sensors

Review
Overview of Fiber Optic Sensor Technologies for
Strain/Temperature Sensing Applications in
Composite Materials
Manjusha Ramakrishnan 1, *, Ginu Rajan 2 , Yuliya Semenova 1 and Gerald Farrell 1
Received: 29 October 2015; Accepted: 10 January 2016; Published: 15 January 2016
Academic Editor: Vittorio M. N. Passaro
1 Photonics Research Centre, School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Dublin Institute of Technology,
Kevin Street, Dublin 8, Ireland; [email protected] (Y.S.); [email protected] (G.F.)
2 School of Electrical, Computer and Telecommunications Engineering, University of Wollongong,
New South Wales 2522, Australia; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +353-1-402-4812; Fax: +353-1-402-4690

Abstract: This paper provides an overview of the different types of fiber optic sensors (FOS) that can
be used with composite materials and also their compatibility with and suitability for embedding
inside a composite material. An overview of the different types of FOS used for strain/temperature
sensing in composite materials is presented. Recent trends, and future challenges for FOS technology
for condition monitoring in smart composite materials are also discussed. This comprehensive review
provides essential information for the smart materials industry in selecting of appropriate types of
FOS in accordance with end-user requirements.

Keywords: fiber optic sensor; composite materials; strain/temperature sensing; smart materials;
structural health monitoring

1. Introduction
Composite material structures [1] are widely used in the aerospace, marine, aviation, transport,
sport/leisure and civil engineering industries [1]. Composite material structures are frequently
subjected to external perturbations and varying environmental conditions which may cause the
structures to suffer from fatigue damage and/or failures, and thus require real time structural health
monitoring (SHM). The diagnostics process and condition monitoring of composite structures is
usually carried out during their working life [2]. The goal of such diagnostics is to detect, identify,
locate and assess the defects that may affect the safety or performance of a structure. Sensors that
are commonly employed for SHM are resistance strain gauges, fiber optic sensors, piezoelectric
sensors, eddy current sensors, and micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) sensors [3]. Traditional
nondestructive evaluation techniques such as ultrasonic inspection, acoustography, low frequency
methods, radiographic inspection, shearography, acousto-ultrasonic and thermography are effective
for SHM of composite materials and structures, but frequently it is difficult or impossible to use such
nondestructive evaluation techniques in an operational structure due to the size and weight of the
systems [4]. Fiber optic sensors (FOS) on the other hand are suitable candidates for SHM of composite
materials during operation since they are capable of achieving the goals of diagnostics as well as
condition monitoring and being very compact in size and can also be embedded into such structures,
acting in many ways as the equivalent of a human nervous system [5]. Previous investigations of FOS
embedded in composite structures indicate that FOS technology is capable of monitoring stress/strain,
temperature, composite cure process, vibration, humidity, delamination and cracking and thus has
great potential for condition monitoring of a variety of composite materials applications [6,7].

Sensors 2016, 16, 99; doi:10.3390/s16010099 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2016, 16, 99 2 of 27

Recognizing the increase in the use of composite structures and the need for them to perform
“smart” functions, such as sensing and actuation, this paper for the first time presents a comprehensive
overview of recent advances in the area of FOS technology for condition monitoring involving strain
and temperature measurements in composite materials and also quantities such as thermal expansion.
An overview of different types of most commonly used composite materials and their properties is
given in Section 2. Then the demand for the SHM in composite material structures is discussed in
Section 3, following which the common fabrication methods of composite materials with embedded
fiber sensors are detailed in Section 4 while the issues of composite degradation associated with
embedding of fiber sensors are discussed in Section 5. An overview of different types of fiber sensors
for strain/temperature measurements in composite materials is presented in Section 6. The recent
trends, issues and future challenges of the FOS technology are discussed in Section 7.

2. Composite Materials and Demand for the SHM in Composite Material Structures
In this section we discuss the various classifications of typical composite materials and their
properties. In general, fibre composite materials have two constituent materials; reinforcement fibres
and a matrix [8] that when combined together can produce a material with properties superior to
those of the constituent materials. It is known that the mechanical properties of a composite material
differ depending on the matrix and the reinforcing materials used to fabricate the composite [8,9]. The
functions of the matrix in a composite material are: to transfer the load to the reinforcement fibres; to
provide temperature resistance and chemical resistance and to maintain the reinforcement fibres in a
fixed orientation [10].
The second constituent of a composite material is the reinforcement fibre [9]. The composite
material’s tensile properties, stiffness and impact resistance are influenced by the type of the fibre
reinforcement [10]. As regards applications, fibre reinforced composite materials are commonly
used for the fabrication of various structural parts such as aircraft tails, wings, fuselages, propellers,
helicopter rotor blades, wind turbine blades, in the construction industry and as components in racing
cars, boats, etc. [7]. One of the key challenges in the design of a composite structural part in many
applications is the need to achieve a fail-safe design solution, which requires optimisation of multiple
parameters. Typically given the performance specifications for a composite part [9], the areas that
need optimisation are: the selection of most appropriate reinforcement and matrix constituents to
satisfy the requirements for strength and stiffness of the particular composite part with a minimum
weight; the selection of the composite part’s geometry; a careful analysis of stress distribution within
the part; the minimization of moisture ingress; optimization of toughness and an analysis of failure
modes. Prior to opting for a particular design for mass production the manufacturer also needs to
consider the repeatability of the composite part’s performance specification, ease of production, cost
efficiency and quality assurance mechanisms [10–12]. Finally, even though the designed structural
part is optimised for fail-safe performance there is a possibility of damage during operation in extreme
environmental conditions and mechanical failure of the structure due to external perturbations [3]
and this necessitates the requirement for non-destructive structural health monitoring techniques
throughout the lifetime of the composite structural part.
The demand for SHM in composites is in the first instance driven by the increased use of composite
materials. The widespread use of carbon reinforced fibre plastics (CRP) and glass fibre reinforced
plastic (GRP) composite based structural parts has significantly increased in application areas such
as aircraft, sport vehicles, wind turbines, and infrastructure constructions, because of the inherent
advantages of composite materials. For example, in aircraft the advantages are well known: lighter
weight for the aircraft, reduced requirements for maintenance and increased passenger comfort [13].
The use of composite materials in aircraft is growing, as shown in Figure 1a–c. Aircraft that utilize a
high proportion of lightweight composite materials consume less fuel and result in a high cost benefit
that yields energy savings up to 18%. Some existing commercial aircraft models such as the Boeing
787 and Airbus A350 are comprised of circa 50% composite materials by weight. Market research
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 3 of 27

Sensors 2016, 16, 99 3 of 26

conducted in 2013 by Jahn and Witten indicates that there will be a growing demand for such aircraft
in theaircraft
such coming inyears [14]. Figure
the coming 1a,b Figure
years [14]. show the overall
1a,b show use of CFP use
the overall composites by different
of CFP composites byindustries
different
and GRP production
industries in differentinEuropean
and GRP production different industries
European respectively.
industries respectively.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 1. (a) Use of CF composites by industry [14]; (b) GRP production in Europe for different
Figure 1. (a) Use of CF composites by industry [14]; (b) GRP production in Europe for different
application
application industries
industries [14]
[14] and
and (c)
(c) development
development of
of composite
composite aerospace
aerospace applications
applications in
in last
last 40
40 years
years
(source data from Hexcel Corp. Aerostrategy).
(source data from Hexcel Corp. Aerostrategy).

