Chapter One

1. Introduction

Course Objectives:
 Introduce the general processes of water resources planning and
Management.
 Summarize how water resources could be utilized.
 Describe how to plan a water resources project.
 Acquaint with some optimization techniques in water resources
project planning.
 Discuss international and national water rights and laws.
 Have a thorough look on water resources potential and water
resources development potentials of Ethiopia.

Course Goal:
 To built up foundation for water resource projects planning and
Management.

This lecture note describes the general process of and somehow detailed
methodologies employed in planning projects involving water resources. A
project consists of constructed facilities and other measures that control,
utilize, or limit the use of water. Planning activities include the
identification, formulation and analysis of projects. Planning activities are
also included in subsequent phases of project implementation, including
design, construction and operation. Engineers, but not all other professionals in
the water resources field, distinguish between planning and design, applying
the latter term to the preparation of detailed engineering studies, drawings, and
specifications for structures, equipment and other components of a project.
Water resources planning methods are based on scientific, legal, ethical,
critical concepts. It has been only about 50 years that modern water resources
planning has evolved over, even though water resources projects have been
constructed for thousands of years. Until recently, water resources‟ planning

1
was carried out almost entirely by engineers. Economists and natural resources
planners have been represented extensively in the literature for many years.

1.1 Purpose of Water Resources Planning & Management

Water resources planning techniques are used to determine what measures
should be employed to meet water needs, take advantage of opportunities for
water resources Management, and preserve and enhance natural water
resources and related land resources.

Water resources are developed or managed for the following purposes and
functions:
 Irrigation
 Domestic, municipal, thermal-power plant cooling, industrial and etc.
Water supply
 Hydroelectric power generation
 Flood control and damage preservation
 Low flow augmentation, Water quality management, including waste
water treatment and disposal
 Navigation
 Recreation
 Commercial fishing and aquatic farming
 Drainage, sedimentation control, land stabilization, erosion control and
other measures for management of watersheds
 Other multipurpose uses
In addition to the foregoing purposes and functions, for which economic
benefits can usually be estimated, the growing “environmental movement” has
encouraged policies to plan and manage for the preservation and enhancement
of:
 Natural water and related land areas, including aesthetic values
 Archeological, historical, biological, and geological resources
 Ecological systems
 Water, land, and air quality
Planning, development and management of water resources may also be used to
further the general welfare, including:

2
  Regional economic development
 Income distribution
 Health and safety
 Educational and cultural opportunities
 Emergency preparedness
 Other measures to improve the “quality of life”

1.2 General definition in Water Resources Planning

The goals of water resources planning may be advanced by the use of
constructed facilities (structural measures), or by management and legal
techniques that do not require constructed facilities. The latter are
nonstructural measures and may include rules to limit or control water and
land use (e.g. flood warning systems, restrictive zoning on flood plains) which
complement or substitute for constructed facilities. A project may consist of one
or more structural or nonstructural measures. The compliance of a structural
or nonstructural measure, or a system of measures, depends not only on
technical effectiveness but also on acceptability from other standpoints, such as
economic financial, environmental, social, legal and institutional impacts.

Whereas the term purpose, objective and goal have similar meanings in
ordinary usage, they are different in water resources planning. Traditionally a
purpose has referred to a category of water needs and problems (e.g., municipal
and industrial water supply, flood control), while objective/goal implies a
broader value. Some water resource planners believe it is useful to consider a
goal as a general societal aim such as the “improvement of the quality of life”
and to express an objective in more specific (monetary or other) terms such as
“maximization of net benefit.” Policies are related to the goals and objectives
and to the various constraints which restrict development and management
within specific bounds.

The methodologies of water resources planning may be categorized as

principles, standards, and procedures. Principles provide the broad policy
framework for planning activities and include the conceptual basis for
planning. Standards provide for uniformity and consistency in comparing,

3
measuring and judging beneficial and adverse effects of alternative plans.
Procedures provide more detailed methods for carrying out the various levels
of planning activities, including the measurement of beneficial and adverse
effects, and the comparison of alternative plans for action. Principles, standards
and procedures are all subject to change over time. The principles, being most
fundamental, are expected to evolve relatively slowly, while the standards and
procedures are expected to change more readily with the development of data
and techniques. The term guidelines may be applied when the standards and
procedures are not fully binding on the planner.

