Unit 1: Introduction

1.1 Field Trip

The students of Env350: Coastal Ecology went on a field trip to Sundarban and was there from
17-19 November 2011. The tour was organized by Your Bangla Tour and we were in Katka
Express, the cruiser, which took us around Sundarban.

We went inside the World Heritage Site of Sundarban East Sanctuary in Bagherhat. We studied
the ecology and its distinctness from other ecological regions in Bangladesh. We visited two
ranges: Chandpai and Sarankhola Range. For anyone entering Sundarban, one has to take
permission from the Forest Department. After taking two forest guards with us from Chandpai
Range Forest Department camp we began our journey to Sundarban.

We visited several locations inside the

Sundarban: Harbaria Eco-Park, Chanpai

Range
Jamtola Beach, Katka, Sarankhola

Range Kochikhali, Katka, Sarankhola

Range
Karamjal deer and crocodile rearing station

1.2 Objectives & Methodology

We worked as groups and our group was called EcoExpress. There were 5 groups in total This
field trip was mainly for us to understand the characteristics of a coastal ecology in Bangladesh
and studying the ecology of Sundarban really helped us in that area.

The objectives that we had in mind for this field trip were:

To discover the uniqueness of mangrove forests in Sundarban

To see the functions of the Sundarban ecosystem

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To study the adaptive features of some species

To understand the importance of saving the remaining mangrove ecosystem in Sundarban

To analyze the conservation work being carried out in Sundarban

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The methodology used in order to achieve our objectives:

Observational skills
Communication with locals and FD staff

Photography
Secondary source: Internet, for information

Unit 2: Sundarban
2.1 Map

The map on the left shows

the four ranges of
Sundarban. We visited the
Sundarban East i.e. Chandpai
and Sarankhola Range. Both
these two ranges form the
Sundarban East Wildlife
Sanctuary. Khulna range is in
the Sundarban South
Wildlife Sanctuary while the
Burigoalini range is in the
Sundarban West Wildlife
Sanctuary.
2.2 Background

©Sarah Sanabam
Sundarban is situated at the west of main outflow of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna river
system. Total area of the entire Sundarban is about 1 million ha. and about 60% (595,000ha) is in
Bangladesh and the rest 40% in India. The two countries are divided by the Raimangal River.

Sundarban is a Ramsar Site and in 1997, UNESCO declared the Sundarban in Bangladesh a
World Heritage Site. The Protected Area portion of the Sundarban in Bangladesh is under three
Sanctuaries and its total size is 139,700 ha. They were established in 1977 under the Bangladesh
Wildlife Preservation Act, 1974. Sundarban West Wildlife Sanctuary is 71,502ha, Sundarban
East Wildlife Sanctuary is 31,226ha and Sundarban South Wildlife Sanctuary is 36,970ha. The
entire Sundarban is Reserved Forest under the Indian Forest Act, 1878. Even though Sundarban
has lost half of its inland area over the last 200 years through human encroachment, over 10,000
km2 of continuous mangroves still remain.

The three sanctuaries are filled with complex networks of rivers, canals and creeks. Mud flats
and small islands are visible at every turn. Because of the many waterways flowing through the
Sundarban almost every part is accessible by boat. Two-third of Sundarban is land and the rest is
water. (Sarah 0930156)
 Unit 3: Ecology

What makes Sundarban is its uniqueness and distinction from other mangrove ecosystem in the
world. It has the highest number of biodiversity of any mangrove ecosystem, both flora and
fauna. The mangroves play a vital role in the lives of people and the wildlife. The ecology is
complex and has evolved for thousands of years. There are about 334 plants, 120 fishes, 35
reptiles, 270 birds and 42 mammals. There is a whole complex network of interactions and each
is dependent on one another for survival.
Bangladesh being a deltaic region also means the soil is rich and fertile and the intrusion of
saline water means the living organisms have to be very well adapted to experience freshwater
half a day and saline water for the remaining half. The high and low tides coming in make a big
difference to the ecology.

Not only is Sundarban the home for Royal Bengal tigers, but it harbors one of the largest
remaining global populations of highly endangered species. Sundarban is also of great ecological
and economic importance because it provides valuable natural resources such as fish, shrimp,
crab, wood, grass, honey and wax.

The forest also stabilizes the coastal belt and protects the low-lying country from tidal surges,
cyclones and other natural calamities. Research has indicated that mangroves can absorb 30-40%
of the total force of a cyclone and reduce the fore of powerful waves before they hit inland.
Hence, it acts as a natural shield protecting Bangladesh. Moreover, they are also the source of
earning for the people. They are nurseries for a wide range of species of fish, shrimps. Coastal
communities rely on these supplies for livelihood.

The different parts of the ecology that make the coastal ecology of Sundarban so unique and
necessary to preserve are explained in the next few pages.

