be bad
for business. She is in a dilemma.

Questions :

1. Explain the difference between “doing” and “managing”.

2. Why should aayusha plan in her business?
3. What changes should she make in her decision making style?
4. What advice would you give about what aayusha should do?

Case 2: Deurali Dance Restaurant

Dance restaurants are popular in Kathmandu. There are more than 200 such
restaurants. Mr. Hari Lamsal is a frequent visitor to such restaurants. He is even thinking
of owning such restaurants.
One evening, while watching dancing girls in Deurali Dance Restaurant, Hari started
chatting with the owner Mr. Ghale. He learned that Mr. Ghale wanted to sell his dance
restaurant. The restaurant has 8 dancing girls, five waiters and two cooks. Hari found
that the restaurant was five years old. It is housed in a rented building. The rent is Rs.
10,000 per month. It made loss in the first 3 years but generated profit in the last two
years. But the accounting system was not reliable. Not all transactions were billed and
entered in books. The customers also were not loyal. They kept changing. The
government also has enforced strict regulations for dance restaurants in recent months.
Women groups are lobbying for their clousure.
Hari is not sure whether he should make an offer to buy the restaurant.

Questions:
1. What are the causes of failure of Deurali Dance Restaurant ?
2. Can a fair sale price be estimated?
 3. What would you advise Hari to do ? Why ?
4. What are the successful point of deurali dance restaurant?
The major models of learning ( learning theories )

1. Classical Conditioning (S-R) (Pavlov model)

Definition: The Classical Conditioning Theory was proposed by a Russian
Physiologist Ivan Pavlov. According to this theory, behavior is learnt by a
repetitive association between the response and the stimulus.

The classical conditioning theory is based on the assumption that learning is

developed through the interactions with the environment. Also, the environment
shapes the behavior and internal mental state such as thoughts, feelings,
emotions do not explain the human behavior.

Here, an organism learns to transfer response from one stimulus to a previously

neutral stimulus. Classical conditioning is comprised of four elements:

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Which invariably causes to react in a way.

2. Unconditioned Response (UR): Takes place when the US is presented.
3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The object that does not bring about the
desired response
4. Conditioned Response (CR): a particular behavior that an organism
learns to produce, when the CS is presented.

Pavlov conducted an experiment on a dog and measured the amount of saliva

secreted by a dog, with a use of a surgical procedure, when it is exposed to
different stimulus or object. At first, when Pavlov presented a piece of meat
(US) to the dog, he noticed a great amount of salivation (UR) whereas, in the
second time, when he just rang the bell, he observed there was no effect of a
bell on the dog’s salivation.

After this, Pavlov rang the bell accompanied with meat and noticed the
salivation of a dog. He repeated this process several times, and finally, one day
he just rang the bell without meat and observed that dog still salivated to the
bell alone which was originally a neutral stimulus.
Conclusion : learning a conditioned response involves an
association between a conditioned stimulus and unconditioned
stimulus. This model explains simple reflexive behavior. Reflexive
behavior is unlearned behavior. Something happens and we react
in a specific way. The behavior is in response to a specific event.
 Steps in learning

Stimulus Response Motivation Rewards