The driving force behind the need for SHM in composite materials is the necessity to monitor
The driving force behind the need for SHM in composite materials is the necessity to monitor
composite parts during operation, for safety and early detection of failure. During a typical 20-year
composite parts during operation, for safety and early detection of failure. During a typical 20-year
service life, composite structures such as wind turbine blades, helicopter blades, construction parts
service life, composite structures such as wind turbine blades, helicopter blades, construction parts
and aircraft parts are subjected to static and dynamic lift, drag and inertial loads over a wide range
and aircraft parts are subjected to static and dynamic lift, drag and inertial loads over a wide range
of temperatures and often severe environmental conditions. As the growth in production and use of
of temperatures and often severe environmental conditions. As the growth in production and use of
composite parts has increased, the composite industry has increasingly focused on damage/failure
composite parts has increased, the composite industry has increasingly focused on damage/failure
free composite structures and non-destructive techniques for SHM over a part’s life time. Compared
free composite structures and non-destructive techniques for SHM over a part’s life time. Compared to
to conventional non-destructive sensing techniques, optical fiber sensors have achieved wide
conventional non-destructive sensing techniques, optical fiber sensors have achieved wide acceptance
acceptance due to their attractive properties such as small size, immunity to electromagnetic
due to their attractive properties such as small size, immunity to electromagnetic interference and low
interference and low cost [1]. Optical fiber sensors embedded in various structures are very useful
cost [1]. Optical fiber sensors embedded in various structures are very useful for strain/temperature
for strain/temperature monitoring [2] applications in extreme environmental conditions. For
monitoring [2] applications in extreme environmental conditions. For example, issues such as bend
example, issues such as bend loading in aircraft wings and bridges can be monitored and avoided by
implementing smart composite structures with embedded fiber optic sensors. Also more complex
sensing needs can be met, such as the detection of the formation of ice on the wings of an aircraft by
implementing smart composite structures with embedded fiber optic sensors within the wings
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 4 of 27

loading in aircraft wings and bridges can be monitored and avoided by implementing smart composite
structures with embedded fiber optic sensors. Also more complex sensing needs can be met, such
as the detection of the formation of ice on the wings of an aircraft by implementing smart composite
structures with embedded fiber optic sensors within the wings material. Monitoring of the wing bend
or loading due to ice accumulation combined with temperature data can improve the efficiency of
the aircraft’s de-icing systems. As a result, it can be concluded that smart composite materials with
embedded fiber optic sensors can significantly enhance the safety of advanced machines, structures
and devices.

3. Composite Materials with Embedded Fiber Sensors: Fabrication Methods

In this section we discuss the commonly employed sample fabrication methods for composite
materials with embedded FOS.

3.1. Fabrication Method of Composite Samples Embedded with FOS by Hand Layup and Pre-Preg
Layup Methods
The most common fabrication processes adopted by laboratory based and small scale industrial
manufacturers are the expertise intensive hand layup and pre-preg layup [15] methods. The hand
layup method is a process for arranging fiber–reinforced layers in a laminate and shaping the laminate
to fabricate the desired part. For this the reinforcement fibers or fabrics are stacked one over another
by applying the matrix in between them. After stacking, curing (or polymerization) of the resin matrix
of the multiple laminate layered composite, the sample can be shaped as per the manufacturer’s
specifications. Pre-pregs are single laminates of “pre-impregnated” composite fibers with a matrix
material such as epoxy resin. In the pre-preg layup method, multiples of composite pre-preg laminates
are stacked one over another and the curing can be done unaided or by applying heat and/or pressure.
The moulding process can be either vacuum—bag moulding, or an autoclave moulding. Typical
autoclave curing conditions involve a temperature range from 120 ˝ C to 200 ˝ C with an applied
pressure up to 100 psi (~6.89 kPa).
For embedding optical fibers in samples prepared by both the hand—layup and the pre-preg
layup methods the process is similar as follows: before the curing process optical fibers are placed
on the corresponding composite layer and some pre-strain is applied to make sure the optical fibers
remain free of bends [16]. Positioning of the optical sensor is highly application specific and depends
on the location of the areas where parameters need to be monitored. For example, for applied strain
and temperature measurements of composite material structures it is reported that optical fiber sensors
were embedded within the furthest layer from middle layer to achieve the highest measurement
sensitivity [17]. The different steps for embedding optical fiber sensors by the hand layup and pre-preg
methods are shown in Figure 2a,b respectively. For larger composite parts, optical fibers can be
embedded manually with expert assistance as shown in Figure 2c, but for large scale production of
smart composite structures materials embedded with optical fiber sensors automated robotic systems
can be used. One of the most important concerns while embedding FOS inside composite structures is
their influence on the structural integrity of the composite part. In the next section we have detailed
some methods to reduce the risk of composite material degradation and to maintain the structural
integrity of the composite material structures with embedded sensors.

3.2. Rotating Filament Wound Pressure Cylinder with FOS

Fabrication details of E-glass fibre reinforced composite based pressure cylinders with FOS was
reported earlier [18] for the composite parts with cylindrical shapes. In this method a machine
assisted filament winding process in the circumferential direction is used. Continuous E-glass roving
reinforcement fibre with different orientation angles can be used to achieve a defined length for the
fabricated pressure cylinder. The winding angle ˘55˝ with respect to the cylinder’s long axis is the
classical winding angle for pressure vessels, where circumferential stress is twice the value of axial
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 5 of 27

stress. The machine assisted filament winding process operates in such a way that at both ends of
the cylinder there are zones of reinforcing fibers, placed at an angle of 90˝ to the cylinder axis. For
embedding FOS in to the composite cylinders, a specifically designed mandrel with a winding machine
rotary is co-operated with a rotating filament winding machine. The matrix material is applied during
Sensors 2016, 16, 99
the winding process. The matrix material used is a mixture of Araldite LY 5052 epoxy and5hardener
of 26

HY 5052. The samples are cured at temperature 50 ˝ C for 900 min. More detailed explanation of this
and hardener HY 5052. The samples are cured at temperature 50 °C for 900 min. More detailed
particular method
explanation is given
of this in reference
particular [18].
method is given in reference [18].

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 2. Embedding fiber sensors inside composite materials (a) hand layup; (b) pre-preg method,
Figure 2. Embedding fiber sensors inside composite materials (a) hand layup; (b) pre-preg method,
and (c) expert assisted manufacturing of composite part embedded with FOS.
and (c) expert assisted manufacturing of composite part embedded with FOS.
Fabrication method for a pressure cylinder made of carbon fibre reinforced epoxy pre-preg
embedded
Fabrication with FOS was
method forreported in [19].
a pressure In this made
cylinder methodofthe carbonfibre
carbon fibre reinforced
reinforcement is wound
epoxy pre-preg
using machine assisted rotating filament. The optical fibre is embedded between
embedded with FOS was reported in [19]. In this method the carbon fibre reinforcement the first and second
is wound
plies of the laminate sequence. Pre-stressed optical fibres are drenched in epoxy resin and are wound
onto a water-soluble mandrel after which the vessel is cured in an oven. The winding of the pressure
vessels consists of five layers in total: in which two polar windings with winding angles of 12.7° and
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 6 of 27

using machine assisted rotating filament. The optical fibre is embedded between the first and second
plies of the laminate sequence. Pre-stressed optical fibres are drenched in epoxy resin and are wound
onto a water-soluble mandrel after which the vessel is cured in an oven. The winding of the pressure
vessels consists of five layers in total: in which two polar windings with winding angles of 12.7˝
and 16.5˝ and three hoop windings with a winding angle of approximately 90˝ . The optical fibre is
carefully embedded during the winding process of the vessel in the outer 90˝ winding, parallel to the
reinforcing fibres.