1.3 Generalized Processes of WRPD

The following phases are usually involved in the planning and Management of a
major water resources project.
 Establishment of goals and objectives-broad policies; legal and other
constraints
 Problem identification and analysis-collection of data; projection of
demand/supply relationships; use of water and land; opportunities for
development and management
 Solution identification and impact assessment-structural solutions;
nonstructural (management) solutions; preliminary assessment of
impacts
 Formulation of alternatives and analysis-criteria and procedures for
comparison of alternatives; formulation of alternative systems of
structural and nonstructural measures; detailed assessment of impacts
 Recommendations including priorities and schedules for
implementation
 Decisions
 Implementation-organizations for action, if required
 Operation and management
The modern water resources planning organization should carry out its work
with the participation of those who would be affected by the organization‟s
projects (beneficially or adversely), all government agencies having jurisdiction,


Adapted from ASCE, 1974

4
public interest groups, and other interested organizations and individuals. Such
participation should be both formal (e.g., hearings, interagency committees,
license and permit applications), and informal (e.g., brochures, response to
inquiries). Information from these entities and their reactions to proposals will
often sharpen the goals and objectives assist in identifying and analyzing
problems and solutions, provide guidance in the formulation and analysis of
alternatives, and indicate the acceptability and preference of possible
recommendations.
In proceeding from the initial to the final phase of the planning and
development process, the work in one phase can suggest changes in one or
more of the other phases. This effect can be referred to as feedback, and the
linkages may be in both forward and backward directions. Even when the water
resource system is implemented, it should be updated from time to time during
the operation and management phase.

The methods of water resources planning range from fairly simple techniques
employing substantial professional judgment to sophisticated mathematical
optimization approaches. The selection of methods for a planning effort depends
on the type of project; the formal requirement of the planning organization; the
available personnel, money, and equipment for investigations; and the
capabilities and preferences of the planning staff.

1.4 Tasks for WRD Project

An outline of tasks for planning an urban flood control project will provide a
perspective of the complexity of a typical water resources project and an
indication of the different professional specialists evolved. Some of the activities
in the following list overlap (e.g environmental studies will begin before the
structures are finally selected).
 Management coordination
 Analysis of basic data-maps, aerial photos, stream flow, etc.
 Determination of needs for flood control
-delineation of area affected by flood
-determination of flood plain characteristics

5
 -forecast of future activities in affected area
-estimates of existing and future flood damages
 Consideration of alternative ways of meeting needs
-upstream reservoir
-local protective works for urban area
-nonstructural measures
 Studies for reservoir
-selection of site selection of capacity
-selection of type of dam and spillway
-layout of structures
-analysis of foundations of structures
-development of construction plan
-cost estimates of structures
-layout and cost estimates of access roads, bridges, communication
facilities, construction camps, etc
-identification and estimation of requirements for lands, relocations,
easements, etc
-consideration of reservoir for multi purpose use with pertinent analyses
of layouts, capacities, costs, etc
 Studies for local protective works-levees, walls, river shaping and paving,
interior pumping stations
 Studies of nonstructural measures-land use controls, flood warning
systems, flood proofing, etc.
 Formulation of optimal combination of structural and nonstructural
components for flood control project
 Economic analyses
 Financial analyses
 Assessment of environmental impacts-ecological, archeological,
historical, geological, air and water quality, land sedimentation and
erosion, etc.
 Sociological impact assessment
 Public information and participation programs
 Report preparation

6
The planning activities shown by the list above constitutes the work needed to
prepare a feasibility report. The level of engineering detail for such a report is
higher than for a preliminary report, but lower than for the design of a project.

1.5 Professional Specialists in WRD

The list of tasks for the above example of flood control project shows that at
least the following skills would have to be represented:
 Engineers-civil, structural, hydraulic, hydrologic, geotechnical,
construction, cost estimating, mechanical, electrical, surveying and
mapping, drafting
 Urban/regional land planning specialists
 Architects
 Economic and financial specialists
 Environmental specialists-biological science of various types, forestry,
archeological, historical, geological water and air quality, soils
 Sociologists
 Real estate and relocation specialists
 Public information specialists
 Report production specialists
If the project has multi-purpose development opportunities, additional
specialists may be needed to study them, Irrigation planning, for example,
would involve soil and crop agronomists and other farm specialists, agricultural
economists, and irrigation engineers. If sophisticated systems analyses are
employed, computer specialists may be needed.

1.6 Availability of Water

On a global basis, at any given moment, the distribution of water over the earth
is shown by the percentages in Figure 1.1. The percentage of ground water and
surface water do not indicate their overall availabilities. Much of the ground
water is located far from points of need, or at depths and in aquifer materials
that make retrieval impossible or uneconomic. Much surface water is flowing

7
water that replenishes the volume of a stream typically on the average of 30
times per year.