3.1 Soil and water by Shamim the soils are fertile owing
Soil- Since the Sundarban delta is formed by the super to continuous silt
confluence of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers, deposits. The soil of the
region can be generally classified into five groups
depending on the texture of the soil:

clay soil

heavy soil
sandy loam

sandy and
silty soil.
©Sarah Sanabam

Soils of the Sundarban mangrove forest differ from other inland soils in that they are subjected to
the effects of salinity and water logging, which naturally affect the vegetation. In places soils are
semi-solid and poorly consolidated.

The pH ranges widely from 5.3 to 8.0. Although

the Sundarban soil is in general medium
textured, sandy loam, silt loam or clay loam,
the grain size distribution is highly variable. Silt
loam is dominant textural class. Sodium and
calcium contents of the soil vary from 5.7 to
29.8 meq/100g dry soil and are generally low in
©Sarah Sanabam
the eastern region and higher towards the west. The available potassium content of the soil is
low, 0.3-1.3 meq/100g dry soil. Organic matter content varies between 4% and 10% in dry soil.
The salinity of the soil is determined by the amount of rainfall occurred and fresh water received
from the upper catchments area and the salinity of the tidal water channels from the south. Soil
salinity increases from east (slight to moderate) to west (highly saline), but the salinity is not
uniform from north to south throughout the forest. Salinity of surface soils is high during dry
season but is reduced to tolerable limits because of dilution by the leaching effects of rainwater.
 Water-The Sundarban in Bangladesh is dissected by seven
main north-south-flowing rivers, from the Rainagal, a branch
of the Harinbhanga to the Baleswar, a mouth of the Meghna.

©Sarah These waterways, apart from the Baleswar River on the

Sanabam eastern edge of the East Sanctuary, now carry little fresh
water as they are mostly cut off from the Ganges, the
freshwater outflow of which over 400 years has shifted
progressively eastwards from the Bhagirathi-Hooghly
channels. This shift is due to tectonic subsidence of the
Bengal Basin during the 10th-12th centuries, and the
continuing gradual eastward tilting of the underlying crust. The average salinity of water and
soils therefore decreases markedly from west to east. The area has three main hydrological
zones: brackish, moderately saline and saline, which influence the types of vegetation which
dominate each.

Oligohaline zone (Brackish): with salinity level less than 6,250 micromhos, and the
dominant species is Sundari (Heritiera fomes) – the most valuable timber in the forest
accounting for over 60 percent of the total volume of commercial timber.
Mesohaline zone (Moderately Saline): with salinity level between 6,250 and 12,500
micromhos, and the dominant species is Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha).
Polyhaline zone (Saline): with salinity level exceeding 12,500 micromhos, and the
dominant species is Goran (Ceriops decandra).

As a consequence of salinity penetration in the Sundarban, majority of the Mesohaline areas will
be transformed into Polyhaline areas, while Oligohaline areas would be reduced to only a small
pocket along the lower- Baleswar River in the eastern part of the forest.
3.2 Aquatic Ecosystem by Shamim
The Sundarban aquatic ecosystem is a mixture of various types of Marine ecosystems namely:
1. Inter tidal
2. Estuarine
3. Salt Marshes
This classification is based on zones depending on salinity and depth of water. The main aquatic
animal species of the Sundarban includes:
1. Smooth coated Otter
2. Ganges River Dolphin
3. Indo-Pacific Hump Back Dolphin
4. Irrawady Dolphin
5. Finless porpoise

Among fishes, 400 species of fish are available in the Sundarban, along with 20 Shrimps, 8
Lobsters and 7 Crab species. But only 120 Species of fish are caught by commercial fishermen.
Some of the fishermen we found in Jamtola Tourist Spot told us that the common fish they catch
are faisha and coral fish. Mud skippers are also found in large numbers. Several animal species
like Narrow headed soft shelled Turtles and Gharial have reportedly become locally extinct. The
Sundarban also supports some 53 Reptile species and 8 Amphibian species. Reptilian species
include King Cobra, Spectacled Cobra and also Estuarine Crocodiles. There are three species of
monitor lizards in Sundarban: Indian Monitor, Yellow Monitor and Asian water monitor. The
water monitor is a great swimmer and depends o n the aquatic ecosystem for survival. There are
six sea snakes. Most of these aquatic animals have adapted to the salty nature of the water. There
are four species of marine turtles like the Olive Ridley, Green turtle, Loggerhead and Hawksbill
turtle. All of them are endangered. They are losing their breeding grounds. River terrapin is also
in Sundarban but they encounter humans very often. Crustaceans account for by far the largest
proportion of animal biomass, with an estimated 40 million kilograms of fiddler crabs and 100
million kilograms of mud crabs. That‟s why during our field trip we saw huge number of
crabs. They are thriving in the mud banks when it is ebb tide.
Because of the salinity of the water vegetation under the water is not possible. The regular
siltation hardly allows light inside for plants to grow. We did not see any water plants except for
water hyacinth that have been brought down from upstream freshwater rivers. The eventually die
as they cannot tolerate saline water. Mangroves can be considered aquatic when they are
partially submerged in water during high tide. They are able to tolerate because of the adaptive
features they have like pneumatophores. The mangrove ecology is very unique in that sense.
There are several species that are a part of the land as well as the aquatic ecology.

