MODULE I

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

PART ONE
The development of curriculum in history is basically founded on five outstanding motives,
namely:
(1) the religious,
(2) the political,
(3) The utilitarian,
(4) The mass education motive, and
(5) The motive for excellence in education.
The conflicting theories and philosophers that have influenced the changes in the curriculum
offerings at different periods of history in different countries have been based on these
motives.
THE CURRICULUM: DIFFERENT DIMENSION
The traditional Versus Modern Dimension of the Curriculum
Curriculum Planning
Curriculum Development
Curriculum Laboratory
Course of Study

Activities:

 Differentiate the Traditional from the Modern Concepts of Curriculum

ANSWER:
Differences between Traditional and Modern concept of cican be both associated with a partial
method of instruction and learning, which is only limited to the resources at hand. Though
more cost-effective, it is a restricted method of thinking, allowing the students only to learn at
the pace of their better counterparts and instructors, and has created the need for a better
alternative unwrapped by the dawn of a technological and experimental method: the modern
educational system. With this new avant-garde methodology, each student can learn in relation
to his natural innate strength and speed, albeit untested and not completely proven.
Traditional education only ensures the transition of a cliché; a stereotyped manner of learning
in which nothing new is discovered because the information-gathering means is absent and at
the same time, no data is present to collate pre-existing observations and thus, the same kind
of knowledge and thought is transferred. In modern education, information from observations
with regards to any issue no matter how old or distant it may be can be obtained using the
internet. One of the shortcomings of the modern education system is that it tends to be
somehow expensive. The collation of data need for latest technological updates and cost of
research has often been a bone of contention.
Traditional education system often needs the physical presence of a teacher which may not be
necessary for the modern education system. Likewise, the traditional educational system seems
to isolate the children from the society, constricting their interactions to only their environment
and physical neighbour hood with a common routine and conventional approach to
disseminate information which the modern education rather defeat by exploiting the use of
technological gadgets, textbooks and other diagrammatic materials in exposing the student to a
worldwide view of learning.

 Research and discuss briefly the following Terms

a. Curriculum Plan
Often, life seems so dynamic and hectic in the classroom that it can seem like all plans
may go astray. As a teacher, it's easy to get wrapped up in daily life and forget about the
big picture, and the big picture is the curriculum. In other words, the curriculum is the
sum total of skills and principles learned both directly and implicitly by students. It is
entirely understandable to lose track of the big picture of a curriculum plan, but at the
same time, having an overarching plan is an important way to ensure that you do not
lose track of what matters most in a specific study unit. Your teaching will be based on
sensitive curriculum preparation, and it will also make it easier to find out what tasks,
assignments, and lessons you do every day. Join Mr. Geller's inexperienced teacher
when he figures out what curriculum preparation is.
b. Curriculum Guide
Teachers should not enter the classroom because they don't know what to say and
when to teach it. It'd be messy if schooling worked that way! Instead, by developing a
curriculum document, a guide that describes what material teachers need to cover,
states, districts, and individual schools help determine what material teachers cover.
While a curriculum guide can vary from very detailed to a general outline, while
preparing, teachers from early childhood education to the professional world use them
for guidance.

c. Curriculum Planning
Curriculum preparation refers to a curriculum being developed. The meaning of what a
program is is not clear. Some concepts are more based on student events e.g. the
expected participation of learners is a program. Some are more topic-centered, e.g.
"curriculum is the subject matter taught to students or the arrangement of teaching
materials. In addition, curriculum can refer to what a school or educational system
prescribes for a particular group of students or what the teacher does in class In general,
however, curriculum refers to a macro level as opposed to a meso level or a micro
level."
d. Curriculum Development
It is the structured planning of something that is going to be learned at a given time in a
given year in schools. As manuals for students, they are made into official documents
and made mandatory by provincial and territorial departments.
e. Curriculum Laboratory
Organizations for the research, preparation, and development of curricular materials are
created with staff facilities and materials. It provides a place to find curriculum and
instruction details.
f. Course Study
an integrated course of academic studies; "he was admitted to a new program at the
university" and education imparted in a series of lessons or meetings; "he took a course
in basket weaving"; "flirting is not unknown in college classes"
 MODULE II
CONCEPTS, NATURE AND PURPOSES
PART TWO
1. Find out the meaning of Curriculum from different points of view.

 Curriculum from Traditional Points of View:

Curriculum is a body of subjects or subject matter prepared by the teachers for the students to
learn. A "course of study" and "syllabus." It is a field of study. It is made up of its foundations
(philosophical, historical, psychological and social foundations; domains, of knowledge as well
as its research and principles.

The traditional points of view of curriculum were advanced by:

Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as "permanent studies" where the rules of grammar,
reading rhetoric and logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. Basic
education should emphasize the 3 Rs and college education should be grounded on liberal
education.

Arthur Bestor as an essentialist, believes that the mission of the school should be intellectual
training, hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual discipline of
grammar, literature and writing. It should also include mathematics, science history and
foreign language.

 Curriculum from Progressive Points of View:

Curriculum is what is taught in school, a set of subjects, a content, a program of studies, a set
of materials, a sequence of courses, a set of performance objectives, everything that goes
within the school. It is what is taught inside and outside of school directed by the teacher,
everything planned by school, a series of experiences undergone by learners in school or
what individual learner experiences as a result of school. In short, Curriculum is the learning
experiences of the learner, under the guidance of the teacher.

John Dewey's definition of experience and education. He believed that reflective thinking is
a means that unifies curricular elements. Thought is not derived from action but tested by
application.

Holin Caswell and Kenn Campbell viewed curriculum as "all experience children have under
the guidance of a teacher".
 Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and Harlan Shore likewise defined curriculum as a
sequence of potential experiences, set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining
children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting

Colin Marsh and George Willis on the other hand view curriculum as all the "experiences in
the classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher, and also learned by the
students".

2. The Different types of Curriculum operating in schools.

 RECOMMENDED CURRICULUM
Almost all curricula found in our schools are recommended. For basic education, these are
recommended by the Department of Education (DepEd), for Higher Education, by the
Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and for the vocational education by TESDA. These
three government agencies oversee and regulate Philippine education. The
recommendation
come in the form of memoranda or policies, standards and guidelines. Other professional
organization or intentional bodies like UNESCO also recommend curricula in schools.

 WRITTEN CURRICULUM
This includes documents based on the recommended curriculum. They come in the form of
course of study, syllabi, modules, books or instructional guides among other. A packet of
this written curriculum in the teacher’s lesson plan. The most recent written curriculum is
the K to 12 for Philippine Basic Education

 TAUGHT CURRICULUM
From what has been written or planned, the curriculum has to be implemented or taught.
The teacher and the learners will put life to the written curriculum. The skill of the teacher
to facilitate the learning based on the written curriculum with the aid of instructional
materials and facilities will be necessary. The taught curriculum will depend largely on the
teaching style of the teacher and the learning style of the learners.