Ocean (96.5%) Fresh water (3.5%)

Polar ice caps and Rivers, lakes,

glaciers (70%) groundwater (30%)

Surface water (1.2%) Ground water (98.8%)


Figure 1.1 Distribution of water on earth (Source: UNESCO-1978)

Although there is enough water worldwide for everyone, its distribution is quite
variable. Population intensities and water availabilities are not often
compatible. People live in water-deficient areas because of attractive climate or
cultural reasons, or because relocation is impractical due to political, societal,
or economical constraints. Areas that are deficient in precipitation for
agriculture have often excellent soils and are thus good candidates for
irrigation. Some of the best economic developments lie in the flood plains of
streams, but they must be protected to survive and grow. The water resource
planner is thus challenged to overcome the problems of too little or too much
water, to develop the best logistics and facilities to meet water needs, and to
take advantage of other opportunities for development, preservation, and
enhancement.

Table 1.1 shows estimates for the average annual water balances of the world. A
major uncertainty in such estimates comes from the difficulty of estimating
precipitation on and evaporation from the ocean due to lack of observed data.
Also as discussed by Biswas (1979), such a global picture does not give a


From Wolman, 1962

8
correct impression of the tremendous variability of water with regard to both
space and time.

Table 1.1 Average Annual water balance of world

Volume (thousands of cubic kilometers)

Regions
Precipitation Evaporation Runoff
Africa 20.7 17.3 3.4
Asia 30.7 18.5 12.2
Australia 7.1 4.7 2.4
Europe 6.6 3.8 2.8
North America 15.6 9.7 5.9
Latin America 28.0 16.9 11.1
Antarctica 2.4 0.4 2.0
Total, land areas 111.0 71.0 40.0
Oceans 385.0 425.0 -40.0
Total, world 496.0 496.0 0.0

In the case of rural urban water supply, the WHO (1976) carried out a survey
on the extent of water supply and sewerage at the end of 1975, to which 67
developing countries responded. In urban communities, some 130 million
people (25%) had no access to potable water by house connections or
standpipes. In rural areas, almost 1000 million people (80%) did not have
reasonable access to safe water. Considering both rural and urban populations
together, only 35% (638 000 000) were adequately served. These are averages.
There are several countries where 91 to 100 % of the urban population was
served while in other countries less than 5% of the rural population was served.
Biswas (1979) found large variations and enormous insufficiencies of water for
other major sectoral uses: agriculture, industry, and hydroelectric. Biswas also
identified a number of places where there have been severe social and
environmental impacts of water development, where conflicts have occurred
between federal and local jurisdictions, and between neighboring states, and


From Baumgarten and Reichel(1975)

9
where problems have involved international waters. He concluded that the
problem of water availability in the future is basically that of rational
management.

10
 Chapter Two
2. Utilization of Water Resources
2.1 Water resources for Consumptive and non-consumptive uses

The distinction between consumptive and non-consumptive use of water is a

critical aspect of effective water management. Consumptive use of water means
that no water is returned to the water source from which it was withdrawn;
the water is consumed and is not available for use by other water users
downstream. Non-consumptive water use means that, after use, the water is
returned to the source for use by others downstream. The importance of the
distinction between the two types of water use is their effect on downstream
water users. Non-consumptive water use returns the water to the stream for
renewed use by other water users downstream. Consumptive use means the
water is not be returned to the stream, reducing the water available to
downstream water users.
These classifications of water are important when assessing the quantity of
water allocated. Water used consumptively diminishes the source and is not
available for other uses; whereas non-consumptive water use does not diminish
the source or impair future water use.
Consumptive versus Non-Consumptive Use of Water
1. Definition of Consumptive Use
a. Consumptive use:- That part of water withdrawn that is evaporated,
transpired by plants, incorporated into products or crops, consumed by
humans or livestock, or otherwise removed from the immediate water
environment also referred to as water consumed.

b. Consumptive use is defined as water withdrawn that is not directly

returned to its original source. Under this definition, surface water
withdrawals are considered consumptive if the water is not directly
returned to the source so that it is available for immediate further use.

11
 c. Definitions Applied to All Water Uses:
Possibly, it is erroneous to define certain water uses as “consumptive”
and others as “non-consumptive.” All uses are partially consumptive and
partially non-consumptive. The following examples are illustrative.