3.3. Composite Panels Embedded with FOS

A laboratory level fabrication method of composite panels with embedded FOS using specially
designed Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) apparatus is reported earlier [20–22]. The specially designed
RTM apparatus allows for different types of mold designs with variable mold thicknesses. Automatic
control system is used for the resin injection process and a transparent glass top is provided for visual
monitoring of resin flow. Automated control of curing temperature as well as the mold part temperature
is achieved by using thermocouple sensors with an automated water temperature controller. The
FOSs are embedded into the perform itself. The ingress/egress parts of optical fibers that enter in to
the composite panels are at an angle close to 90˝ relative to the component’s surface. A thin bended
hypodermic tube is placed around the optical fiber such a way that the bend radius of the hypodermic
tube is carefully chosen to avoid the possibility of fiber fracture. To protect the optical fibers from the
disturbances due to reinforcement preform, a tapered silicon stopper is fitted in a hole in the mold and
the hypodermic tube passes through this stopper. Thus the ingress/egress is sealed and is capable of
withstanding resin injection pressure of approximately 0.75 bar.

3.4. Braided Composites Embedded with FOS

A method to co-braid optical fibers into braided composites is also reported [23]. The reported
advantage of this method is that the embedded optical fibers will not cause large resin pockets in the
material. In this method, optical fibers are incorporated as an axial yarn so that the optical fibers run
straight as well as parallel with respect to the specimen braiding direction. The structural reinforcement
fibres are then braided around the optical fibers. The types of FOS that are reported incorporated with
such braided composites are the Fabry-Perot fiber optic sensor, polarimetric optical fiber sensor, and
the Bragg grating fiber optic sensor. A special RTM molding dye is designed to protect the optical
fibers from any damage during the curing process. The RTM process is used for composite fabrication
using a release agent, Epoxy 828 resin, and a curative. The temperature of the molding process is
85 ˝ C, at the pressure of 0.1 MPa. Carbon fibre is used as reinforcement and the specimens are braided
with a fiber volume fraction of 50%.

3.5. FOS Stitched Carbon Fibre Preforms for Advanced Composite Structures
Incorporating optical fibers during carbon fibre based preform fabrication itself is promising and
has been reported earlier [24]. In this method optical fibers were stitched into each fiber preform along
the middle plane of the laminate. FOS stitched carbon fibre preforms were successfully demonstrated
for condition monitoring as well the resin advancement monitoring through the preform during the
infusion. For monitoring the resin advancement, a reference optical fiber was placed as near as possible
to the infusion tube in order to estimate the entry time of the resin as a reference time for the FOS
signals [24].

4. Composite Material Degradation Associated with Embedding of Fiber Sensors

One of the major concerns when embedding FOSs in composite materials is the degradation of the
composite material’s mechanical properties and also the possible increase in the probability of failure
due to the presence of embedded optical fibers [25]. Various studies have been carried out to analyse
the influence of the embedded FOS on composite material tensile/compressive strength, stiffness, inter
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 7 of 27

laminar fracture toughness, and fatigue resistance, etc. It is reported that having embedded optical
fibers passing through or parallel to ply-drops in a laminate does not have any significant effects on
the static strength of the laminate [26,27]. This is valid even for optical fibers placed in the most critical
locations. In principle any potential degradation of strength and the modulus of a composite material
will be a function of the orientation of the optical fiber relative to the nearest plies, the overall thickness
of the laminate, the optical fiber diameter, and type of protective coating on the optical fiber [26].
Degradation becomes increasingly severe with an increasing angle between the optical fiber and ply
directions. Another issue is the larger diameter of the optical fiber (with its buffer coating) compared
to the ply fibers of the composite. In general, commercially available optical fibers have diameters
from 125 µm to 230 µm, which is about ten to fifteen times larger than the average E-glass fiber or
carbon fiber. Embedding the optical fiber perpendicularly to the direction of the reinforcement fibres
can result in appearance of characteristic “eye” patterns or “pockets” within the resin, which act as
defect centers in the composite part that could ultimately lead to premature failure in the form of
delamination [27]. However, testing conducted at a number of labs worldwide concluded that such
delaminations were insignificant if the FOS density was low. It reported that if the optical fiber is laid
along the direction of reinforcement fiber there is a uniform consolidation around the optical fiber with
minimum defects and thus the laminate’s mechanical parameters are least affected [6,26–29]. Also the
optical fibers laid along the direction of fiber reinforcement have limited influence on the mechanical
behavior of composite structure because of optical fiber’s own inherent load carrying ability [26].
An analysis [6] on the flexural strength of a composite material, embedded with FOSs, that bears
tensile loading showed that the flexural strength did not suffer any noticeable degradation when
the FOS were embedded in the tensile region either in the longitudinal direction or in the transverse
direction. For compressive loading, the situation is similar if the sensor is embedded in the longitudinal
direction but it is found that if the FOS is embedded in the transverse direction with respect to the
compressive region, the flexural strength is degraded significantly [30]. In order to realize SHM
for composite material components in many applications it is essential to measure the strain and
temperature of composite materials and in the next section we discuss the different types of FOS strain
and temperature sensors that can be embedded in composite materials.

5. Types of Fiber Optic Sensors for Strain/Temperature Measurements in Composite Materials

There are a wide variety of applications of fiber optic sensors in composite materials, including
vibration measurements, cure process monitoring, temperature measurements, thermal expansion
measurements, detection of delamination/debonding, three dimensional strain measurements, thermal
strain measurements, relative humidity measurements and detection of cracking, etc. [31–34]. For all
these applications the key requirement is to measure either strain or temperature or both parameters.
In this section we discuss the different type of FOS that can be used with composite materials to
measure strain/temperature when embedded inside a composite material. The different types of
FOS reported for strain/temperature measurements in composite materials are fiber Bragg grating
(FBG) sensors [35–37], interferometric fiber optic sensors [38], polarimetric sensors [39], fiber optic
micro bend sensors [40], distributed sensors (using techniques such as Rayleigh scattering, Raman
scattering, and Brillouin scattering) [41,42] and hybrid sensors [43–45]. The aim of this review is to
provide essential information for the smart materials industry in selecting of appropriate types of FOS
in accordance with the end-user requirements and applications.

5.1. Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor for Composite Materials

FBGs are the most commonly employed fiber optic sensors in SHM applications for composite
materials [35–37]. A fiber Bragg grating sensor comprises of a grating region with a periodic change in
refractive index in the core region of an optical fiber. Such a periodically modulated refractive index
structure enables the light to be coupled from the forward propagating core mode into a backward
propagating core mode generating a reflection response, as shown in the schematic illustrating the
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 8 of 27

principle of an FBG provided in Figure 3 [46]. The light reflected due to periodic variations of the
refractive index of the Bragg grating with a central wavelength given by [46]:

λB “ 2n0 Λ (1)

where
Sensors 2016, the99effective refractive index of the guided mode in the fiber core and Λ is the grating 8pitch.
n0 is16, of 26

Figure 3. Fiber Bragg grating.

Figure 3. Fiber Bragg grating.