 SUPPORTED CURRICULUM
This is described as support materials that the teacher needs to make learning and teaching
meaningful. These include print materials like books, charts, posters, worksheets, or non-
print materials like power point presentation, movies, slides, models, realias, mock-ups, and
other electronic illustrations. Supported curriculum also includes facilities where learning
occurs outside or inside the four walled building. These include the playground, science
laboratory , audio visual rooms, zoo, museum, market or the plaza. These are the places
where authentic learning through direct experiences occur.
 ASSESSED CURRICULUM
Taught and supported curricula have to be evaluated to find out if the teacher has
succeeded or not in facilitating learning. In the process of teaching and at the end of every
lesson or teaching episode, an assessment is made. It can either be assessment of learning.
If the process is to find the progress of learning, then the assessed curriculum is for the
learning, but if it is to find out how much has been learned or mastered, then it is
assessment of learning. Either way, such curriculum is the assessed curriculum.

 LEARNED CURRICULUM
How do we know if the student has learned? We always believe that id a student change
behavior, he/she has learned. For example, from a non- reader to a reader or from not
knowing to knowing or from disobedient to obedient. The positive outcome of teaching is
an indicator of learning. These are measured by tools in assessment, which can indicate the
cognitive, affective and psychomotor outcomes. Learned curriculum will also demonstrate
higher order and critical thinking and lifelong skills.

 HIDDEN CURRICULUM
This curriculum is not deliberately planned, but has a great impact on the behavior of the
learner. Peer influence, school environment, media, parental pressures, social changes,
cultural practices, natural calamities, are some factors that create the hidden curriculum.
Teachers should be sensitive and aware of this hidden curriculum. Teachers us have good
foresight to occlude these in the written curriculum, in order to bring to the surface what
are hidden.
In every teacher’s classroom, not all these curricula may be present at one time. Many of
them are deliberately planned, like the recommended, written, taught, supported,
assessed, and learned curricula. However, a hidden curriculum implied., and a teacher may
or may not be able to predict its influence on learning. All of these have significant role on
the life of the teacher as a facilitator of learning and have direct implication to the life of the
learners.
3. Discuss the four (4) major foundation of Curriculum.

 Perrenialism
To educate rational person to cultivate the intellect Teacher held student think with reason.
Based on Socratic method of oral exposition or recitation. Explicit or deliberate teaching of
traditional values Use of great books and return to liberal arts.

 Essentialism
To promote the intellectual growth of the individual and educate a competent person The
teacher is the sole authority in his or her subject area or field of specialization Essential skills
of the 3Rs and essential subject of English, Science, history, Math and Foreign Language
Excellence in education, back to basic and cultural literacy.
 Progressivism
To promote democratic and social living Knowledge leads to growth and development of
lifelong learners who actively learn by doing Subjects are interdisciplinary, integrative and
interactive. Curriculum is focused on students’ interest, human problems and affairs School
reforms, relevant and contextualized curriculum, humanistic education.

 Reconstructionism
To improve and reconstruct society Education for change Teachers act as agents of change
and reforms in various educational projects including research Focus on present and future
trends and issues of national and international interests Equality of educational
opportunities in education, access to global education.

4. Find different educational philosophy and its contribution to education.

 John Locke and the Tabula Rasa-

Locke(1632-1704), an English philosopher and physician, proposed that the mind was a
blank slate or  tabula rasa. This states that men are born without innate ideas, and that
knowledge comes from experience and perception, as opposed to predetermined good
and evil nature, as believed by other thinkers.On his treatise “Some Thoughts Concerning
Education”, he emphasized that the knowledge taught during younger years are more
influential than those during maturity because they will be the foundations of the human
mind. Due to this process of associations of ideas, he stressed out that punishments are
unhealthy and educators should teach by examples rather than rules.
This theory on education puts him on a clash with another widely accepted philosophy,
backed by another brilliant mind.

 Immanuel Kant and Idealism

They never lived at the same time, but history always put Locke and Kant on a dust up.A
famed German thinker, Kant (1724–1804) was an advocate of public education and of
learning by doing, a process we call training. As he reasons that these are two vastly
different things.He postulated “Above all things, obedience is an essential feature in the
character of a child…”. As opposed to Locke, he surmises that children should always obey
and learn the virtue of duty, because children’s inclination to earn or do something is
something unreliable. And transgressions should always be dealt with punishment, thus
enforcing obedience.Also, he theorized that man, naturally, has a radical evil in their
nature. And learning and duty can erase this.

 Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Emile

Plato said that each individual is born with skills appropriate to different castes, or functions
of society. Though Rousseau (1712-1778), a Genevan intellect and writer, paid respects to
the ancient philosopher, he rejected this thinking. He believed that there was one
developmental procedure common to man; it was a built-in, natural process which the main
behavioral manifestation is curiosity.
 On his book, Emile, Rousseau outlines the process of an ideal education through a
hypothetical boy of the titular name, from twelve years of age to the time he marries a
woman. Critics said this work of his foreshadowed most modern system of education we
have now.

 Mortimer J. Adler and the Educational Perrenialism

Adler (1902- 2001) was an American philosopher and educator, and a proponent of
Educational Perennialism. He believed that one should teach the things that one deems to
be of perpetual importance. He proposed that one should teach principles, not facts, since
details of facts change constantly.  And since people are humans, one should teach them
about humans also, not about machines, or theories.
He argues that one should validate the reasoning with the primary descriptions of
popular experiments. This provides students with a human side to the scientific discipline,
and demonstrates the reasoning in deed.

 William James and Pragmatism

William James (1842-1910), an American psychologist and philosopher, ascribed to the
philosophy of pragmatism.  He believed that the value of any truth was utterly dependent
upon its use to the person who held it. He maintained that the world is like a mosaic of
different experiences that can only be interpreted through what he calls as “Radical
empiricism”.This means that no observation is completely objective. As the mind of the
observer and the act of observing will simply just affect the outcome of the observation.

 John Dewey and the Progressivism

Dewey (1859-1952), an American philosopher, psychologist and educational reformer, was
a proponent of Educational Progressivism.He held that education is a “participation of the
individual in the social consciousness of the race”, and that it has two sides; the
psychological, which forms the basis of the child’s instincts,  and the sociological, on which
the instinct will be used to form the basis of what is around him. He postulated that one
cannot learn without motivation.

 Nel Noddings and the Ethics of Care

A notable American feminist, educationalist, and philosopher, Noddings (1929-Present) is
best known in her work Ethics of Care .The Ethic s of Care establishes the obligation, and the
sense, to do something right when others address us. We do so because either we love and
respect those that address us or we have significant regard for them. In that way, the
recipients of care must respond in a way that authenticates their caring has been received.
The same goes for education. As teachers respond to the needs of students, they may
design a differentiated curriculum because as teachers work closely with students, they
should respond to the students’ different needs and interests. This response should not be
based on a one time virtuous decision but an ongoing interest in the student’s welfare.
 Jean Piaget and the Genetic Epistemology
Piaget (1896-1980), a Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher, was recognized for
his epistemological studies with children, and the establishment of Genetic epistemology. It
aims to explain knowledge, on the basis of its history, its sociogenesis, and particularly, the
psychological origins of the notions and operations upon which it is based.Piaget concluded
he could test epistemological questions by studying the development of thought and action
in children. Because of this, he created Genetic epistemology with its own approaches and
questions.