Golda chingri Bou bhola fish

© Sarah Sanabam © Sarah Sanabam

Faisha fish Mud skipper

© Sarah Sanabam
© Sarah Sanabam
 Crocodiles at Karamjal Crocodile Rearing Station
© Sarah Sanabam

Mud Crab
© Sarah Sanabam

3.3 Trees and Shrubs by Mohima

We were able to observe and identify different types of trees and
shrubs through trekking and sight seeing in Sundarban. An
estimated total of 334 plants species are present in the deltaic
portion of Bangladesh. The mangroves of Sundarban are quite
unique if compared to non-deltaic coastal mangrove forest. The
reason for the differences in the mangroves is the large freshwater
influence in the northeastern part and the elevated level of the
ground surface. Mangroves are woody plants that grow in tropical
and sub-tropical regions along lagoons, estuaries, rivers and
streams where the water is saline. The mangrove plants species
have adaptive features; they are usually evergreen and have thick
leathery leaves to minimize transpiration.

Sundri Tree
© Mohima Kader
The dominant tree species include sundri, gewa, goran, and keora. Sundari is more dominant on
higher grounds, where the soil water is relatively fresh; and it is also a very commercially useful
source of timber. The other mangrove species in the forest are garjan, kankra, and baen. Other
trees and shrubs that we were able to identify at different locations include tiger fern, shashmoti,
grasses (shon and jhao), hargoza, shingra golpata, nypa palm, and passur.

Sundarban is classified as a moist tropical forest, made up of a mixture of beach forest and tidal
forest. There are four types of tidal forest communities: low mangrove forests, tree mangrove
forests, saltwater forests, and freshwater swamp forests. All four types of tidal forest are found in
Sundarban. Sundarban West is in the saltwater zone, which supports dense patches of hantal
palm on drier ground, riverbanks and levees. Dhundul and passur grow sporadically throughout
the area. In Sundarban East sundri predominates, while it also covers most of the Sundarban with
gewa. Sundarban South has the greatest seasonal variation in salinity levels, and Exoecaria,
Heritiera, and Xylocarpus can be found there.

The golpata grows on levee banks. Beach forest occurs on coastal islands of low xerophytic sand
dunes due to the lime from disintegrating shells and salt. The sand dunes are partially covered
with spear grass. There are many climbers, creepers, and algal and fungal species on the forest
floor. Oryza coarctata, Nypa fruticans and Imperata cylindrical are prevalent on mud flats.
Keora is found on newly accreted mud banks while creating a habitat for the wildlife.

These plants have interesting adaptive features to survive in the unstable conditions.
Rhizophora spp. has stilt roots, for example. We identified the following adaptive features during
our trip:
1. Root Buttress-
 When there is low tide than these roots are exposed
to the air. The muddy banks have soil composition
that lack oxygen and so different plants need to
adapt this condition.
 They provide anchor to the trees.

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© Sarah
Sanabam
 2. Pneumatophores-
 These are erect roots that form the extension
of the root system.
 Oxygen can be obtained when they are
exposed during ebb tide.
 Pneumatophores of sundri tree grow more
slowly than the pencil-like ones of baen tree
and can
 They also help in anchoring the plant.

© Sarah Sanabam

3. Viviparous germination-
 The seeds germinate before
detaching from the parent plant.
 This characteristic is for the
Rhizophora spp.

© Sarah Sanabam

However, the ecology of the forest has slowly been

altering due to degradation of the mangrove forest.
The degradation is caused by natural calamities,
such as the monsoon cyclones – Sidr and Aila. The
occurrences of the cyclones have increased due to
climate change and global warming. Also, the
increase in sea levels is a threat to the degradation of
mangroves. Building of the Farakka Barrage has
altered the course of water for irrigation, which
means that there is more salinity in the water that

© Mohima Kader Page | 11

affects the plant species. Furthermore, due to lack of freshwater inflow and abnormal changes in
the tides, the sediments are not deposited into the sea. Pneumatophores, which are erect roots that
form from the extension of the root system, and obtain oxygen when exposed in ebb tides,
growth is reduced and regeneration is halted as the sediments that are stuck.

Besides the natural causes, degradation also results from anthropogenic causes. The rapidly
growing population in Sundarban has lead to exploitation of the natural resources. Some of the
activities that have caused further degradation are excessive golpata harvesting, logging of trees,
and clearing large areas for commercial purposes. Therefore, in order to prevent further
mangrove degradation, human intervention and overexploitation of natural resources by the local
communities have to be monitored and controlled.

Dhundul Tree
© Mohima Kader

Golpata
© Mohima Kader

Hantal
© Sarah Sanabam Page | 12
3.4 Coastal Communities by Mohima
The local community consists of about 3 million people who live in small villages surrounding
Sundarban. It is estimated that of the 3 million people, the area provides a livelihood at certain
seasons of the year for an estimated 300,000 people. 35,330 people work in the forest: 4,580 are
bawalis who collects timber and firewood; 1,350 are mawalis who collect honey and beeswax;
4,500 harvest other natural resources and hunt mostly deer; and the remaining 24,900 are
fishermen and shrimp farmers. Another 4,500 people are employed by contractors in the
commercial logging of sundari and other timbers. Gewa is used for pulp and paper production in
newsprint paper mills, and timbers like sundari for matches, furniture, etc.