The strain sensitivity of the Bragg wavelength arises from the change in the pitch of the fiber
The
grating duestrain sensitivity
to strain of the Bragg
and changes in the wavelength
refractive index arises from from
arising the change in the pitch
the strain-optic of the
effect. Whenfibera
grating due to strain and changes in the refractive index arising from the strain-optic
strain is applied to the grating, the Bragg reflected wavelength changes. The wavelength shift Δλ effect. When a
strain is applied to the grating, the Bragg
for a value of elongation ΔL is given by [46]: reflected wavelength changes. The wavelength shift ∆λ ε for
a value of elongation ∆L is given by [46]:
 1  1 n 
    Bˆ· 1 BΛ  1 Bn0 ·˙L (2)
∆λε “ λB ¨   L ` n0 L  ¨ ∆L
0
(2)
Λ BL n0 BL
In practice the applied strain value can be estimated from the measurement of reflected
In practice
wavelength the applied
as it changes due tostrain value
applied can The
strain. be estimated from
typical strain the measurement
sensitivity of an FBG atof1550
reflected
nm is
wavelength
~1.2 pm/µε. as it changes due to applied strain. The typical strain sensitivity of an FBG at 1550 nm is
~1.2 pm/µε.
Bragg wavelength shift can also occur due to changes in temperature. For a temperature
Braggofwavelength
variation shift can alsowavelength
ΔT, the corresponding occur due toshiftchanges
ΔλT isingiven
temperature.
by [46]: For a temperature variation
of ∆T, the corresponding wavelength shift ∆λT is given by [46]:
 1  1 n 
 T   Bˆ· 1 BΛ  1 Bn0 ˙
·T (3)
∆λT “ λB ¨   T ` n0 T  ¨ ∆T
0
(3)
Λ BT n0 BT
The temperature sensitivity of the Bragg wavelength arises from the change in the grating pitch
The temperature
associated sensitivity
with the thermal of theof
expansion Bragg wavelength
the fiber, and the arises
changefrom therefractive
in the change in the grating
index arising pitch
from
associated with the thermal expansion of the fiber, and the
the thermo-optic effect. Thus Equation (3) can be also written as [46]: change in the refractive index arising from
the thermo-optic effect. Thus Equation (3) can be also written as [46]:
 T   0  0 · B ·T (4)
∆λT “ pα0 ` β0 q ¨ λB ¨ ∆T (4)
where α0 is the coefficient of the thermal expansion (CTE) of the fiber, and β0 is the fiber refractive
index variation
where α0 is the with temperature,
coefficient respectively.
of the thermal The values
expansion (CTE)of ofαthe
0 and β0 are constants for silica optical
fiber, and β0 is the fiber refractive
fiber, and are 0.55 × 10 −6/°C, and 6.6 × 10−6/°C, respectively. The typical temperature sensitivity of an
index variation with temperature, respectively. The values of α0 and β0 are constants for silica optical
FBG at
fiber, and1550 nm is
are 0.55 ˆ 10~11.6
´6 /˝pm/°C. Commonly
C, and 6.6 ˆ 10´6 /˝FBGs are used to
C, respectively. Themeasure axial strain as
typical temperature well as
sensitivity
temperature. This is because axial strain
˝ sensitivity is effectively higher as
of an FBG at 1550 nm is ~11.6 pm/ C. Commonly FBGs are used to measure axial strain as well the change in the FBG pitchas
is directly proportional to the applied longitudinal strain. The measured wavelength
temperature. This is because axial strain sensitivity is effectively higher as the change in the FBG shift of the
embedded
pitch FBG proportional
is directly sensors for different deflection
to the applied values during
longitudinal strain.a The
three-point
measured bending strain shift
wavelength test onof
composite material is shown in Figure 4a. The measured wavelength shift of the embedded FBG
sensors at different temperatures of composite materials is shown in Figure 4b. One can see that a red
shift of the Bragg wavelength arises as a result of an increase in temperature. Other than standard
Bragg gratings with a uniform period, there are chirped gratings with a gradual period variation [47],
and tilted fiber Bragg gratings (TFBG) [47] with gratings written at an angle to the fiber axis are also
employed for strain temperature measurements in composite materials. The chirped FBG sensor has
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 9 of 27

the embedded FBG sensors for different deflection values during a three-point bending strain test
on composite material is shown in Figure 4a. The measured wavelength shift of the embedded
FBG sensors at different temperatures of composite materials is shown in Figure 4b. One can see
that a red shift of the Bragg wavelength arises as a result of an increase in temperature. Other than
standard Bragg gratings with a uniform period, there are chirped gratings with a gradual period
variation [47], and tilted fiber Bragg gratings (TFBG) [47] with gratings written at an angle to the fiber
axis are also employed for strain temperature measurements in composite materials. The chirped
FBG sensor has a gradual distribution of the grating period [48]. This variation in the grating period
provides a one-to-one correspondence between the wavelength in the spectrum and the position of
Sensors 2016, 16, 99
the
9 of 26
gauge section within composite material, which is the significant advantage of chirped FBG sensors
over the conventional
conventional FBG sensorsFBG [48].
sensors
The[48].
main The main disadvantage
disadvantage of conventional
of conventional FBG sensors
FBG sensors is the
is the cross-
cross-sensitivity between temperature and strain. In a different manner from
sensitivity between temperature and strain. In a different manner from conventional FBGs, the wave conventional FBGs,
the wave
vector of avector
TFBGof hasa aTFBG hasangle
certain a certain
with angle
respectwith respect
to the to the
fiber axis; fiber axis;
making making the
the resonance resonance
wavelengths
wavelengths
of core modeofand corecladding
mode and cladding
mode to bemode to betosensitive
sensitive to temperature,
temperature, while theirwhile their transmission
transmission power is
power is temperature-independent [49]. Thus based on these unique characteristics
temperature-independent [49]. Thus based on these unique characteristics of TFBG, it is possible of TFBG, it to
is
possible to achieve simultaneous
achieve simultaneous discriminationdiscrimination
of mechanical of mechanical
perturbations perturbations and temperature
and temperature [47,49].
[47,49]. Different
Different methods have been reported by other authors to compensate for
methods have been reported by other authors to compensate for the cross-sensitivity effects between the cross-sensitivity
effects between
temperature andtemperature
strain; theseand strain;include
methods these methods
introductioninclude
of a introduction
reference FBGof[50],
a reference FBG [50],
dual-wavelength
dual-wavelength
superimposed FBGs superimposed FBGs
[51], different [51], different
cladding diametercladding
FBGs [52], diameter
combinedFBGsFBG [52],
andcombined FBG
a long-period
and a long-period grating [53], combination of an FBG and a Fabry-Perot interferometer
grating [53], combination of an FBG and a Fabry-Perot interferometer [54], and superstructure FBG [54], and
superstructure
method [55]. FBG method [55].

(a) (b)
Figure 4. (a) Measured wavelength shift for the FBG sensors at different deflection values (b) measured
Figure 4. (a) Measured wavelength shift for the FBG sensors at different deflection values (b) measured
wavelength shift for the FBG sensors at different temperatures [56].
wavelength shift for the FBG sensors at different temperatures [56].

It has also been reported that for coating stripped FBGs thermal expansion of a composite
It
materialhasasalso been
well reported
as the that for coating
non uniform stripped
strain can causeFBGs
Braggthermal expansionand
peak distortion of abroadening
composite material
[28,56].
as
The strain components acting in different directions within the composite structure[28,56].
well as the non uniform strain can cause Bragg peak distortion and broadening can be The strain
measured
components acting FBGs
using multiplexed in different
[57]. Indirections
addition, within the composite
a non-isotropic structure canwithin
strain distribution be measured using
the composite
multiplexed FBGs [57]. In addition, a non-isotropic strain distribution within the composite
material can be measured by using an FBG written in a micro-structured high birefringence fiber [58]. material
can be measured by using an FBG written in a micro-structured high birefringence fiber [58].
5.1.1. FBG Written in Micro-Structured Fibers as a Sensor for Composite Materials
5.1.1. FBG Written in Micro-Structured Fibers as a Sensor for Composite Materials
A conventional FBG sensor’s primary response is to an axial strain but the transverse strain also
A conventional FBG sensor’s primary response is to an axial strain but the transverse strain also
has some influence on the FBG sensor’s response [57,59]. But it is difficult to discriminate axial strain
has some influence on the FBG sensor’s response [57,59]. But it is difficult to discriminate axial strain
and transverse strain from FBG spectral response. For strain mapping in some SHM applications, for
and transverse strain from FBG spectral response. For strain mapping in some SHM applications, for
example, for the detection of damage, cracks, delamination etc a multi axial strain measurement is
required. This in turn results in the importance of development of a sensing scheme that provides
measurements of axial strain together with transverse strain. It is reported that FBGs written in the
highly birefringent (HB) fibers and high birefringent micro-structured fibers (HB-MOF) have real
potential to measure transverse strain and axial strain simultaneously [58,60]. As represented in
Figure 5a, an FBG written in a highly birefringent fiber displays two Bragg peaks, corresponding to
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 10 of 27