 Allan Bloom and The Closing of the American Mind

American philosopher, classicist, and academic Allan David Bloom (1930-1992) is notable for
his  criticism of contemporary American higher education in his bestselling 1987 book, The
Closing of the American Mind. He stresses how “higher education has failed democracy and
impoverished the souls of today’s students.” For him, this failure of contemporary liberal
education lead to impotent social and sexual habits of today’s students and that commercial
pursuits had become more highly regarded than love, the philosophic quest for truth, or the
civilized pursuits of honor and glory.

 Rudolf Steiner and the Anthroposophy

Rudolf Joseph Lorenz Steiner (1 861-1925) was an Austrian philosopher and social reformer,
and founder of Anthroposophy. His philosophy highlights a balanced development of
cognitive, artistic, and practical skills. He divides education into three developmental stages.
Early childhood, where teachers offer practical activities and a healthy environment.
Elementary, which is primarily arts-based, centered on the teacher’s creative jurisdiction.
And Secondary, which seeks to develop the judgment, reasoning, and practical idealism.

5. Cite different philosophers who contributed their work in the development of curriculum.

 Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)

Bobbit believes that the learning objectives, together with the activities, should be grouped
and sequenced after clarifying the instructional activities and tasks. He also views curriculum
as a science that emphasizes the needs of the students. This viewpoint explains why lessons
are planned and organized depending on the needs of the students and these needs must be
addressed by the teachers to prepare them for adult life.

 Werret Charters (1875-1952)

Aside from emphasizing the students’ needs, he believes that the objectives, along with the
corresponding activities, should be aligned with the subject matter or content. For that
reason, department chairpersons or course coordinators scrutinize the alignment or
matching of objectives and subject matter prepared by the faculty members.
 William Kilpatrick (1871-1965)
For him, the purpose of curriculum is child development, growth, and social relationship. He
also introduced the use of small group interaction, and the project method in which the
teacher and students plan together. Thus, it is called as the child-centered curriculum.

 Harold Rugg (1886-1960)

He introduced the concept of the development of the whole child, the inclusion of social
studies, and the importance of curriculum planning in advance.

 Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)

He believes that subject matter is developed around the interest of the learners and their
social functions. So, the curriculum is a set of experiences. Learners must experience what
they learn.

 Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)

And as to the hallmark of curriculum development as a science, Ralph Tyler believes that
curriculum should revolve around the students’ needs and interests. The purpose of
curriculum is to educate the generalists and not the specialists, and the process must involve
problem solving. Likewise, subject matter is planned in terms of imparting knowledge, skills
and values among students.

 Hilda Taba ( 1902-1967)

She contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical foundations of concepts development
and critical thinking in social studies curriculum. She helped lay the foundation for diverse
student population.

 Peter Oliva (1992-2012)

He described how curriculum change Is a cooperative endeavor. Teachers and curriculum
specialist constitute the professional core of planners. Significant improvement is achieved
through group activity.

MODULE III
 COMPONENTS AND CURRICULAR APPROACHES

This will introduce you the elements and some curricular approaches. The nature of the
elements and the manner in which they are organized may comprise which we call a curriculum
design.
A curriculum approach shows the viewpoints of curriculum development and design,
the role of the learner, the teacher, the curriculum specialist in planning the curriculum. It also
includes the goals and objectives of the curriculum.
Activities:

1. Discuss the four (4) components of curriculum.

Component No. 1- Behavioral Objectives or Intended Learning Outcomes.

Begin with the end in view. The objectives or intended learning outcomes are the
reasons for undertaking the learning lesson from the student’s point of view; it is desired
learning outcome that is to be accomplished in a particular learning episode, engaged in the
learners under the guidance of the teacher. As a curriculum designer, the beginning of the
learning journey is the learning outcomes to be achieved. In this way both the learner and the
teacher are guided by what to accomplish.
Component No. 2- Content or the Subject Matter.
It discusses on how we will know if students have achieved the desired understandings
and skills. At this point, thought is given to what assessment evidence will document that the
desired learning has taken place. On the other hand, a curriculum writer should advocate
considering a wide range of evidence and assessment methods ranging from informal checks
for understanding to complex performance tasks and projects. It isthis stage that is probably
the most “backward” for instructors. There is a strong tendency not to think about assessment
until toward the end of a topic or unit or course. Considering assessment as evidence of
learning, and considering it before teaching, puts assessment not only in a new place, but in a
new light.
One of the most critical decisions educational leaders make is the selection of a subject
curriculum. Mostly teachers rely on curriculum materials as their primary tool for teaching. If a
topic is not included in the curriculum materials they use, there is a good chance that teachers
will not cover it and students will not learn it. Others argue that how material is presented in
curricula-that is, the pedagogical approach through which students are expected to learn the
content—is of equal importance to what topics are covered. Finally, in today’s policy
environment, leaders cannot ignore the amount of professional development that will be
required for teachers to learn to implement the curriculum well and research evidence on the
effectiveness of curricula in producing student learning.

Component No. 3- States on Curriculum Experience.

 I learned that being one of the educators, it is my task to center my instruction to
curriculum experiences. Instructional experiences needs to be planned and putting the teacher
and students as center of instruction. Since acceptable evidence has already been considered,
the learning experiences are designed to enable students to produce the desired results.
Teaching is viewed as a means to an end, not an end in itself.
Based on my research, I have found out that Wiggins and McTighe suggest asking the
following questions during this stage:
1. What enabling knowledge and skills will students need to perform effectively and achieve
desired results?
2. What activities will equip students with the needed knowledge and skills?
3. What will need to be taught and coached, and how should it best be taught, in light of
performance goals?
4. What materials and resources are best suited to accomplish these goals?
5. Is the overall design and effective?

Component No. 4 - Curriculum Evaluation.

I learned that to be effective, the curriculum that I want to implement must have an
element of evaluation. In every situation, there is a need to evaluate for this is the process of
informing/updating about what had happened to the curriculum that was being implemented.
I found out on the ability to reflect on my learning to be a cyclical process. My
reflections often affected on the teaching process, and thus more reflecting, which also
provided a new topic to replicate about. I have come to believe that this process of reflection
has helped me grow both as a learner and teacher, and I will always value the self-reflection
process. It provides a venue for me to self-evaluate, raise awareness of important issues,
encourage my own intellectual curiosity, and keep the learning/teaching dynamic.
Reflecting about everything from classroom management to the community of the
school, I have included a selection of reflections that encapsulate some of my thinking
throughout my student teaching experience thus processes under the components of
curriculum and curriculum approaches is very important. They are just guide to have a very
good product towards a nice curriculum.