The local people are very much dependent on the forests and waterways for charcoal, timber for
boats and furniture, poles for house-posts and rafters, nypa palm and golpata leaves for roofing,
grass for matting, shells and reptile skins for commercial use, reeds for fencing, and deer, fish,
crabs and shrimps for food. The season for collecting honey and beeswax is limited to two and a
half months commencing from 1st April. This may have been the reason we did not encounter
any mawalis during our visit. Thousands of people enter the forest with permits from the Forest
Department, for various commercial purposes especially in search of bee nests, which are
collected and then crushed to extract honey and wax.

At Kochikhali Tiger Point, we

interviewed a local resident; an elderly
person aged about 60 years. When
asked about tigers, he told us that he
had never seen a tiger in the area.
However, he claimed to have heard of
tigers passing by the banks and told us
that the tigers are shy and do not come
near the village.
Old man interviewed at Kochikhali
© Mohima Kader

Page | 13
 We also interviewed grass (shon) cultivators, who told us
about the uses of shon, golpata and hantal palm, which they
stated could be used for roofing, and making crafts after being
dried. None of them were giving clear answers about how they
cultivate the grass. The ways are illegal as they are not
allowed to cut the grasses.

Grass cultivators at Kachikhali © Sarah Sanabam

Over 10,000 fishermen come in their

boats from as far away as Chittagong
and establish temporary encampments
in various sites along the coast, where
they remain until the approach of the
monsoon season in April before
returning to their homes. Also, many
local fishermen fish year-round along
Fishermen
the coast. At at Jamtola Beach © Mohima Kader Katka Jamtoli Beach, we encountered
some local fishermen. The fishermen told us they catch mostly faisha, coral fishes and shrimps.

However, since cyclone Sidr hit Sundarban, the fishing industry has been facing a downturn.
Also, the lives of the local people have been uprooted since the cyclone. Many bawalis, and
fishermen‟s livelihoods depend on the natural resources of the forest, which were damaged by
the cyclone. The effects of cyclone Sidr on Sundarban are discussed elaborately in Section 4.3.
Excessive human interventions, such as the establishment of shrimp cultivation are playing a big
role in mangrove degradation. Besides this, excessive golpata harvesting, logging and clearing of
trees are also causing degradation, and enough trees are not being planted to replace them.
Therefore, if humans continue to clear the forest for commercial purposes, Sundarban mangroves
will face further degradation and may even lead to local extinction.

3.5 Wildlife by Sarah

Sundarban is extremely rich in the biodiversity of species. Unfortunately, the diversity is being
reduced due to many reasons (explained in Unit 4). There has been a sharp decline in the
population of Royal Bengal Tigers due to poaching and habitat loss. Despite the rapid
destruction of the mangrove forests, Sundarban does not fail to have very rich habitats perfect for
many species of wildlife. There are some indicator species that can tell us the condition of the
environment of Sundarban. For instance, the tigers and dolphin are species that can tell the
condition of two contrasting environments: land and water.

Some of the wildlife that we saw in Sundarban were deer, wild boar, rhesus macaque, birds like
egrets, brahminy kite, stork billed kingfisher, crocodiles and a glimpse of a dolphin diving in the
water. It is difficult to tell which kind of dolphin it was. There are 49 mammal species
documented so far in Sundarban. Javan rhino, water buffalo, swamp deer, gaur, hog deer, and the
gharials are extinct in Sundarban. The marsh crocodiles have declined rapidly and there is only
two surviving in Karamjal rearing station.

Many of the species have some ecological value in Sundarban. Some of them are explained
below:
Royal Bengal Tiger- There is only 1 species of tiger in the world with 8 sub-species.
Three of them are already extinct. They are at the top of the food chain which usually
means they keep the population of other secondary consumers stable. It is estimated that
in Sundarban there are 350 tigers but the accurate number is not known because the tiger‟s
ranges have become smaller and smaller. It is rarely sighted by humans.
Sundarban is the only mangrove region where these tigers survive. The numbers have
declined due to excessive hunting, poaching, human-tiger conflicts and habitat loss.
Tigers are skilled hunters. Their food consists of deer, wild boar and rhesus macaque.
The stripes help to hide the tigers when they are stalking their prey. When a tiger kills its
prey, the carcass is left for other mammals to eat like the jungle cats, civets, monitor
lizards, crows, and insects. IUCN Red List of Threatened species put the Royal Bengal
Tiger as Endangered.

Deer and Wild boar and Rhesus Macaque- They form the main food diet of the tigers.
They consume a lot of plants which impact the vegetation of Sundarban. Their droppings
provide nutrition for insects and plants and help disperse seeds so that new colonization
of plants can take place. There are an estimated 52,600 to 80,000 deer, 20,000 wild boar
and 68,200 rhesus macaque. The rhesus macaque is the only primate in Sundarban. The
chital deer is hunted for its meat and skin.