2. Examples of Consumptive Use Patterns

a. Consider a small municipality under a municipal withdrawal permit that

withdraws 1,750,000 lit/day for water supply from the Awash River. It
distributes those 1,750,000 liters to businesses and industry, homes and
apartments, etc. and the water is used in many different ways. Some of it is
used for household use (bathing, cooking, toilets, etc.), some of it is used in
manufacturing process, and, after use some of it is discharged into the city
sewers as waste. The city waste treatment facility collects this waste (from the
businesses and industry, the homes and apartments, etc.), treats the waste and
puts the treated wastewater back into the Awash. For this example, 1,400,000
liter of wastewater is discharged. Thus, the municipality‟s use is 20 %
consumptive (350,000 lit/day) and 80 % non-consumptive.

b. Consider a farmer in the Lower Abay River Basin who withdraws 700,000
lit/day for irrigation from an Aquifer. He applies the water to his crop and
140,000 lit/day is not used by the crop production (evaporation, transpiration
and other biological functions of plant growth) but soaks into the ground. Over
several days, maybe weeks, the water travels downward into the Aquifer that
lies 1 meter below the surface. In this case, the farmer‟s use of the water is 80
% consumptive (560,000 lit/day) and 20 % non-consumptive.

3. The Effect of Consumptive Use

Withdrawal and use of water can result in the water being consumed in the
process (like being absorbed into the body by a human, animal or plant). When
water use is consumptive, the water is not returned to the water source and is
no longer available for use by anyone downstream.

12
On the other hand, when water use is non-consumptive, water is returned to
the water source and is available for use by other water users downstream. The
water user may be another person, an industry or business, a fish or another
part of the natural environment. Consider the following simple scenarios. A
Water User can be a municipality, an industry, a farmer or a part of the natural
environment like wetland re-nourishment or providing fish habitat. Consider
these admittedly simplistic examples.

a. If Water User #1 makes non-consumptive use of the water and returns all the
water he has withdrawn, User #2 has used of all the water withdrawn by User
#1. If User #2 again makes non-consumptive use, User #3 downstream can
again make use of all the water. An infinite number of such non-consumptive
users can make use of the water.

b. If User #1 consumes 20 % of the water withdrawn (as happens for the

average municipality), User #2 has use of 80 % of the water withdrawn by User
#1. If User 2 consumes 20 % of the water and returns the rest to the water
source, User #3 has 64 % of the water withdrawn by User #1. Continuing this
logic, a User #9 far downstream will still have used of about 16 % of the water
withdrawn by User #1.

c. Is User #1 consumes 50 % of the water withdrawn and returns 50 % to the

water source, User #2 downstream will have use of 50 % of the water withdrawn
by User #1. After User #2 consumed 50 %, User #3 downstream will have use of
only 25 % of what User #1 withdrew. User #10 far downstream will have use if
less than 1.0 % of what User #1 withdrew.

d. If User #1 consumes 100 % of the water, everyone downstream is deprived of

use of that water.

13
Consumptive Use of Surface and Groundwater
Consumptive water use causes diminishment of the source at the point of
appropriation. Definition: Diminishment is defined as to make smaller or less in
quantity, quality, and rate of flow, or availability.

By-pass reach defined. A water use may be consumptive to a specific reach of a

stream when water is diverted, used, and returned to the same source at a
point downstream not in close proximity to the point of diversion. The stream
reaches between the point of withdrawal and point of discharge is the by-pass
reach.

Non-consumptive Water Use, Surface Water

Surface water use is non-consumptive when there is no diversion from the
water source or diminishment of the source. Additionally, when water is
diverted and returned immediately to the source at the point of diversion
following its use in the same quantity as diverted and meets water quality
standards for the source, the water use is classified as non-consumptive.

Examples of this classification include the following:

a. Water use in hydroelectric projects when the water is not diverted away
from the natural confines of the river or stream channel. These hydroelectric
projects are commonly called run-off-river projects.
b. Water use in some beautification ponds and fish hatcheries when the
outflow is returned to the point of diversion, i.e., there is no bypass reach in the
system. The continuous use of water by such a facility does not result in
diminishment of the source; inflow is equal to outflow.

These facilities normally require water to fill or charge the system once a year.
The water used to fill or hydraulically charge such a system is consumptive and
does cause a diminishment of the source. Water use to fill these facilities will be
allowed, subject to in stream flows and existing rights, when water is available.

14
Non-consumptive Water Use, Groundwater
Groundwater use is non-consumptive when there is no diminishment of the
source. In order not to diminish the source, the withdrawn water is injected or
infiltrated immediately back to the aquifer. The water must be returned in the
same quantity and quality (excluding temperature change) at a point in close
proximity to the withdrawal wells. An example of this use is a heat pump.