2. Study and give the five (5) curriculum approaches.

1. Behavioral Approach.
This is based on a blueprint, where goals and objectives are specified, contents and
activities are also arranged to match with the learning objectives. The learning outcomes are
evaluated in terms of goals and objectives set at the beginning. This approach started with the
idea of Frederick Taylor which is aimed to achieve efficiency. In education, behavioral approach
begins with educational plans that start with the setting of goals or objectives. These are the
important ingredients in curriculum implementation as evaluating the learning outcomes as a
change of behavior. The change of behavior indicates the measure of the accomplishment.

2. Managerial Approach.
 In this approach, the principal is the curriculum leader and at the same time
instructional leader who is supposed to be the general manager. The general manager sets the
policies and priorities, establishes the direction of change and innovation, and planning and
organizing curriculum and instruction. School administrators are less concerned about the
content than about organization and implementation. They are less concerned about subject
matter, methods and materials than improving the curriculum. Curriculum managers look at
curriculum changes and innovations as they administer the resources and restructure the
schools.
Some of the roles of the Curriculum Supervisors are the following:
a. help develop the school's education goals
b. plan curriculum with students, parents, teachers and other stakeholders
c. design programs of study by grade levels
d. plan or schedule classes or school calendar
e. prepare curriculum guides or teacher guides by grade level or subject area
f. help in the evaluation and selection of textbooks
g. observe teachers
h. assist teachers in the implementation of the curriculum
i. encourage curriculum innovation and change
j. develop standards for curriculum and instructional evaluation

3. Systems Approach.
This was influenced by systems theory, where the parts of the total school district or
school are examined in terms of how they relate to each other. The organizational chart of the
school represents a systems approach. It shows the line-staff relationships of personnel and
how decisions are made. The following are of equal importance: a) administration b) counseling
c) curriculum d) instruction e) evaluation.

4. Humanistic Approach.
This approach is rooted in the progressive philosophy and child-centered movement. It
considers the formal or planned curriculum and the informal or hidden curriculum. It considers
the whole child and believes that in curriculum the total development of the individual is the
prime consideration. The learner s at the center of the curriculum
.
 MODULE IV
TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESSES AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

One of the most often repeated definition of a curriculum is that curriculum is the total
learning experience. This description implies that the crux of a curriculum is the different
planned and unplanned activities which have been lived, acted upon or done by the learners
with the guidance of the teacher. Hence in curriculum development, the teaching and learning
are actions necessary to accomplish a goal in education.

Activities:

1. Discuss the difference between teaching and learning as a process in curriculum.

Teaching as a Process in Curriculum

What do you know about teaching? What knowledge is needed to understand this
process? Teaching as a Process in Curriculum Good teaching is difficult to agree upon. While it
remains to be difficult to agree on what good teaching is, effective teaching can be
demonstrated. Effective teaching is one that will bring about the intended learning outcomes.
Traditionalists believe that…
 Teaching is a process of imparting and skills required to master a subject matter. It is a
process of dispensing knowledge to an empty vessel which is the mind of the learner.
 Teaching is showing, telling, giving instruction, making someone understand in order to
learn. In this instance, the person who teaches, controls learning.
 Teaching is now perceived as stimulating, directing, guiding the learner and evaluating
the learning outcomes of teaching. The teacher’s role in teaching becomes complex but
has given the learner the responsibility to learn.

Teaching then is a process that enables the learner to learn on his/her own. The
teacher now becomes a decision maker in the teaching process. Let us look at the teaching
process as a series of actions from PLANNING, IMPLEMENTING and EVALUATING

PLAN EVALUATEIMPLEMENT Feedback Reflection

In teaching, the planning phase includes decision about

1. The needs of the learners

2. The achievable goals and objectives to meet the needs
3. The selection of the content to be taught
4. The motivation to carry out the goals
5. The strategies most fit to carry out the goals and,
6. The evaluation process to measure learning outcomes.
 The implementation phase requires the teacher to implement what has been planned.
Base on the objectives, implementation means to put into action the different activities in order
to achieve the objectives through the subject matter. Hence, two important players are
involved: the teacher and the learner. Their interaction is important in the accomplishment of
the plan.

In the evaluation phase, a match of the objectives with the learning outcomes will be
made. The kind of information should be determined so that the type of evaluation should be
chosen to fit the purpose. To give a feedback is to give information as to whether the three
phases were appropriately done and gave good results.

Reflection is a process embedded in teaching where the teacher inquires into his or her
actions and provides deep and critical thinking.

On the basis of the diagram, basic assumptions can be made. These assumptions are:

1. The teaching is goal-oriented with the change of behavior as the ultimate end;
2. That teachers are the ones who shape actively their own actions;
3. The teaching is a rational and a reflective process; and
4. That teachers by their actions can influence learners to change their own thinking
or desired behavior, thus teaching is a way of changing behavior through the
intervention of the teacher.

Indicators which you can use to guide in the process of good teaching.
• Good teaching is one that is well planned and where activities are interrelated to each
other.
• Good teaching is one that provides learning experiences or situations that will ensure
understanding, application and critical thinking.
• Good teaching is based on the theories of learning.
• Good teaching is one where the learner is stimulated to think and reason

Indicators which you can use to guide in the process of good teaching.
• Good teaching utilizes prior learning and its application to new situations.
• Good teaching is governed by democratic principles.
• Good teaching embeds a sound evaluation process.

Learning as a Process in Curriculum “To teach, is to make someone to learn.”

What is learning?
What are the ways of learning?
When do say that we have learned?

Learning is usually defined as a change in an individual’s behavior caused by experiences or

self-activity. It implies that learning can only happen through the individual’s activity or his/her
own doing. Most learning is intentional, like when a learner acquires knowledge in the
classroom or when one observes a demonstration activity. Intentional learning occurs when
activities are purposefully arranged for the students to participate and experience.

Two principal types of learning theories

• behavioral learning theories

• cognitive learning theories

Behavioral Learning Theories It emphasize observable behavior such as new skills, knowledge,
or attitudes which can be demonstrated

Early Behavioral Learning Theories

 Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory

 Edward Thorndike’s Law of Learning
 BF Skinner’s Operant Conditioning.
 Albert Bandura’s modeling or observational learning

Cognitive Models
• Jerome bruner (1966)
• David Ausubel (1968)
• Robert Gagne (1970)
Described three models of teaching which are anchored on the cognitive learning theory.

Discovery learning of Jerome Bruner

• Learners are inherently curious, thus they can be self motivated until they find
answers to the problems.
• Learners, when actively involved in their own learning, will continuously construct
their own knowledge.
• Learning is flexible, exploratory and independent.

Reception learning of David Ausubel

• though learners are inherently curious, they may not be able to know what is
important or relevant and they need external motivation in order to learn
• learners should be actively involved in their own learning
• learning is important in order to learn new things and because knowledge
continuously changes once it is in the learner’s mind.