Crocodiles- There were three well known species of crocodiles in Sundarban of which
only two are surviving. The long snorted crocodiles, known as gharial, have disappeared.
Crocodile leather is the most expensive in the world and their demand has affected the
population of these large reptiles. When we went to Karamjal we saw the breeding
saltwater crocodiles, Romeo and Juliet. They are the largest of all reptiles and can reach
upto 20ft or more. Studies conducted have shown that crocodiles may be more intelligent
than lab rats. The interesting thing about Romeo and Juliet and the marsh crocodiles,
Patient 1 and 2, was that they could respond to voices. Crocodiles in the Sundarban have
major ecological value especially in the aquatic ecosystem as they feed on fishes. They
also eat birds and carrions sometimes.

Otter- There are three otter species in Sundarban of which the smooth-coated otter
probably numbers 20,000. They are of great help to fishermen as they have been
domesticated to drive fish into their nets.
Birds- One of the reasons why Sundarban is so valuable is its varieties of birds. A total of
315 species have been recorded. 95 species are waterfowl, 38 species of raptors and nine
species of kingfisher are surviving in this ecology. During our trip we spotted the stork
billed kingfisher and the blue kingfisher. Other birds like white bellied sea-eagle, grey
headed fish eagle can be spotted if fortunate. Herons, egrets, storks, sandpipers,
 whimbrel, and curlew can be seen at the muddy banks when exposed during dry season.
Species of gulls and terns are also there. Most of the birds are important to the aquatic
ecosystem but there are also important forest birds like the woodpeckers, barbets, shrikes,
drongos, mynahs, minivets, and babblers

Bees- Insect population is also varied in Sundarban but not much research has been done.
There are large numbers of honey-bees from which the mawalis (honey collectors)
heavily depend on for livelihood. The interesting fact is that these bees are migratory.
When they produce honey from collected nectar they live in Sundarban. Then they go
away to the Himalayas. This unusual behavior adds to the rich ecological value of
Sundarban.

Comments:
It is quite apparent that the wildlife found in Sundarban is very diverse and extremely valuable
because such diverse quantities are not found in any other mangrove ecosystems in the world. It
is fascinating that the ecology with saline intrusion could have such rich biodiversity. A few
ecological values of the animals mentioned above are:

Monitor lizards are scavengers as they eat up the remaining carcasses which mean they
are natural methods of waste disposals.
Other lizards like geckos feed on insects.

Snakes help to keep the rodent population stable

Birds play a number of roles like being predators, prey, pollinators and seed dispersers.

Insects are important pollinators and seed dispersers.

Each organism has important ecological niches that cannot be denied. If their web of life is
disturbed by whatever reasons they maybe the entire ecosystem is affected. Therefore, some of
these species have been protected by laws but nothing has been able to stop the extinction of
important animals like javan rhino, hog deer and single horned rhino. The reason why these
species need to be preserved and protected is because from a recent study it has been shown that
Bangladesh gets 30% of the reptiles, 37% of the birds and 34% of the mammals from Sundarban.
In 2000, a study conducted by Laskar Muqsudur Rahman for USDA Forest Service
Proceedings has brought up a table to show some of the important species:
Table 1:
Sl. No. Name Status
1. Bats Strong following among wildlife specialists.
2. Tiger Main national animal therefore of inestimable value; man killing
behavior requires urgent study.
3. Fishing cat Small but common secondary carnivore.
4. Spotted deer Continental deer but unusual habitat in mangroves therefore of
more than unusual value; harvesting may be possible.
5. Wild boar Common and with much commercial potential.
6. Barking deer Rarely seen but well represented therefore good for wildlife
specialists.
7. Crocodiles Infrequently seen but important in food chain and ecological
stability; farming may be possible.
8. Otters Of great value for biodiversity management and as a unique selling
point tourist attraction with traditional fishermen; deserve special
conservation attention in future.
9. Turtles Strong interest among wildlife conservation specialists and deserve
special attention in future; wildlife research especially to breeding
areas and to secure threatened species is now essential for urgent
action.
10. Python Infrequently seen but must be well represented. Deserve special
effort in future conservation and protection measures.
11. Dolphin Indiscriminately harvested. Should be researched and actively
protected.
3.6 Wildlife in Pictures by Sarah

Photographs by Sarah Sanabam

 Unit 4: Changes in Sundarban

In recent decades many changes have come in Sundarban for which conservation efforts have
been taken up. Factors like climate change are causing immense changes in the ecology of
Sundarban and recent tourism in Sundarban as well as cement factories has affected the ecology
in many negative ways.

The degradation of mangroves also affects the lives of fauna. Removing a species from a certain
area will lead to removal of faunal species depending upon the mangrove. If the wildlife is
limited to that area, then destroying its natural habitat may lead to its extinction. Due to
mangrove degradation in Sundarban, animals such as Royal Bengal Tigers and others are now
endangered.