example, for the detection of damage, cracks, delamination etc a multi axial strain measurement is
required. This in turn results in the importance of development of a sensing scheme that provides
measurements of axial strain together with transverse strain. It is reported that FBGs written in the
highly birefringent (HB) fibers and high birefringent micro-structured fibers (HB-MOF) have real
potential to measure transverse strain and axial strain simultaneously [58,60]. As represented in
Figure 5a, an FBG written in a highly birefringent fiber displays two Bragg peaks, corresponding to
both orthogonally polarized modes. The change of the Bragg peak separation depends on the phase
modal birefringence variation induced by transverse load and temperature. The properties of an MOF
and its sensitivity to different measurands are determined by the type of the fiber used. However it
is reported that FBGs written in HB fibers such as the bow-tie type have the disadvantage of greater
temperature and strain cross sensitivity [59].
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 10 of 26

(a)

(b) (c)
Figure 5. (a) Reflection spectra for an FBG written in a HB-PM-PCF with two peaks corresponding to
Figure 5. (a)
slowReflection
axis and fastspectra
axis; (b)for an FBG
change in thewritten in a HB-PM-PCF
peak separation with
with transverse two
strain for peaks corresponding
FBGs written in to
slow axis MOF
and fast axis; (b)
and bow-tie typechange in (c)
fibers; and thechange
peakinseparation with
peak separation transverse
with temperaturestrain
[60]. for FBGs written in
MOF and bow-tie type fibers; and (c) change in peak separation with temperature [60].
The cross-sensitivity issue can be resolved by writing FBGs in low temperature sensitive MOFs,
such as high birefringent polarization maintaining photonic crystal fibers (HB-PM-PCF). For
The cross-sensitivity
example, a comparison issue can be
response of resolved
the embeddedby writing
FBG sensorsFBGs in low
written temperature
in conventional sensitive MOFs,
birefringent
optical fibers (bow-tie) and a HB-PM-PCF when the composite material is exposed
such as high birefringent polarization maintaining photonic crystal fibers (HB-PM-PCF). For example, to controlled
mechanical and thermal loads are presented in Figure 5b,c, respectively. For the FBG in a bow-tie
a comparison response of the embedded FBG sensors written in conventional birefringent optical fibers
type fiber the Bragg peak separation varies in accordance with the transverse strain and temperature
(bow-tie) and a HB-PM-PCF
as shown in Figure 5b,c.when
Howevertheincomposite material
the case of an FBG in aislowexposed to controlled
temperature mechanical
sensitive MOF, the and
thermal loads
Braggare
peak presented in Figure
separation varies 5b,c, respectively.
with transverse For
strain only. A the FBGindependent
temperature in a bow-tie type
axial fiber
strain and the Bragg
transverse
peak separation strain
varies inmeasurement
accordanceinwith a composite material can
the transverse be carried
strain out using an FBG
and temperature written in
as shown in aFigure 5b,c.
HB-PM-PCF [60]. It is also reported that the two Bragg peaks in the case of an FBG written in HB-
However in the case of an FBG in a low temperature sensitive MOF, the Bragg peak separation varies
PM-PCF are farther separated than for an FBG in a bow-tie fiber and therefore FBGs written in
with transverse strain only.
MOF/HB-PM-PCF A temperature
allow independent
for more accurate measurements axial
of thestrain and transverse
peak wavelengths and thusstrain measurement
are more
in a composite
suitablematerial can be
for composite carried
material out using
sensing an FBG
applications written
despite high in a HB-PM-PCF
splice loss induced lower[60]. It is also
reflectivity of the grating [58,60].
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 11 of 27

reported that the two Bragg peaks in the case of an FBG written in HB-PM-PCF are farther separated
than for an FBG in a bow-tie fiber and therefore FBGs written in MOF/HB-PM-PCF allow for more
accurate measurements of the peak wavelengths and thus are more suitable for composite material
Sensors
sensing 2016, 16, 99 despite high splice loss induced lower reflectivity of the grating [58,60].
applications 11 of 26

5.1.2.5.1.2. Phase-Shifted
Phase-Shifted FBGs
FBGs forfor CompositeMaterials
Composite Materials
The phase-shifted FBG (PS-FBG) sensor together with its interrogation system is proven as one
The phase-shifted FBG (PS-FBG) sensor together with its interrogation system is proven as one of
of the high sensitivity methods for acoustic emission (AE) measurement [61]. PS-FBGs are widely
the high sensitivity methods for acoustic emission (AE) measurement [61]. PS-FBGs are widely used
used in optical fiber communications and optical fiber sensing applications as a wavelength
in optical fiber communications
multiplexer and also as a strainand optical
sensor. fiber sensing
The extremely sharpapplications
resonance in as
theatransmission
wavelengthspectrum
multiplexer
and also as a strain sensor. The extremely sharp resonance in the transmission spectrum
of the PS-FBG enables it to develop a high sensitivity interrogation system capable of measuring of thevery
PS-FBG
enables
small strain changes, even at high acoustic frequencies. A typical transmission spectrum of a PS-FBGstrain
it to develop a high sensitivity interrogation system capable of measuring very small
changes, even at high
interrogated usingacoustic
a tunablefrequencies.
laser is shownA typical transmission
in Figure spectrum
6. It has been of a PS-FBG
demonstrated interrogated
that using this
usingmethod
a tunable microscale strains in
laser is shown can be measured
Figure and thus
6. It has been the sensor that
demonstrated is suitable for method
using this AE sensing in
microscale
composite
strains structures [61].
can be measured and thus the sensor is suitable for AE sensing in composite structures [61].

Figure
Figure 6. Spectral
6. Spectral response
response of of a PS-FBGand
a PS-FBG andits
its interrogation
interrogation technique
techniquebased on on
based a narrow bandband
a narrow laser laser
signal
signal [61]. [61].