Events of Learning of Robert Gagne

1. Motivation phase – the learner must be motivated to learn by expectation that
learning will be rewarding.
2. Apprehending phase – the learner attends or pays attention if learning has to take
place.
 3. Acquisition phase – while the learner is paying attention, the stage is set and the
information presented. Learner transforms information into meaningful form. The
mental images formed associates the new information with old information. This is
where advance organizers are useful.
4. Retention phase – the newly acquired information must be transferred from short-
term to long—term memory. This may take place by means of practice, elaboration or
rehearsal.
5. Recall phase – Recall previous learned information. To learn to gain access to that
which has been learned is a critical phase in learning.
6. Generalization phase - Transfer of information to new situations allows application of
the learned information in the context which it was learned.
7. Feedback phase – Students must receive feedback on their performance. This will
serve as reinforce for successful performance.

Some general statements which describe learning based on the theories of learning may
include the following.

• Learning does not take place in an empty vessel. Each learner is assumed to have prior
learning and maybe able to connect these to present learning.
• Learning is a social process where interactions with other learners and teacher are
needed.
• Learning as a result of individual experiences and self-activity.
• Learning is both observable and measurable.
• Learning takes place when all the senses are utilized.
• Learning will be enhanced when the learner is stimulated, directed, guided and
feedback is immediately given.
• Each learner has his/her own learning styles.

2. Give some ways of doing in Teaching and learning process.

 Learning by Trial and Error -this type of is related to the stimulus-response theory of
learning
 Learning by Insight -from a simple trial and error learning to leaning by conditioning,
educational psychologists believe that human being learn also by insight.
 Learning by observation and imitation through modeling -this process of learning
assumes that one learns from someone .
 Teaching and Learning in the Curriculum
 Learning by Conditioning -the classical conditioning theory of Pavlov serves as the basic
of this learning
 MODULE V
CURRICULUM DESIGN MODELS
As a teacher, one has to be a curriculum designer, curriculum implementor and a
curriculum evaluator. These three fold functions are embedded in the teaching profession.
Every single day, a teacher plans, implements and evaluates the curriculum in school. Hence it
would be great help to know how school curricula are being made or crafted.

Crafting a curriculum is like writing a lesson plan. It is like making something with the
different components, and putting them together in a very creative way. it is a task that all
teachers should know and understand, or better still, to know how to craft one.

ACTIVITIES;

1. Discuss the curriculum design as follow to structures.

Curriculum Needs of Physically Handicapped Children 

Some pupils of schools for the physically handicapped, though with physical disabilities,
can learn the mainstream curriculum without special problems as their learning abilities are not
affected. However, over half of the pupils are affected by various degrees of mental or
perceptual-motor limitations besides difficulties in movements. So when planning curriculum
and implementation strategies we should take into consideration their individual differences in
abilities in movement, communication, daily living skills, social competency, studies and career
development after leaving school. At the same time, with the goal of integration, the curriculum
for these special schools cannot depart completely from the mainstream curriculum. To meet
these requirements, some principles for consideration when designing the curriculum are
suggested below：

Some Principles to Consider when Devising the Curriculum Framework and Selecting the
Curriculum Content

Be pupil oriented. The learning content should match with the characteristics of
individual pupils (age, mental and physical abilities).
Emphasis is placed on the total and balanced development of pupils. The curriculum should be
made up of academic, cultural and practical subjects. Elements related to basic skills, daily living
skills and preparation for school leaving should be stressed. Moreover, learning areas should be
inter-related rather than compartmentalized.
 Every segment of school life is part of the curriculum. School routine should be carefully
planned so that pupils can learn and practise any time in school.
The curriculum should prepare pupils to integrate in ordinary environment regarding daily
living, schooling and future employment.
Since every special school has its unique background, mission, admission criteria,
environment, equipment, etc., so curriculum development, besides following a general
direction, should be school-based.
Since the curriculum should concern the development of all aspects of the pupils,
consorted effort of teachers, therapists and other disciplines is needed in designing the
curriculum content.

 Structure of the Curriculum  

Based on the above listed principles, the general direction of the curriculum for
physically handicapped children is to take care of individual needs and at the same time keep it
in line with the mainstream curriculum.
Under this premise, the learning areas (Physical, Humanities and Social, Moral,
Linguistics, Mathematics, Science and Technology, Aesthetics and Creative Design) and learning
elements ( Knowledge, Skills and Attitude) for mainstream schools are also suitable for
physically handicapped pupils in general. However, the emphasis, content and time allocation
of each area should be adjusted to cater for pupils' special needs. Generally speaking, the
curriculum content should contain academic, cultural and practical subjects, but the time
allocation and emphasis should be tailored and re-grouped according to individual
characteristics.
Below is a diagram describing the need of subject elements in the curriculum of different
groups of pupils in schools for the physically handicapped.
 
Diagram showing subject element combination for pupils of different learning abilities

(Diagram adapted from "The Application of the Conductive Education System" by the Spastics
Association of Hong Kong)
The above diagram is explained as follows:

1. The vertical axis represents the amount of academic / cultural subjects or knowledge
and skills from academic / cultural subjects
2. The horizontal axis stands for the amount of practical subjects or practical knowledge
and skills from other subjects
3. The four curriculum quadrants demarcated by the vertical and horizontal axis are :
 The curriculum for Quadrant I is made up of higher proportion of academic subject
elements but lower proportion of practical subject elements
 The curriculum of Quadrant II is made up of equally high proportion of academic and practical
subject elements
 The curriculum of Quadrant III is made up of lower proportion of academic subject
elements but higher proportion of practical subject elements
 The curriculum of Quadrant IV is made up of equally low proportion of academic and
practical subject elements

4. The proportion of need in academic and practical subject elements is decided by the
characteristics of the pupils
5. In a school for physically handicapped children, there are more pupils requiring the first
and third quadrants of subject element combinations. Seldom any pupils need the
subject element combinations of the second quadrant and there may not be any need
for the conditions shown in the fourth quadrant.

Curriculum Content
Based on the rationale mentioned in paragraph 4.3, the learning areas and general direction of
mainstream curriculum are also suitable for children in schools for physically handicapped
children but adjustment according to pupils' needs are required.
Generally speaking, pupils first admitted into schools for the physically handicapped
may not have developed the basic skills like ordinary pupils first joining mainstream schools. To
enhance the effect of learning and personal development of pupils, schools should add in or
strengthen the teaching of the following basic skills :perceptual motor, basic language,
cognitive and personal and social adjustment skills.

For this reason, schools for the physically handicapped should enhance the development of the
above mentioned skills in the Physical, Humanities and Social, Moral, Linguistics, Mathematics,
Science and Technology, Aesthetics and Creative aspects of learning.

For pupils to acquire knowledge, skills and positive learning attitudes in the various learning
areas, suitable academic, cultural and practical subjects must be taught. As for the cross subject
content or issues geared to the specific needs of physically handicapped children, they are not
necessarily taught as independent subjects but can be diffused into the already existing
subjects as special activities or integrated activities of the school routine.