Mangroves act as a shield to protect inland from natural calamities. Due to previous destructions
from cyclones like Sidr, the land inside is left unprotected. Salinity intrusion can become a very
natural occurrence now that the coastal belt is being destroyed. Further in the future, if any
cyclones hit that region, the consequences will be catastrophic.

The salinity increase in Sundarban can turn the mesohaline regions into polyhaline regions and
oligohaline regions will become small around the Baleswar River in the east. So, during the dry
season we maybe face different conditions. There is already lack of adequate supply of
freshwater and saline intrusion is highly encouraged. Sundri could be replaced by gewa and
gewa could be replaced by goran. In normal sucession, usually species would begin to grow
inland, in the higher grounds. The changes will affect the local communities who are dependent
on forest produce.

Mangroves all over the world are also threatened and disappearing. A recent study has shown
that there are only 15 million km of mangroves left from 18.1 million km in the world. 26
countries have mangroves that are going to be extinct.
We noticed the top dying of sundri trees and the effects of the cement factories on the banks of
the rivers. Some of the changes have been categorized under three sections:

4.1 Climate Change by Mohima

The coastal zones, local communities and ecosystem of Sundarban, are exposed to the various
combined effects of climate change. Some of the causes and consequences of climate change are:
Sea level rise

Salt water intrusion

Increasing cyclones and storm surges

Increasing floods and riverbank erosion

Increase in temperature and

Unpredictable weather patterns

Rises in the sea level by 25cm is expected to destroy 40% of Sundarban, and a 45cm rise would
fatally destroy 75% of the coastal areas, while wiping out the development made in the area. It
will result in the change in agricultural productivity, livelihood option and risking food security.
Besides this, the seawater is saline and the entrance of saltwater will increase the level of
salinity. This will result in decreased fresh water crops like rice.

Also, extreme weather events such as cyclones and

storm surges are major factors caused by climate
change. The coastline of Sundarban is highly
vulnerable to recurring cyclones. The enhancement
in intensities of the wind speed causes great losses
to exposed communities and fragile ecosystems. We
witnessed the destruction caused by cyclone Sidr in
Katka Jamtoli beach and Katka Obbhoyoranno
Kendro.
© Sarah Sanabam
Furthermore, an increase in sea level rise means that it brings the water line further inwards. As
a result, the affect of storm surge penetrates deeper into the landmass. Through flooding, the
rivers bring with more sediments that make the shallow riverbed even shallower, which results in
a lower capacity of the riverbed for rapid flow of the water, and thus increases flooding and
erosion of riverbanks. As the riverbanks are eroded, the vegetation is lost as there is no soil to
support them any longer.
\
Therefore, one may conclude that the Sundarban is exposed to the risks of sea level rise, saline
intrusion, and extreme weather events, which are the effects of climate change. If provided with
enough time the mangroves that are under threat and rapid change may readjust and recogonize
if space and time would permit. However, the demographic pressures in northern areas of the
Sundarban may not permit the requisite space. The rate, at which climate change related sea level
rise and saline intrusion is likely to take place, is going to be much faster than the rate at which
the mangrove ecosystem will be able to readjust and regenerate. It will result in reduction of
species and biodiversity and decrease in the areas of the mangrove forest, alongside other
consequences. The livelihoods of the coastal communities are and will continue to be affected by
sea level rise and water inundation, intrusion of salt water, increase in cyclones and water surges
as well as consequent loss of biodiversity, communication and livelihood options.

4.2 Human Intervention by Sarah

Rapid increase in population of Bangladesh has lead to

exploitation of land and forest resources. Along with
human interventions, the poor management influences a
high rate of illegal activities such as felling of trees and
killing of endangered animals.

Golpata is consumed in order to produce oil and alcohol from its fruit. The leaves of the
plants are used for roofing materials in the villages and also used to make mats. However,
they have been over exploited and so alternative means have been developed. We noticed
that many villages just outside Sundarban are planting their own golpata trees so that
most of them do not have to get inside the forest to harvest them. Otherwise, the loss of
golpata in the muddy banks will make Sundarban very vulnerable. Nypa palm makes the
forest look dense and is a great habitat for wildlife.

Logging of Sundri trees for timber and pulp can be a very common site, especially in the
eastern part of the Sundarban where Sundri trees are very dominant. Logging has been
continuing at such a rate, that changes have been picked up in the forest composition of
Sundarban. Other trees like gewa and goran may become the dominant species which will
eventually change other aspects of the ecology.

Clearing of Gewa trees from large areas were carried out in order to make pulp and
paper for a newsprint industry that has been shut down a few years ago.
Artificial Plantation is being done for aesthetic purposes, especially at the tourist spots.
If not chosen properly, these plants can be competitive and pose a threat to the mangrove
species of Sundarban.
Sundarban is a world famous tourist location. With tourists entering the depths of
forests, the amount of wastes and littering is also increasing. Not only does it hamper the
beauty of the forest, but it also hampers with the ecological processes that may lead to
degradation of soil quality of the forest.
Shrimp culture- The establishment of shrimp aquaculture ponds has grievously
threatened the mangroves. Around the world, shrimp aquaculture is responsible for 20-
50% of mangrove degradation. The scenario is the same in Sundarban. The unscientific
and excessive human interventions have already managed to wipe out the Chakaria
Sundarban in the 1990s.