5.1.3. Polymer FBG Sensor for Composite Materials

5.1.3. Polymer FBG Sensor for Composite Materials
For composite materials, the attractive characteristics of polymer FBGs include their high
For composite
temperature materials,
sensitivity, largethe attractive
strain range, and characteristics of polymer
the absence of buffer coating FBGs [62–64].include their high
These distinct
temperature
features ofsensitivity,
the polymer large
FBGsstrain
mightrange,
provideand some the absence of
advantages overbuffer coating
standard silica[62–64]. These distinct
FBGs in measuring
features
someofofthe
thepolymer
parameters FBGs might
of the provide
composite some advantages over standard silica FBGs in measuring
materials.
some of the parameters
Rajan of the composite
et al. conducted studies with materials.
polymer FBGs embedded in glass-reinforced composite
materials [65]. For the polymer FBG
Rajan et al. conducted studies with polymer embedded in composite
FBGs embeddedmaterials, indueglass-reinforced
to temperature change,
composite
spectral broadening is observed together with the shift in the
materials [65]. For the polymer FBG embedded in composite materials, due to temperature peak reflected wavelength. The change,
observed
spectral wavelength
broadening shifts oftogether
is observed the polymer
with FBG embedded
the shift in the in a glass-reinforced
peak reflected wavelength.composite Theand its
observed
comparison with silica FBG and free-space FBG sensors are shown in Figure 7a. A blue shift in the
wavelength shifts of the polymer FBG embedded in a glass-reinforced composite and its comparison
wavelength is observed for the polymer FBG due to the negative thermo-optic coefficient, while a red
with silica FBG and free-space FBG sensors are shown in Figure 7a. A blue shift in the wavelength
shift is observed for the silica FBG. The observed temperature sensitivity of the embedded polymer
is observed for the
FBG is −92.28 ± 2polymer FBG due
pm/°C, which to the
is close to thenegative
free-spacethermo-optic
temperature coefficient,
sensitivity ofwhile−90 ± 6a pm/°C.
red shift is
observed for the silica FBG. The observed temperature sensitivity of the embedded
The change in the bandwidth of the reflection spectra of the polymer FBG at different temperatures polymer FBG is
´92.28 ˘ 2 pm/ ˝ C, which is close to the free-space temperature sensitivity of ´90 ˘ 6 pm/˝ C. The
and its comparison with silica FBG is shown in Figure 7b. It can be seen that the bandwidth of the
change in the bandwidth
polymer FBG increases of the reflection
as the spectra
temperature of the polymer
increases. FBG at bandwidth
The measured different temperatures
change for the and its
embedded
comparison withpolymer
silica FBG
FBGwithin the temperature
is shown in Figure 7b. range of 30
It can be°C–45
seen°C was
that the8.5bandwidth
pm/°C. Therefore,
of thefrom
polymer
FBG the observed
increases as spectral broadeningincreases.
the temperature and distortion, it can be concluded
The measured bandwidth thatchange
the thermal expansion
for the embedded
induced stress is effectively transferred to the polymer
˝ fiber˝ and
polymer FBG within the temperature range of 30 C–45 C was 8.5 pm/ C. Therefore, from thecan be measured˝ using a polymer
FBG. It is assumed that the reason for this is the absence of a buffer coating for the polymer fiber,
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 12 of 27

observed
Sensors 2016,spectral
16, 99 broadening and distortion, it can be concluded that the thermal expansion induced 12 of 26
stress is effectively transferred to the polymer fiber and can be measured using a polymer FBG. It is
which results
assumed in areason
that the direct for
transfer
this isof the
the surrounding
absence physical
of a buffer coatingphenomena
for the polymerto the fiber,
core andwhich cladding
results of in
the polymer
a direct transfer
Sensors fiber.
2016, 16,of Stress induced by localized microbends in the
99the surrounding physical phenomena to the core and cladding of the polymercomposite material could also
12 of 26 fiber.
contribute
Stress induced to the chirpingmicrobends
by localized effect. Theinstrain sensitivity
the composite of thecould
material embedded polymertoFBG
also contribute and its
the chirping
which results
comparison with in a direct
silica FBG transfer
is of thein
shown surrounding
Figure 8. physical
From phenomena
the figure, ittocan
the core
be and cladding
seen that the ofstrain
effect. The strain sensitivity of the embedded polymer FBG and its comparison with silica FBG is
the polymer fiber. Stress induced by localized microbends in the composite material could also
sensitivity
shown in of the8.embedded
Figure From the polymer
figure, it andbesilica
can seen FBGs
that arestrain
the very sensitivity
close in value of toembedded
the each other.polymer In free
contribute to the chirping effect. The strain sensitivity of the embedded polymer FBG and its
space,
and the polymer
silica FBGs are FBG had a slightly higher strain sensitivity (1.340 ± 0.015 pm/µε) compared to that
comparison withverysilicaclose
FBGin is value
showntoineachFigureother. In free
8. From the space,
figure, the
it canpolymer
be seenFBGthat had a slightly
the strain
of silica
higher FBG (1.2
strain sensitivity
sensitivity
± 0.01 pm/µε).
(1.340 ˘polymer
of the embedded
The similarity
0.015 pm/µε) in the
compared
and silica
measured
FBGs aretovery thatclosestrain
of silica sensitivity
FBG to
in value (1.2 of
˘ 0.01
each
the
other.
embedded
pm/µε).
In free The
silicaspace,
and polymer
similarity inthe
the FBGs
measured underlines
strain the fact
sensitivity that
of longitudinal
the embedded strain
silica in
and the composite
polymer
polymer FBG had a slightly higher strain sensitivity (1.340 ± 0.015 pm/µε) compared to FBGs is not effectively
underlines
that the
transferred
of silica
fact that to the polymer
FBG (1.2 ±strain
longitudinal fiber.
0.01 pm/µε). This can be attributed
The similarity
in the composite in the
is not to the differences
measuredtransferred
effectively in mechanical
strain sensitivity
to theofpolymer properties
the embeddedfiber. This of
the polymer
can be silica fiber
and polymer
attributed and
to the the
FBGs composite
underlines
differences inthematerial, which resulted
fact that longitudinal
mechanical propertiesstrainof thein the
inpolymer mechanical
the compositefiberisandstrain not
not effectively
the compositebeing
transferred
effectively
material, which to
transferredthe polymer
resulted tointhethe fiber.
polymer ThisFBGs
mechanical canstrain
be
asattributed
compared
not beingto to
the differences
the in mechanical
case oftransferred
effectively silica FBG.toWith properties
the furtherof
polymer works
FBGs
in thisthearea,
polymer
polymerfiber FBG
and the
has composite
the material,
potential in which resulted
measuring in the mechanical
temperature and thermalstrain not beingof the
expansion
as compared to the case of silica FBG. With further works in this area, polymer FBG has the potential
effectively
composite transferred
material to the polymer FBGs as compared to the case of silica FBG. With further works
simultaneously.
in measuring temperature and thermal expansion of the composite material simultaneously.
in this area, polymer FBG has the potential in measuring temperature and thermal expansion of the
composite material simultaneously.

Figure 7. (a)
Figure(a)7.Temperature-induced
Temperature-induced
(a) Temperature-induced wavelength
wavelengthshift
wavelength shiftofof
shift ofthe
theembedded
the embedded
embedded polymer
polymer
polymer and
and silica
and FBGs
silica
silica FBGs andand
FBGs
and its
comparison
its comparison withwith
its comparison free-space
with FBGs;FBGs;
free-space
free-space (b) measured
FBGs; 1.5 dB bandwidth
(b)measured
(b) measured 1.5
1.5 dB of polymer
dBbandwidth
bandwidth of of FBG
polymerand
FBG
polymer 3FBG
dB
andbandwidth
3 dB 3 dB
and
of bandwidth
silica
bandwidth of silica
FBGofatsilica
different
FBG FBG at differenttemperatures
temperatures
at different temperatures
[65]. [65].
[65].

Figure
Figure 8. Wavelength
8. Wavelength shifts
shifts ofofthe
thepolymer
polymer and
and silica
silica FBGs
FBGswith
withdeflection in the
deflection middle
in the of the
middle of the
composite material
composite material [65].[65].