The quadrants presented in paragraph 4.3 have expressed the needs of different groups of
pupils. Nevertheless, to give pupils a comprehensive education, schools should teach their
pupils the above mentioned seven learning areas so that they can learn as much knowledge,
skills and good attitudes as they can. So the curriculum for their pupils should contain core
subjects for every pupil, elective subjects for pupils of different abilities and issue-based
learning programmes specially designed to cover areas not included in the existing subjects. At
the same time, teachers should pay attention to the ability of individual pupils in different
subjects so that the subject content for each of them may be selected, modified, tailored or re-
grouped accordingly.

Below is a suggested table of curriculum framework and content for special schools for the
physically handicapped.

Table showing the curriculum framework and content for schools for the physically handicapped.
 　
The content of different subject groups and programmes are elaborated as follows :
4.1 Core Subjects
In this curriculum framework, core subjects are taken by all pupils to acquire the
necessary knowledge, skills and attitude for daily living, furthering their education and seeking
employment. So the core subjects for every pupil are similar but the content should vary in
difficulty according to the abilities and needs of the pupils.

Core subjects for schools for the physically handicapped include:

(1) Language (Chinese and English)

(2) Mathematics
(3) General Knowledge
(4) Art and Craft (Primary)
Art and Design (Secondary)
(5) Music
(6) Physical Education
4.2 Elective Subjects 
Some elective subjects can be considered as extended curriculum for pupils who can
manage the core subjects. So the election of subjects mainly takes place at the secondary stage
for preparation for the Hong Kong School Certificate Examination or employment, but in the
primary section, there may also be elective subjects geared to the ability, interest and aptitude
of pupils. They are：
(1) Computer
(2) Putonghua
(3) Integrated Science
(4) Biology
(5) Chemistry
(6) Physics
(7) Social Studies
(8) Geography
(9) History
(10) Economics and Public Affairs
(11) Home Economics
(12) Design and Technology
There are yet other elective subjects for pupils to learn at different stages of schooling:
(13) Daily Living Training
(14) Informal Prevocational Training
Both the core and elective subjects can be included in the time table.

4.3 Learning Programmes

These programmes contain learning contents which may not be covered within the
school time table. They may be programmes led by physiotherapists, occupational therapists,
speech therapists and school social workers in collaboration with teachers. They may be offered
in different modes but they are all geared to the psychological as well as physiological needs of
the pupils. This would enhance their ability to acquire knowledge, skills and positive attitude.

Some examples of learning programmes are listed as follows :

(1) Sex Education

(2) Civic Education
(3) Moral Education
(4) Library Skill
 (5) Play
(6) Self-care Training
(7) Social Skill Training
(8) Social Adjustment Training
 
2.Try to make your own curriculum design model

On specifying a curriculum, prepared in the light of experience during the design of the
Accounting Department Curriculum, I pointed out that the final version gave no indication as to
the types and balance of tasks that were to represent the performance goals in Mathematics–
the concepts and skills could be shown entirely in short items, or in the course of three week-
long projects, or in a variety of other task types in between. I argued that to specify a
curriculum relatively unambiguously, you need three independent elements (see the figure):

 The tools in the toolkit of mathematical concepts and skills

 The performance targets, as exemplified by task types
 The pattern of classroom learning activities

They are independent, in that none of them determines the others, and complementary,
each supporting the others.
 MODULE VI
THE ROLES OF STAKEHOLDERS IN CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

Stakeholders are individuals or institutions that are interested in the school curriculum.
Their interests vary in degree and complexity. They get involved in many different ways in the
implementation, because the curriculum affects them directly or indirectly. The stakeholders
shape the school curriculum implementation.

Activities:

1. Identify the different roles of stakeholders.

The Roles of Stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation

1.Learners

“ Learners or students are the very reason why schools exists. It is the schools’
responsibility to further develop the learners knowledge, skills, talents and attitude to face the
different situations in life.

•The learner is the center of curriculum.

• The learners are the very reason a curriculum is developed.

•They are the ones who are directly influenced by it.

• Learners in all levels make or unmake the curriculum by their active and direct involvement.

2. Teachers as Curriculum Developers and Implementers

A teacher is a curriculum maker. He writes a curriculum daily through lesson plan, unit
plan or a yearly plan. Teachers are empowered to develop their own curricula taking into
consideration their own expertise, the context of the school and the abilities of he learners. By
doing this, teacher become architects of school curriculum.

A developed curriculum remains inactive, if it is not implemented. At this point,

teachers role shifts from a developer to an implementer. Doing here implies guiding, facilitating
and directing activities will be done by the students.

” The teachers role as an implementer is very crucial. Because unsuccessful

implementation of the curriculum becomes the root of the educational problem is the teacher.

3.Curriculum Managers and Administrators

School principals one of their functions is being a curriculum manager. They supervise
curriculum implementation, select and recruit new teachers, admit students, procure
equipment and materials needed for effective learning.

4.Parents as Supporters to the Curriculum

Parents voices are very loud and clear. In our country, it is general fact that even in
college the parents are responsible for their childs education. The success of a curricula would
somehow depend on their support.
 MODULE VII
THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN DELIVERING THE CURRICULUM

The role of technology finds its place at the onset of curriculum implementation, namely
at the stage of instructional planning. In a teaching-learning situation, there is the critical need
to provide the learners information that forms a coherent whole. Otherwise, learning approach
to instructional planning is, therefore, necessary. And in instructional planning, each lesson
should have a clear idea of general specific goals, instructional objectives, content, activities,
media, materials, assessment and evaluation on how objectives have been achieved.
Activities:
1. Discuss the factors for technology selection and its role in curriculum delivery.
Roles of Technology in Delivering Curriculum

In delivering curriculum the role of technology is very important. Right at the planning
phase of any instruction, aside from formulating the objectives and among other
considerations, there is a need to identify what instructional media are to be utilized in the
implementation.

Instructional media may also be referred to as media technology or learning technology, or

simply technology.Technology plays a crucial role in delivering instruction to learners.
Technology offers various tools of learning and these range from non-projected media from
which the teacher can choose, depending on what he sees fit with the intended instructional
setting.

TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

Non Projected
• models, charts, field trips, real objects, printed materials, visuals, boards
Projected
• projectors, filmstrips, videos
It can easily be observed that technological innovation in the multifarious fields of
commerce, science and education, is fast developing such that it is difficult to foresee the
technological revolution in the millennium, inclusive of educational changes.

ROLES OF TECHNOLOGY IN DELIVERING THE CURRICULUM

•Upgrading the quality of teaching-and-learning in schools

•Increasing the capability of the teacher to effectively inculcate learning, and for students to
gain mastery of lessons and courses

•Broadening the delivery of education outside schools through non-traditional approaches to

formal and informal learning, such as Open Universities and lifelong learning to adult learners

•Revolutionizing the use of technology to boost educational paradigm shifts that give
importance to student-centered and holistic learning.