Conclusions about Consumptive & Non-Consumptive use.

a. The non-consumptive use of water allows multiple uses of the water by
others downstream. This water may be used by humans (like municipalities, or
industry), by recreational enthusiasts (like fishing or boating) or by the
environment. Non-consumptive use of water will not cause harm (neglecting
changes in quality) to water users downstream.

b. The consumptive use of water means the water is lost to the system. Users
downstream either have to rely on other sources of water (like tributaries
downstream) to make up the shortage or use less water. It is the removal of
water from the system that may cause harm to the downstream water users.

2.2 Single- and Multi- Purpose Water uses (Next day)

Water resources development requires conception, planning, design,
construction and operation of various facilities for economical utilization of
water by adequate and effective planning.

Planning is the orderly consideration of various aspects and processes of water

resources engineering from original statement of purpose to final decision on
the course of action.
The water resources development has a playing field just like a sports man has
a field for his sports. Thus water scientists have to be prepared for complexity
and conflict resolutions. The technical complexity arises as a result of the fact
that the engineers duty is dependent on a governmental meetings, public
hearings, appeals to regulators, and lawsuits most of them who are lack of
technical skills.

15
The complexities, conflicts associated with water resources development was
summed up together as summarized by JOHN F. Kennedy of USA.
“Any one who solves the problems of water deserves not one Noble prize,
but two one for science and other far peace”
Water resources development projects are usually classified based on the
service they provide as: Single-purpose and multi-purpose

A single-purpose approach serves only one basic purpose therefore this type
of water development and management do not reflect the realities of poor
people‟s water use. People use domestic water supplies for activities such as
irrigating backyard gardens, providing for livestock, fishing, processing crops
and running small-scale enterprises. In areas without adequate domestic water
supply, they use irrigation water to meet household needs, such as drinking
and bathing, as well as to support a range of income generating activities in
addition to crop production.

A more integrated, multiple-purpose approach can maximize the healthy

benefits and productive potential of available water supplies–leading to
increased incomes, improved health and reduced workloads for women and
children. Systems that provide to multiple-uses are also more likely to be
sustainable, because users benefit more from them and are more willing and
better able to pay for them.

Policy-makers, planners, and project designers need to enable and support a

multiple-purpose approach by developing the necessary policies, capacities,
and institutions. Incorporating provision for multiple uses into plans for
meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), Poverty Reduction
Strategy Papers (PRSP), and Integrated Water Resources Management
(IWRM) and water efficiency plans and strategies is a start.

Taking an integrated, multiple-purpose approach to water development and

management is an opportunity to advance progress on five of the eight
Millennium Development Goals (MDG‟s):

16
 Goal 1: to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger;
Goal 2: to achieve universal primary education;
Goal 3: to promote gender equality and empower women;
Goal 4: to reduce child mortality, and
Goal 7: to ensure environmental sustainability.

Yet, policy-makers, donor organizations and government agencies are missing

this valuable opportunity for improving the lives of poor and marginalized
groups at very little additional cost.

The current single-use perspective, which dominates thinking on water

development and service provision, has led to domestic water-supply schemes
that forbid the use of water for production or that supply too little water for any
but the most basic domestic needs, and to irrigation schemes that ignore the
need for domestic or household level production activities. By failing to address
people‟s real needs, this top-down, technocratic approach dis-empowers them
and leaves them responsible for systems that only partially meet their
requirements.

When communities design their own water systems, they invariably plan for
multiple uses. And, when single use, public supply schemes are provided, they
are almost always used for multiple purposes. However, because these uses are
unplanned and only rarely acknowledged, they often lead to health risks for
water users, water shortages at the tail ends of supply systems, damage to
infrastructure, and conflicts between users.
Countries taking a strategic look at extending and improving water services for
poor rural and semi-urban communities, should capitalize on the opportunity
to reduce poverty, increase gender equity, and improve health by taking a
multiple-purpose approach. South Africa, for example, has acknowledged the
importance of multiple-use water services to lifting people out of poverty in its
2003 Water Services Strategic Framework. It pledges that: “Water and
sanitation programmes will be designed to support sustainable livelihoods and
local economic development. The provision of water supply and sanitation

17
services has significant potential to alleviate poverty through the creation of
jobs, use of local resources, improvement of nutrition and health, development
of skills, and provision of a long-term livelihood for many households.”

What is a multi-purpose approach?