Figure 8. Wavelength shifts of the polymer and silica FBGs with deflection in the middle of the
composite material [65].
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 13 of 27

5.2. Interferometric Fiber Sensors for Composite Materials

Interferometric fiber sensors [66] can also be employed for strain/temperature measurements
in composite materials and this is discussed in detail in this section. There are different types of
interferometric fiber sensors which differ in their operating principles and strain/temperature sensing
characteristics [38]. Among the interferometric fiber sensors most commonly employed for composite
sensing applications are: extrinsic Fabry-Perot interferometers (EFPI), micro-hole collapsed modal
interferometers and Sagnac fiber loop mirror (FLM) sensors.
A Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI) generally comprises of two parallel reflecting surfaces
separated bySensors 2016, 16, 99
a certain distance [66]. One of the EFPI sensors is illustrated in Figure 13 of 26
9a. In an
extrinsic FPI 5.2.
sensor, the interference
Interferometric Fiber Sensors for occurs
Compositedue to the multiple superpositions of both reflected
Materials
and transmitted Interferometric
beams at two parallel surfaces [38,66].
fiber sensors [66] can also be employed for It is possible to tune
strain/temperature the intensity
measurements in of the
interferometric modes of an EFPI sensor by varying the gap between the two reflecting surfaces [66].
composite materials and this is discussed in detail in this section. There are different types of
The reflectioninterferometric
or transmission fiber sensors which differ in their operating principles and strain/temperature sensing
spectrum of an FPI is a wavelength dependent intensity modulation
characteristics [38]. Among the interferometric fiber sensors most commonly employed for composite
of the input light
sensing applications are: extrinsicfrom
spectrum, resulting the optical
Fabry-Perot phase(EFPI),
interferometers difference between
micro-hole collapsedthe
modalreflected and
transmitted beams [66,67]. The maxima and minima of the modulated spectrum indicate that both
interferometers and Sagnac fiber loop mirror (FLM) sensors.
A Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI) generally comprises of two parallel reflecting surfaces
reflected and transmitted beams, at that particular wavelength, are in 2π phase and 2π out-of-phase,
separated by a certain distance [66]. One of the EFPI sensors is illustrated in Figure 9a. In an extrinsic
respectively. FPI
Thesensor,
optical the phase difference
interference occurs due between reflected
to the multiple or transmitted
superpositions beams and
of both reflected at a particular
wavelength of the FPI is basically specified as [66]:
transmitted beams at two parallel surfaces [38,66]. It is possible to tune the intensity of the
interferometric modes of an EFPI sensor by varying the gap between the two reflecting surfaces [66].
The reflection or transmission spectrum of an ˆFPI is˙a wavelength dependent intensity modulation
2π
δ “ the opticaln2L
of the input light spectrum, resulting from phase difference between the reflected and (5)
transmitted beams [66,67]. The maxima and minima λ of the modulated spectrum indicate that both
reflected and transmitted beams, at that particular wavelength, are in 2π phase and 2π out-of-phase,
where λ is therespectively.
wavelength Theof incident
optical phase light, n isbetween
difference the refractive index
reflected or (RI) ofbeams
transmitted cavityat amaterial,
particular and L is the
wavelength
length of the cavity. of the FPI is basically specified as [66]:

The schematic experimental arrangement of  2the

  EPFI sensor is as shown in Figure 9b, which
  n2 L (5)
  
comprises of a superluminescent light diode (SLD) source, a coupler and a spectrometer. Any applied
where λto
longitudinal strain is the
thewavelength
FPI sensor of incident
alterslight, n is the refractive
the physical length index
of (RI)
theofcavity,
cavity material,
which and L is in a phase
results
the length of the cavity.
difference between reflected or transmitted beams. By measuring the shift of the wavelength spectrum,
The schematic experimental arrangement of the EPFI sensor is as shown in Figure 9b, which
the strain applied to the
comprises FPI can be measured.
of a superluminescent It is found
light diode (SLD) source, a that
couplertheandshorter the optical
a spectrometer. path difference
Any applied
longitudinal
(OPD) the larger will bestrain
freetospectral
the FPI sensor
rangealters the physical
(FSR), lengthaofwider
resulting the cavity, which results
dynamic rangeinfor
a phase
a sensor [38,67].
difference between reflected or transmitted beams. By measuring the shift of the wavelength
Therefore, the dynamic range of the sensor can be tuned by varying the cavity
spectrum, the strain applied to the FPI can be measured. It is found that the shorter the optical path
length which in
turn changesdifference
the OPD (OPD) ofthethe FPI
larger willsensor [68]. range
be free spectral Figure(FSR),10a illustrates
resulting experimentally
a wider dynamic range for a measured
sensor [38,67]. Therefore,
strain using embedded EFPI sensorthe dynamic
during range of the
the sensor
three can be bending
point tuned by varying
test ofthe a
cavity length
composite material
which in turn changes the OPD of the FPI sensor [68]. Figure 10a illustrates experimentally measured
sample [56]. strain
Moreover, EFPI sensors based on photonic crystal fibers have proved to be good
using embedded EFPI sensor during the three point bending test of a composite material
candidates forsample
measurements
[56]. Moreover,of axial
EFPI strain
sensors in composite
based on photonic materials sincehave
crystal fibers their sensitivity
proved to temperature
to be good
candidates
is insignificant [38,69].for measurements of axial strain in composite materials since their sensitivity to
temperature is insignificant [38,69].

(a)

(b)
Figure 9. (a) One of the typical EFPI sensor design; and (b) schematic experimental arrangement for
Figure 9. (a) One of sensor
the EPFI the typical
[70]. EFPI sensor design; and (b) schematic experimental arrangement for
the EPFI sensor [70].
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 14 of 27
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 14 of 26

(a)

(b) (c)
Figure 10.
Figure 10.(a)
(a)Experimentally
Experimentally measured
measured strain
strain using
using embedded
embedded EFPI sensor
EFPI sensor during during three
three point point
bending
bending test in a composite [69]; (b) Responses of the of photonic crystal fiber based
test in a composite [69]; (b) Responses of the of photonic crystal fiber based sensors embedded in sensors
embedded
the compositein the composite
material material
sample sample
during duringbased
deflections deflections based
on three on three
point point
bending bending
test test(c)
[70]; and [70];
at
and (c) attemperatures
different different temperatures of the composite
of the composite sample [56].
sample [56].

Recent advancements in the area of photonic crystal fiber (HB-PM-PCF) sensors [38,56] have
Recent advancements in the area of photonic crystal fiber (HB-PM-PCF) sensors [38,56] have
opened new possibilities for the development of temperature insensitive micro-hole collapsed
opened new possibilities for the development of temperature insensitive micro-hole collapsed photonic
photonic crystal fiber modal interferometric sensors. Micro-hole collapsed photonic crystal fiber
crystal fiber modal interferometric sensors. Micro-hole collapsed photonic crystal fiber modal
modal interferometers can be used for localised strain measurements in a composite material. Micro-
interferometers can be used for localised strain measurements in a composite material. Micro-hole
hole collapsed photonic crystal fiber modal interferometers can be fabricated by fusion slicing of a
collapsed photonic crystal fiber modal interferometers can be fabricated by fusion slicing of a
HB-PM-PCF section between two standard single mode fibers. During the splicing process, at both
HB-PM-PCF section between two standard single mode fibers. During the splicing process, at both
ends of the HB-PM-PCF section, the holes of the HB-PM-PCF are collapsed in a microscopic region.
ends of the HB-PM-PCF section, the holes of the HB-PM-PCF are collapsed in a microscopic region.
The first collapsed region allows for the excitation of multiple modes in the HB-PM-PCF and at the
The first collapsed region allows for the excitation of multiple modes in the HB-PM-PCF and at the
second collapsed region at the other end the modes recombine and thus the HB-PM-PCF section
second collapsed region at the other end the modes recombine and thus the HB-PM-PCF section forms
forms an interferometer [56]. It is reported that temperature independent strain measurement in
an interferometer [56]. It is reported that temperature independent strain measurement in composites
composites is possible using such a micro-hole collapsed photonic crystal fiber interferometer
is possible using such a micro-hole collapsed photonic crystal fiber interferometer fabricated from a
fabricated from a micro–structured HB-PM-PCF fiber (LMA-10) [56]. An example of the output of a
micro–structured HB-PM-PCF fiber (LMA-10) [56]. An example of the output of a micro-hole collapsed
micro-hole collapsed modal interferometer embedded in composite beam undergoing three point
modal interferometer embedded in composite beam undergoing three point bending deflection is
bending deflection is shown in Figure 10b [69]. Figure 10c illustrates that such a sensor embedded in
shown in Figure 10b [69]. Figure 10c illustrates that such a sensor embedded in composite material has
composite material has very low temperature dependence [56].
very low temperature dependence [56].
Fiber optic Sagnac interferometers (SIs) are another promising candidate for composite material
Fiber optic Sagnac interferometers (SIs) are another promising candidate for composite material
sensing applications. In a fiber optic SI input light is split into two parts propagating in the opposite
sensing applications. In a fiber optic SI input light is split into two parts propagating in the opposite
directions by a 3 dB fiber coupler and these two counter-propagating beams are combined again at
directions by a 3 dB fiber coupler and these two counter-propagating beams are combined again at
the same coupler as shown in Figure 11 [66]. The fabrication of such an interferometer can be simply
achieved by connecting the ends of a conventional 3 dB coupler. High birefringent fibers (HB) or
polarization maintaining fibers (PMFs) are typically utilized as sensing fibers since HB fibers
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 15 of 27