Factors for Technology Selection

 1. Practicality
• Is the equipment (hardware) or already prepared lesson material (software)
available? If not, what would be the cost in acquiring the equipment or producing the
lesson in audial or visual form?
2. Appropriateness in relation to the learners
•Is the medium suitable to the learners’ ability to comprehend? Will the medium
be a source of plain amusement or entertainment, but not learning?
3. Activity/ suitability
•Will the chosen media fit the set instructional event, resulting in either
information, motivation, or psychomotor display?
4. Objective – matching
•Overall, does the medium help in achieving the learning objectives?

MODULE VIII
PILOT TESTING, MONITORING AND EVALUATING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE
CURRICULUM

In the implementation of a curriculum, there are processes needed after it has been
written and before it is accepted for final implementation. Pilot testing or field try out is one of
the common practices of curriculum makers to determine the strength and the weaknesses of a
written or planned curriculum are also important in the implementation.
Activities

1. Differentiate Curriculum Monitoring and Curriculum Evaluation.

1. Curriculum Monitoring
 Monitoring asks the question: How are we doing? Is the curriculum accomplishing
its intended purposes? Monitoring is also important to determine is the curriculum
is still relevant and effective.
 Monitoring is a periodic assessment and adjustment during the try –out period.
 It is like formative evaluation.
 It determines how the curriculum is working, such that the monitoring report
becomes the basis of a decision on what aspects have to be retained, improved or
modified.
 Monitoring also provides decision that would even end or terminate the program.
 Usually, monitoring is done by the module writers, curriculum experts or outside
agencies. It is very important aspect of curriculum.
Curriculum Evaluation
 Curriculum evaluation as part of total educational evaluation refers to a systematic
process of judging the value, effectiveness and adequacy of a curriculum: its
process, product and setting will lead of informed decision.
 Evaluation should be useful and systematic. The information gathered should be
important for the improvement of and for final judgment of the curriculum being
evaluated.

2. Accreditation
 This is a voluntary process of submitting a curricular program to an external
accrediting body for review in any level of education: basic, tertiary or graduate
school to assure standard.
 Accreditation studies the statement of the educational intentions of the school and
affirms a standard of excellence.

2. Give the areas for accreditation under curriculum and Instruction.

1. Curriculum and Program of Studies
Program of studies includes the clusters of knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and
experiences that will provide students at any level with the necessary competencies for
effective learning. A list of subjects or courses to be taken and arranged in a logical
order compose the program of studies.
2. Classroom Management
For effective instruction, the use of appropriate classroom management is
suggested. The teacher who implements the curriculum sees to it that management of
teaching and learning in the classroom follows procedure and guidelines to enhance and
create an environment conducive to learning. An environment conducive to learning
considers the physical factors such as classroom physical arrangements, ventilation,
lighting, cleanliness while human factors include the teachers’ attitudes , students
responses, teacher-students interactions. A good classroom management provides
 opportunities to develop independent lifelong partners who uphold and observe
democratic practices.
3. Instructional Processes or Methodologies
How to translate action into the written and planned curriculum is a concern of
instruction. How should a lesson be taught? What teaching methodologies should be
used for particular type of learners? Is there a fit or match between the lesson
objectives set? Has teaching or methods of delivery accomplished the objectives set?
The decision of choosing and using the method of teaching and using the method of
teaching is a crucial factor in curriculum and instruction. There are varied teaching
methodologies that are compatible with the different learning styles of the student .
These emerging strategies of teaching follow principles and theories that enhance
learning outcomes.
4. Graduation requirements Graduation
It’s means successful accomplishments of the curricular program of studies. A
student has to accomplish its academic program as prescribes in the program of studies
mentioned earlier. These requirements are clearly understood upon enrollment in
college by the students and by the parents for students in the elementary or high
schools.
5. Administrative Support for Effective Instruction
A curriculum can be best implemented if there is support of the school
administration. In fact a school principal for example has a distinct responsibility of a
curricular manager or manager of learning. Quality instruction should be sustained by
requiring needed instructional materials, high quality of examination questions and
other support for effective instruction.
6. Evaluation of Academic Performance
In curriculum, it is necessary that learning outcomes be evaluated. After all the
best measures of a curriculum is the learning outcome of the students. The evaluation
of students' performance should make use of valid and reliable tools which are
periodically reviewed and revised. Students should be informed and be clarified about
the grading system as well as the standards used.

MODULE IX
ASSESSING THE CURRICULUM

This module will cover up the meaning and purposes of assessment as they apply to
curriculum. It will focus on the continuous process of assessment from intended to the
implemented and the planned objectives, goals and purposes set at the beginning, while the
implemented curriculum refers to the various activities conducted for the purposes of
accomplishing the objectives. Finally, the achieved curriculum is the learning outcomes as
measured by the learning performance. These three types of curriculum should be evaluated in
order to find out if they match well with one another to accomplish the desired outputs.
ACTIVITIES;

1. Give the purpose of curriculum assessment.

Curriculum assessment is a process of gathering and analyzing information from multiple

sources in order to improve student learning in sustainable ways.

Curriculum assessment can serve several major purposes:

• To identify aspects of a curriculum that are working and those that need to change
• To assess the effectiveness of changes that have already been made
• To demonstrate the effectiveness of the current programme
• To meet regular programme review requirements
• To satisfy professional accreditation,

2. Discuss the three types of curriculum.

1. Hidden Curriculum
Hidden curriculum: practices and procedures resulting from decisions made when
implementing the explicit curriculum, unintended outcomes that occur as the explicit
curriculum is implemented. Various aspects of learning contribute to the success of the hidden
curriculum, including practices, procedures, rules, relationships and structures. Many aspects of
learning give rise to aspects of the hidden curriculum. These sources are, but not limited to, the
social structures of the classroom, the teacher's exercise of authority, rules governing the
relationship between teachers and students and standard learning activities.

2. Absent Curriculum
Absent/null curriculum: curricular aspects excluded (either intentionally or
unintentionally from classroom instruction that are appropriate to the explicit curriculum.
The null curriculum is what is not taught. Not teaching some particular idea or sets of ideas
may be due to mandates from higher authorities, to a teacher's lack of knowledge, or to
deeply ingrained assumptions and biases. Teachers and schools may be under pressure not
to teach evolution.

3. Explicit Curriculum
Explicit curriculum: formal/stated mandated curricula that contain explicit steps and
procedures to follow for proper implementation; stated and intended outcomes. Explicit
 curriculum is what is intentionally presented as the basic material of schooling. Explicit
curriculum, or "overt" or "official" curriculum, entails the lesson plans to follow, their
sequence and their objectives.

MODULE X
ASSESSING THE CURRICULUM: CRITERIA FOR CURRICULUM ASSESSMENT
This module will give you the criteria for curriculum assessment. It also focuses for
determining the purposes, for implementing the curriculum, for assessing curriculum output,
for the overall impact of the curriculum.
ACTIVITIES:
1. Give the Criteria for Curriculum Assessment, for Goals and objectives, for Assessment and
Instruction.

Goals and objectives

 • are statements of curricular expectations.
• are sets of learning outcomes specifically designed for students.
Objectives
• indicate clearly what the students will learn after instruction has taken place.