Oil Spillage- One of the major man-made causes of mangrove degradation is the
exploitation of oil and gas. There have been oppositions against this exploitation of oil
and gas offshore. Moreover, boats and big ships in the Sundarban release crude oil. An
oil spillage occurred in 1994 when a Panamanian cargo ship capsized near Dangmari
Forest Station. The spillage spread out 15km and killed several seedlings of sundri and
gewa. Wildlife was affected too.
Sundarban mangrove ecosystem has a huge value but they are being destroyed in alarming rates.
Human intervention and overexploitation of forest resources by locals, converting areas into
developments for agriculture, forestry, salt extraction, urban development and infrastructure a
diversion of fresh water for irrigation help contributed immensely to the degradation of
mangroves. (Sarah 0930156)

4.3 Cyclone Effects by Shamim

Bangladesh has been experiencing more frequent and intense natural disasters since last two
decades. Its southern frontier is one of the most vulnerable regions of the world, which is
exposed to many damaging weather events as an effect of climate change and consequent
devastation of nature. The recent super cyclonic Sidr, originating in the Bay, ravaged the entire
south and south western coast with peaking winds over 220km an hour on November 15, 2007.
This coastline is home of nearly 12 million people whereas Sidr caused human loss of about
5,000 and made the survivors homeless. The eye of cyclone Sidr made landfall on the eastern
parts of Sundarban near Boleshwer River and caused havoc of wild flora and fauna of this unique
mangrove. However, it sustained the main thrust of Sidr and weakened it devastation while
crossing over the country from Bagerhat to Dhaka and Sylhet border in the north-eastern part of
the country. This blockade caused massive destruction of the forest by destroying many trees in
the coastal belt.
The natural vegetation of the Sundarban is composed mainly of halophytic tree species. The
eastern part is mainly dominated by Sundari and Gewa, which were affected by cyclone Sidr on
15 November 2007. It was estimated that around 1,900 sq km (31% of total the Sundarban area)
of area in the eastern part of the Sundarban was affected by the cyclone.. On our visit to the
Sundarban, we found many trees still lying around the forest floor. Some of the trees were
uprooted and many others were shattered into splinters. Various species, mainly Sundari and
Gewa are physically affected within this area. Many of the trees we saw were damaged badly.

4.4 Conservation Efforts

Because Sundarban is the largest mangrove forest in the world with the most productive
ecosystem it is very important to manage the forest sustainably. In the 1860s Sundarban was the
first mangrove forest that was managed scientifically. It falls under a WWF Global 200 Eco-
region.

The four ranges are guarded by 16 forest stations, 55 compartments and 9 blocks. Revenue
collection was the earliest factor that was monitored by implementing felling rules which
reduced the amount of over-cutting of the four main timber species. A wildlife conservation plan
was prepared under the joint sponsorship of the World Wildlife Fund and the US National
Zoological Park with emphasis on the conservation of tiger. This plan was in accordance to the
sustainable forest and coastal management of both timber and the local communities‟ needs.

Sundarban is categorized under Category IV of International Union for Conservation of

Nature (IUCN). During our field trip we checked whether the current situation of the
management of Sundarban forests was actually falling under Category IV or not. The category
says the forests must be managed nature reserve. Its primary objective is „To maintain,
conserve and restore species and habitats.‟ We think the category IV is right for
Sundarban. Conservation efforts for internationally important species like the Royal Bengal
Tiger, dolphins and turtles are going on. Key species and habitats need to be protected by
practical conservation strategies.
One of the main problems is the lack of availability of data on Sundarban. So, some intensive
data collecting projects have been taken with the goal to integrate conservation of wildlife. In the
late 1990s a plan was raised to manage the area where buffer zones were recommended to limit
access to some areas. An Integrated Sundarbans Management Plan was prepared under the
Sundarbans Biodiversity Conservation Project. This was funded by the Asian Development
Bank. Moreover, because Sundarban is a Reserved Forest unless permitted, no activity can take
place by humans inside the forest. The Forest Department issues entry permission and collection
of forest produce. Normally, hunting permits would also be given under the Bangladesh Wildlife
Preservation Act, 1974 but in reality none has been issued in Sundarban. Hunting is not
permitted legally but illegally hunting still takes place.

A recent study by IPAC has shown that the concept of co-management for the conservation of
the ecology and benefits for the poor communities of the surrounding Sundarban areas are not
known amongst the locals. A few have been recorded as saying that the co-management program
would help in involving the locals more and resist the pressure from external powerful
people/industries that destroy the natural resources of the forest for profits.