In essence, a multi-purpose approach serves two or more purpose and involves
(1) Assessing the range of water needs in collaboration with end users,
(2) Examining the water sources available from rainwater to wastewater to
piped systems,
(3) Matching water supplies to needs based on the quantity, quality and
reliability required for various purposes.
Three crucial aspects of a multiple-use approach that are neglected in
traditional approaches to water supply are: participation of local
communities, identification of all water needs, and consideration of the
different water sources available. While this may require more time and effort
than rolling out a blanket program, the end result is more economically
efficient, social equitable and environmentally sustainable.

Ways of accommodating multiple uses of water

Irrigation systems can be adapted by
• Releasing water for household uses and bathing
• Building or reviving community domestic-supply reservoirs
• Building steps in canal banks for laundry and bathing
• Adding pipes, canals and taps to bring water into houses
• Promoting low-cost, point-of-use treatment for drinking water
• Sinking shallow wells to tap cleaner „seepage‟ water
• Adding access and crossing points to canals for cattle
• Maintaining flows to preserve fish populations
• Building fish-friendly structures in sluices and canals.
Domestic water supply systems can be adapted by
• Increasing water discharge to allow productive activities
• Providing water without interruptions
• Adding cattle troughs to supply points

18
 • Adding storage tanks
• Adding micro-irrigation systems
• Using different water sources depending on quality needs
• Promoting reuse of household “grey” (waste) water
Use of other water sources can be maximized by
• Working with the private sector to promote the use of affordable
pumps and drip irrigation kits (also applies to domestic systems)
• Promoting community/rooftop rainwater harvesting
• Enlarging ponds and wells
• Developing gravity-flow systems to pipe in stream-water
• Promoting credit and access to other inputs to enable people to
make use of productive water supplies (applies to all)

Benefits of a multiple-purpose approach

Reducing poverty and improving livelihoods
Cases of people adding value by using water in ways which weren‟t originally
planned for have been documented around the world. For example, a study in
South Africa found that the productive use of domestic water accounts for
around 17 % of the average household income in villages with very limited
domestic water provision, but 31 % in similar villages with adequate domestic
supplies. In some semi-arid areas, a reliable water supply that fulfills domestic
needs and the needs of livestock, kitchen gardens, and small scale enterprises
has been found to be a precondition for poverty alleviation. Other development
efforts are then able to build on this.

Fighting hunger and surviving droughts

Providing water to support activities such as backyard-gardening, fishing and
livestock-feeding, which are not normally considered in domestic or irrigation
water supply schemes, not only increases incomes, it reduces vulnerability.
These activities provide food security, especially during lean times. For example,
during the recent droughts in Zimbabwe, small productive water points
proved to be crucial, allowing small-scale food production when the major
crops failed. In addition, in eastern Ethiopia and the Sahel, reliable,

19
multiple-purpose water supplies improve the productivity of livestock and
reduce mortality throughout the year. There are, for instance, some 1500
multi-purpose small reservoirs in Burkina Faso and around 30,000
government-funded household-level water-harvesting ponds in Ethiopia’s
Tigray region alone.

Improving health
Making more water available for cooking, bathing, sanitation and drinking
reduces the incidence of water-borne diseases and lessen child mortality. While
this can also be said of single-use, domestic water supply schemes, multiple
use approaches have the added value of also providing water for more food and
more income, which improves nutrition and allows people to take extra
preventive health measures and pay for health services.
A multiple use approach also addresses the health risks involved in unplanned
and unacknowledged uses of irrigation water and allows people greater benefits
from this source of water in areas that are as yet un-served by domestic
schemes.
While the quality of drinking water is an important health issue, research
shows that simply having water available in sufficient quantities for drinking
and hygiene is equally important. In fact, providing better access to larger
quantities of water through multiple-use approaches may improve health more
effectively than costly and often ineffective measures to ensure that high quality
water supply. This is especially true if there is a combined approach with the
use of household treatment technologies and hygiene education.
Improving gender equity
Improved water availability also promotes gender equity, as poor women are
primarily responsible for fetching water; women in Africa alone spend
around 40 billion hours per year on this activity. A study in Gujarat (India)
revealed that rural women put the time saved by improved water supply into
other productive activities. In this way, each woman could earn between US$16
and US$115 per year. Multiple-use approaches to water supply are deliberately
gender-sensitive, taking into account women‟s water needs for cooking, food

20
processing, cleaning, and other domestic tasks; which are often otherwise
considered secondary to the need for drinking water.
In addition, for women who are landless or who cannot go far from their houses
for cultural or security reasons, multiple-use facilities near to dwellings can
provide valuable income-earning and food-security opportunities. A variety of
options, besides piped domestic water, can be used. Examples include rooftop
water-harvesting structures, new or enlarged family wells, and household run-
off storage tanks, which allow wastewater from washing and bathing, for
example, to be used productively.