Goals and objectives are formulated and specified for the following purposes:

 To have focus on curriculum and instruction which give direction to where students
need to go.
 To meet the requirements specified in the policies and standards of curriculum
instruction.
 To provide the students the best possible education and describe the students level
of performance
 To monitor the progress of students based on the goals set.
 To motivate the students to learn and the teachers to be able to feel a sense of
competence when goals are attained.

CRITERIA FOR GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

For goals and objectives to be formulated, criteria on certain elements should be included
according to Howell in Nolet in 2000.

1. Content- From the objectives, what content should students learn?

2. Behavior- What will students do to indicate that they have learned?

3. Criterion- What level of performance should the students have to master the behavior?

4. Condition- Under what circumstance should the students work in order to master that
behavior?

Writing effective goals and objectives should also use the following general criteria.

1. Are the general objectives syntactically correct?-

Syntactic Correctness
 See if it has all its parts
 Teachers need to include logically the elements: content, behavior, criteria and
conditions

2. Do the objectives comply with the legal requirements of the course of subjects?-
Compliance with legal requirements
There should be a direct relationship between the annual goals and the students’
present levels of educational performance.
  The annual goals should describe what the learners can reasonably be expected to
accomplish within a given appropriate instructional resources.
 Short term instructional objectives should be stated so clearly so that it is obvious
how we would measure to see if the objectives are met.
 The objectives should describe a sequence of intermediate steps between a child’s
present level of educational performance and the annual goals that are established.

3. Do the objectives address both knowledge and behavior?-

Both knowledge and behavior are addressed
The confusion between knowledge and behavior: although it is knowledge that
we are most often trying to transmit, we need to see behavior to know if we have
succeeded.

4. Do the objectives pass the stranger test?-

The “Stranger Test”
Goals and instructional objectives must be measurable so that their status can be
monitored.
The simplest way to judge if a goal or objective can be reliably measured is to apply the
stranger test (Kaplan, 1995).

The statement of behavior must be in an objective to provide a measurable indicator

of learning. But it is the learning, not the behavior, that is of primary importance to most
teachers.

5. Do they pass the “so-what” test?

The “So-What”
Test (validity)Because the purpose of education is to prepare people to be socially
competent, the so-what test asks whether the goals and instructional objectives are
important.

Good objectives specify outcomes that will benefit students by teaching them things
that are socially significant (Ensminger & Dangel, 1992) and not simply make life easier for
parents and teachers.

To pass the so-what test, an objective should act to develop, rather than to suppress,
behavior. In cases where behaviors need to be suppressed, goals and objectives should include
alternate positive behaviors (Kaplan, 200; Martin & Pear, 1996; Sulzer-Azaroff & Mayer, 1991).

6. Are the objectives aligned?

Individualization
 Appropriate goals and instructional objectives are derived from assessment data. They
must be aligned with the students’ present level of educational performance and student’s
goals.
7. Do they make common sense?
Common Sense
Instructional objectives don’t have to fit into one sentence and trying to make them do
so can be very confusing. Objectives tell what the students will learn, not descriptions of what
the students will follow to learn.
CRITERIA FOR ASSESSMENTOF INSTRUCTIONS
Instruction refers to the implementation of the objectives. It is concerned with the
methodologies and strategies of teaching.
The two approaches to instruction:
A. Supplantive Approach- referred to as “direct” instruction (Adams & Englemann,1996).
• The teacher attempts to promote learning by providing explicit directions and explanations
regarding how to do a task.
• The teacher assumes primary responsibility for linking new information with the students’
prior knowledge and ultimately whatever the students learn.
• Information is presented in an ordered sequence in which component subskills are taught
directly or a foundation for later tasks.
• This approach to instruction is highly teacher-directed.
B. Generative Approach- referred to as “constructivist” or “developmental.”
• The teacher functions as a facilitator who takes a less central role in a learning process that is
student-directed (Ensminger & Dangel, 1992).
• The teacher provides opportunities for the students to make own linkages to prior knowledge
and to devise her own strategies for work.
• It is “constructivist” because much of its emphasis is on helping students to construct their
own educational goals and experiences as well as the knowledge that results.
• Information is presented on a schedule determined by students’ interests and goals.
• Subskills may not be taught explicitly
• Pre-requisites for more complex information are expected to be learned as a consequence of
the larger understanding students would be guided to construct.
• Learning is assumed to be socially constructed out of the interaction between the student’s
innate and predisposition and the social context in which the student lives.
• But advocates of the generative approach sometimes take a restrictive view of social context
In which the student lives (Stone, 1996). Often, they do not seem to view teachers and
classrooms as part of the social context. Therefore they see intentional instruction by teachers (or
parents) as “unnatural” or “meaningful”.
2. Give the definition of Curriculum Criteria, Evaluation and Curriculum Evaluation.
a. Curriculum Criteria
Curriculum criteria are guidelines on standard for curriculum decision making. The
objectives of a curriculum or teaching plan are the most important curriculum criteria, since
they should be used in selecting learning experiences and in evaluating learning achievement.
Are guidelines on standard for curriculum decision making. The objectives of a curriculum or
teaching plan are the most important curriculum criteria, since they should be used in selecting
learning experiences and in evaluating learning achievement. According to Hass and Parkay
(1993), individual differences, flexibility and systematic planning are criteria that depend in part
on knowledge of the different approaches to learning.
b. Evaluation
It is the process of determining the value of something or the extent to which goals are
being achieved. It is a process if making a student or reading a conclusion. It involves decision
making about student performance based on information obtained from an assessment
process. Assessment is the process of collecting information by reviewing the products of
student work, interviewing, observing, or testing.
c. Curriculum Evaluation
It is the process of obtaining information for judging the worth of an educational
program, product, procedure, educational objectives or the potential utility of alternative
approaches designed to attain specified objectives (Glass and Worthem, 1997) Curriculum
evaluation focuses on determining whether the curriculum as recorded in the master plan has
been carried out in the classroom.
3. Give the Characteristic of a Good Curriculum.
A good curriculum must possess specific characteristics in the pursuit of the aims of
education the schools are to pursue. A good curriculum includes the following:

1.The curriculum is continuously evolving.

2. The curriculum is based on the needs of the people.
3. The curriculum is democratically conceived.
4. The curriculum is the result of long-term effort.
5. The curriculum is a complex of details.
6. The curriculum provides for the logical sequence of subject matter.
7. The curriculum complements and cooperates with other program of the community.
8. The curriculum has educational quality.9. The curriculum has administrative flexibility
4. Give the difference between Formative and Summative Evaluation
• Summative evaluation is evaluation that takes place at the end of the unit or section of
instruction. It takes place at the end of the lesson or project and tells the evaluator what has
happened. It “sums-up” the learning.
• Formative evaluation takes place during the lesson or project and tells the evaluator what is
happening. It is ongoing and yields information that can be used to modify the program prior to
termination. (Howel & Nolet, 2000).