The study also revealed that the perspectives of these communities are very important to design a
co-management program for Sundarban. More than two-fifths of the population is in extreme
poverty and a co-management program will help tackle this situation. A few factors that need to
be considered for a successful co-management program for the preservation of the forest as
well as local communities are:

Role of local institutions- The roles of Union Parishad and Upazila Parishad are very
important for protecting the forests and improving the livelihood of the people. Many of
the politicians under these local government institutions are not involved in managing
and conserving the forest. Without their participation any conservation effort would not
be successful or sustainable.
Ownership of the local people- The local communities need to feel responsible for the
management of the forest. For their involvement in conservation work they need to know
 they play a role in preserving the ecology and improving their livelihood. The benefit is
for them and for the ecology. This idea needs to be established in the participants of any
conservation project in Sundarban. A policy framework needs to be adopted in order to
confirm their participation.

Natural hazards- The natural hazards that hit Sundarban cause a lot of problems for the
poor communities. This in turn forces them to exploit the forests even more which is
many times done illegally. So the effects of natural calamities need to be addressed for a
successful forest co-management.

Alternative livelihood means for fish fry collectors- Many of the communities are
involved in fishing. An alternative livelihood means should be provided. If the FD could
issue permits and licenses for seasonal fishing only would be of great help.

One other conservation project that is currently going on in Sundarban is the Sundarbans Tiger
Project. It is a joint tiger conservation program of the Wildlife Trust of Bangladesh (WTB) and
Zoological Society of London (ZSL). They used a research base first to get information on the
tiger population, behavior, habitat and current problems. Then, a conservation program was
drawn:

Improve basic ecological understanding, data collection skills and general

motivation of Forest Department staff working in the Sundarbans; this is being
done through field training, workshops, presentations and the development of a
field handbook and a short documentary film.
Enable the forest department to carry out scientific research and monitoring of
tigers; this is being enables through the experience gained through the day to
Capacity day activities of the research team
Enable the Forest Department to deal with problem tigers; this is being done
through the creation of a problem tiger response team and a communications
network throughout the human settlements bordering the Sundarbans.
 GENERAL PUBLIC: through this web site, newspape articles, TV reports,
books, films
Increasing TOURISTS: through presentations, literature and hopefully in the future a
conservatio visitors center
n awareness SCHOOLS & UNIVERSITIES: through field trips, work opportunities,
presentations and the production of educational materials
LOCAL COMMUNITIES: through presentations and free educational
material

When we visited the Karamjal deer and crocodile rearing station we witnessed some of the
conservation efforts for the survival of the saltwater crocodiles. Their ecological value is not
understood by many. The increase in salinity in the waterways, hunting, overcutting of
vegetation and other reasons are raising questions about the few estuarine crocodiles left in
Sundarban. The effect is not limited to just a change in the aesthetic view of the ecology and the
local communities but each and every organism, like the estuarine crocodile, are heavily
impacted.

Conservation efforts are the only ways Sundarban forests can be returned its original ecological
importance. Maybe, most of it cannot be recovered but we must all we can to repopulate the
important species in Sundarban. There are natural causes for some changes in Sundarban but we
are responsible for some of the adverse effects. Projects like Sundarban Tiger Project and
funding from organizations like WWF and the implementation of Co-management are so
important. There is immense scope for research in Sundarban. If researches are not done any
conservation effort will be successful.
 Unit 5: Drawbacks & Conclusion

For the study we carried out in Sundarban we faced some drawbacks. They are:

Lack of eco-guides- We did not have guides to explain to us about the ecology. The
forest guards were also not adequately equipped with verified information.
Press of time- We were following a particular organized set of events that were set by
Your Bangla Tour so we had no scope of staying longer in one location. The trip was not
particularly designed for intense field work.

However, because this was our first trip to Sundarban, we were very satisfied with whatever data
we could collect for our field report. For more field study we would need to go back and we are
very eager to work further on Sundarban.

For about 4000 years, Sundarban has been thriving in the Indo-Malayan region and formed by
the silt carried down from the Himalayas by big rivers like the Ganges and Brahmaputra. Now,
this venerable ecosystem is under threat. We witnessed the changes in Sundarban and our
experience there is unforgettable. We were able to study such a diverse coastal ecology that
Bangladesh is fortunate to have. Sadly, its ecological value is hardly understood.

We believe this trip was successful and we have only just begun to understand the importance of
this mangrove ecosystem and explored the conservation strategies that need to be adopted to
preserve the remaining forests of Sundarban. There is a lot more that can be done to study the
mangrove ecology. Sundarban is a living, thriving, unique, diverse and complex coastal region
that holds a lot of ecological value as well as social and economical value for Bangladesh and
must not be, at any cost, be lost.
 Section 6: References

1. The Sundarbans: A Unique Wilderness of the World by Laskar Muqsudur Rahman

2. The Sundarbans, Bangladesh- IUCN

3. IPAC Volume 1: Report- A Study of the Principal Marketed Value

Chains derived from the Sundarbans Reserved Forest

4. Impact of climate change on “Sundarbans”, the largest mangrove forest: ways forward by

Syed Azizul Haq

5. The Sundarban of Bangladesh by Equity and Justice Working Group (EJWG)

6. www.sundarbantigerproject.info