Increasing system sustainability

To be sustainable, water-supply systems need to continue to deliver the
required amounts of water well into the future. This means on-going investment
and maintenance. If a system fulfils all people‟s needs, and if they have a strong
stake in it, they will be more willing to pay for its establishment and upkeep.
Evidences from around the world has shown that allowing for the productive
use of water in domestic schemes makes people more willing to engage in
maintenance. And, importantly, people are better able to pay if they can earn
more income from their increased access to water. What is more, the extra
capital costs involved in providing for multiple uses are a very modest
proportion of the overall investments in single-use schemes.

Involving communities in the design of systems, and taking a long-term view-

both integral parts of a multiple-use approach, means that systems are better
able to adapt to changing needs, again increasing sustainability. And, because
they are specifically designed to fulfill local requirements, multiple-use systems
suffer less damage to infrastructure, as a result of illegal connections or cattle
trampling down canal banks, for example.

21
2.3 Compatibility of Different Uses of Water

If the requirements of water for different uses are compatible with one another,
effective use of the water will be made. If we take irrigation, navigation, and
water supply all impose water demands. Therefore, a project combining these
functions must provide a clear and separate allocation of storage space to each
of these potential functional uses.

Hydropower development is not a consumptive use of water. Any water

released for the other purposes may be used for power. At a base load plant,
the water requirement may be revised for other purposes requiring uniform
flow. At a peaking plant, a regulating pond can be provided to smooth out the
fluctuation of power releases. However, it is usually necessary to allocate a
certain amount of storage for power use, since the seasonal variation in power
demand may not coincide with the demand for other uses.

Flood mitigation, with its requirement for empty storage space, is the least
compatible of all uses. Permanent flood storage is usually allocated at the top
of the normal pool or above the spillway crest. In evaluating the benefits of
storage for flood mitigation, only that storage in excess of the natural channel
storage in the reach occupied by a reservoir should be considered.
The storage for flood mitigation or control can be obtained by: Permanent
allocation or Seasonal allocation.

Sanitary precautions for industrial and municipal use may sometimes

preclude use of the reservoir for recreational purposes. Sanitary requirements
are compatible with other uses as these can be easily combined with the release
of water for other uses.

2.4 Water Supply and Demand Assessment

In water supply and demand assessment forecasts, population and water needs
are necessary ingredients. They are important for determining the location and
types of projects that are required, for establishing the functional
characteristics and scale of project components and estimating their cost, and

22
projecting the benefits expected after the projects are placed in operation.
Estimates of population and water needs can be based on an interpretation of
data on historical trends. If such data are unavailable or inadequate, water
requirements must be estimated by other approaches, such as adapting typical
unit demands that have been compiled by various authorities.

Data for demographic studies

Demography is the science of population. It refers to the number of persons and
their arrangement in space; structure (e.g., sex and age groups); the growth or
decline of population (total or one of its units); components of change in terms
of births, deaths, and migrations; and economic characteristics such as
economic activity, employment status, occupation, industry, and income.

There are large variations of population density throughout the world. The
following factors affect population distribution.
 Climate (temperature, precipitation)
 Landforms (topography, including altitude and slope, swamps, marshes,
and deserts)
 Soils
 Energy sources and mineral raw materials
 Space relationships (accessibility as affected by distance from seacoast,
natural harbors, navigable rivers and fall lines, the heads of river
navigation)
 Cultural factors
Historical (late discovery of settlement)
Political (boundaries, including buffer zones and controls and
migration and trade; government policies)
Types of economic activities
Technology (state of the arts; type of farming; highway, rail, water,
and air transportation facilities)
Social organization


Shryock et al. 1976

United Nations, 1973

23
  Demographic factors (variation in natural increase; variations in net
migration)
 Economic characteristics (employed and unemployed economically active
population; homemakers, students, income recipients, and other none-
economically active population; income)

Water Resource Needs

Categories of water demand include public water uses (domestic, commercial,
industrial and public), rural (domestic, livestock), irrigation and self-supplied
industrial (cooling and processing, thermo-electric and hydroelectric power).
Water demands vary continuously and are expressed for annual, monthly,
daily, hourly, or other time periods.

Withdrawal uses are from diversion of water from ground water or surface
water sources. Non-withdrawal uses are on-site uses such as navigation,
water-based recreation, and waste water disposal by dilution. Water is also
needed for natural vegetation and wildlife.

Consumptive use is the portion of the water withdrawn that is no longer

available for further use because of evaporation, transpiration, incorporation
into manufactured products and crops, or use by human beings and livestock.

Trends in population, water withdrawals, and water consumed vary different in

different countries. If we take, for example, USA the average daily per capita
total water withdrawn was over 7200 liters in 1975 compared with about 5000
liters in 1950. The per capita daily withdrawals for public water supplies
increased to 520 liters in 1975 from 270 liters in 1950. When only the 175
million persons served by public supplies are considered, the value for 1975
was 650 liters per capita per day.

There is generally increasing demand for water throughout the world. In

many developing regions, much of the demand is unsatisfied because of
inadequate water supplies. Per capita uses in one country vary markedly from

24
one region to another and differ from those in other countries. Technological
developments may affect both water demand and water supply in the future, as
shown in the table below.
Differences in demand for public water supply are attributed to both natural
and economic factors. More water is used in warm, arid regions than in
humid areas due to more lawn watering, bathing, and air conditioning. Water
may be run continuously to prevent freezing of pipes extremely cold weather. Of
various climatic influences, precipitation appears to have the greatest effect on
per capita residential demand primarily since it affects the lawn watering
required. The living standards of the population also affect the demand, which
is greater for high income residential districts.

Water is needed for commercial purposes such as: apartments, motels,

hotels, office buildings, shopping centers, and miscellaneous commercial
activities, which are generally called commercial water demand. Industrial
water demand includes the demand for beer, coke, leather (tanned), paper,
steel, woolen, etc. industries. Most of the water used in industry if for cooling
and the amount used can be reduced with extensive recirculation.
Water is also needed for energy, like hydropower. This is essentially a non-
consumptive use and the water is generally available after power production for
other uses. Water demand for irrigation should also be taken into consideration
and the water supplied by an irrigation project must be greater than the
consumptive use less effective precipitation. The total water requirement for
irrigation consists of the water needed by the crops plus the losses in delivery
and application of the water; the later may typically range from 25 % for a canal
system to nothing for spray irrigation. Soil, climate and other physical factors
affect the total water requirement.

Values of water demand such as those given by authorities as standards should

be used only when historical data on water use in the project area or
comparable locations are not available. When information on historical demand
is available it should be taken into account for studies of the water supply
needs (water demand projections).

25
Water Conservation and other non-structural alternatives:
Adverse impacts of water resources development (e.g., environmental, social,
legal) can often be prevented or mitigated by reducing the scale of the project to
fit smaller needs or by substituting management techniques and other non-
structural alternatives. Project cost will generally also be reduced by this
approach. The following are various methods that can be used for different
types of water resource purposes:

Municipal and industrial water supply-reduce the level and/or alter the pattern
of demand by metering, leak detection, and changes in repair rate structures,
regulations on use such as plumbing codes, education programs, and drought
contingency planning. Modify the management of existing water development
and supply by recycling, reuse, and pressure reduction. Increase upstream
watershed management and the conjunctive use of ground ad surface waters.

Irrigation water supply – Reduce the level and/or alter the time pattern of use
through irrigation scheduling, modified water rate structures, leak detection
and repair, recycling, and reuse. Modify the management of existing water
development and supplies by tailway recovery and phreatophyte controls.

Recreation and Fish and Wildlife – Enhance the management of existing sites
and manage capacity by distributing the users of the existing sites.

Hydroelectric Power - Reduce the level and/or time pattern of demand by time
of day pricing, utility loans for insulation, appliance efficiency standards,
educational programs, interregional power transfers, and increased
transmission efficiency.

Navigation – make lockage changes to reduce congestion, improve the

scheduling of lock arrivals, and use switch boats for locking through tows.


A deep-rooted plant that obtains water from a permanent ground supply or from the water table
A class of desert plant with very long tap roots which develop to reach the phreatic zone.

26
Flood Hazard Reduction – Reduce the susceptibility to flood damage by land
use regulations, development and relocation policies, and disaster
preparedness, flood proofing, flood forecasting and early warning systems,
flood plain information, flood plain acquisition, and flood plain easements.
Reduce the adverse burden of flooding by flood insurance and flood emergency
relief programs. Protect natural storage areas such as wetlands for site
detention of flood water and use human-made areas such as building roofs and
parking lots.

27