the same coupler as shown in Figure 11 [66]. The fabrication of such an interferometer can be simply
achieved by connecting the ends of a conventional 3 dB coupler. High birefringent fibers (HB) or
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 15 of 26
polarization maintaining
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 fibers (PMFs) are typically utilized as sensing fibers since HB fibers maximize 15 of 26
the polarization-dependence of the signal within the SIs. In order to control the
maximize the polarization-dependence of the signal within the SIs. In order to control the input light input light polarization
amaximize
polarization
thecontroller
polarization polarization-dependence
a polarization (PC) is connected
controller
of the signal
(PC)toisthe sensing
connected
within the SIs.
fiber.
to theThe
In order
signal
sensing at the
fiber.
tooutput
The
controlport
the of
input
signal at the the light
fiber
output
polarization
coupler a
is afiberpolarization
result controller
of interference (PC) is connected to the sensing fiber. The signal at the output
port of the coupler is a resultbetween the beams
of interference polarized
between along the
the beams slow axis
polarized alongandthe
theslow
fast axis.
axis
portphase
The of theoffiber
the coupler is a is
interference result of interference
simply given as: between the beams polarized along the slow axis
and the fast axis. The phase of the interference is simply given as:
and the fast axis. The phase of the interference is simply given as:
22π

δSLSL “
 2 BL (6)
(6)
 SL  λ BL (6)

where BB == |nff −´nsn|s |
where is is thebirefrigent
the birefrigentcoefficient
coefficientofofthethesensing fiber, LL is
sensingfiber, fiber,nnff and
is the length of the fiber,
where B = |nf − ns| is the birefrigent coefficient of the sensing fiber, L is the length of the fiber, nf and
nss are
are the
the effective
effective indices of the fast and slow modes.
ns are the effective indices of the fast and slow modes.

Figure 11. Schematic

Schematic of
of the
the sensor
sensor based on a Sagnac interferometer.
Figure 11. Schematic of the sensor based on a Sagnac interferometer.

Fiber
Fiber optic-basedSIs SIscan can be used for measuring parameters
such assuch astemperature,
strain, temperature,
Fiberoptic-based
optic-based SIs be used
can for measuring
be used parameters
for measuring parameters strain,
such pressure,
as strain, temperature,
pressure,
twist, twist,
etc. twist, etc.
Such etc. Such
fiber fiber
optic optic
based based SIs provide the value of the sensed parameter averaged
pressure, Such fiber opticSIs provide
based the value
SIs provide theof the sensed
value parameter
of the sensed averaged
parameter over
averaged
over
the the length
length of of sensor.
the the sensor. However,
However, a a disadvantage
disadvantage of of
thetheSISIisisits
itssignificant
significant temperature
temperature strain
strain
over the length of the sensor. However, a disadvantage of the SI is its significant temperature strain
cross-sensitivity
cross-sensitivity [66].It It is reported thattemperature
the temperature strain cross-sensitivity
issue can issue can be
cross-sensitivity[66]. [66]. isIt reported that the
is reported strain cross-sensitivity
that the temperature strain cross-sensitivity be eliminated
issue can be
eliminated
by employing bylowemploying
temperature lowsensitive
temperature sensitive
HB-PM-PCF [56]. HB-PM-PCF
The output [56].
of a lowThe output ofsensitive
temperature a low
eliminated by employing low temperature sensitive HB-PM-PCF [56]. The output of a low
temperature
HB-PM-PCF sensitive HB-PM-PCF based SI sensor embedded in composite beam undergoing three
temperaturebased SI sensor
sensitive embedded
HB-PM-PCF basedin composite beam undergoing
SI sensor embedded three point
in composite beambending deflection
undergoing three
point
is shownbending deflection
in Figure is shown
12 [56]. Such in Figure
low 12 [56]. Such
temperature low temperature
sensitive high birefringentsensitive high
fiber birefringent
based SIs are
point bending deflection is shown in Figure 12 [56]. Such low temperature sensitive high birefringent
fiber
an based SIs are
appropriate an appropriate option foracting
measuring
on a strain acting on a composite
over the material ofover
fiber based SIs option for measuring
are an appropriate strain
option for measuring composite
strain acting material
on a composite length
material the
over
the length
sensing of
fiber. the sensing fiber.
the length of the sensing fiber.

Figure 12. Responses of the HB-PM-PCF based SI sensor embedded in the composite material sample
Figure12.
12. Responses
Responses of
of the HB-PM-PCF
HB-PM-PCF based
based SI
SI sensor
sensor embedded in the composite material sample
Figure
during deflections basedthe
on three point bending test [56].embedded in the composite material sample
during deflections based on three point bending test [56].
during deflections based on three point bending test [56].
5.3. Optical Fiber Polarimetric Sensors for Composite Materials
5.3. Optical Fiber Polarimetric Sensors for Composite Materials
The polarization properties of light propagating though an optical can be affected by stress,
The polarization properties of light propagating though an optical can be affected by stress,
strain, pressure and temperature acting on a measuring fiber and in a fiber polarimetric sensor, the
strain, pressure and temperature acting on a measuring fiber and in a fiber polarimetric sensor, the
polarization change is detected to retrieve the sensing parameter [71,72]. A symmetric deformation
polarization change is detected to retrieve the sensing parameter [71,72]. A symmetric deformation
effect or temperature variation in a single-mode fiber influences the propagation constant (β) for
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 16 of 27

5.3. Optical Fiber Polarimetric Sensors for Composite Materials

The polarization properties of light propagating though an optical can be affected by stress,
strain, pressure and temperature acting on a measuring fiber and in a fiber polarimetric sensor, the
polarization change is detected to retrieve the sensing parameter [71,72]. A symmetric deformation
effect or temperature variation in a single-mode fiber influences the propagation constant (β) for every
modeSensors
because of99the changes in the fiber length (L) and the refractive indices of the core
2016, 16, 16 ofand
26 the
cladding [39,73]. Under the influence of a longitudinal strain (ε) and at a constant temperature, for
every mode
polarimetric because
sensors the of the changes
change in thein the fiber
phase length (L)
difference canand
be the refractive
written indices of the core and
as [73]:
the cladding [39,73]. Under the influence of a longitudinal strain (ε) and at a constant temperature,
for polarimetric sensors the change in the phase difference
Bp∆βq can be written as [73]:
δp∆Φq “ δL (7)
( )
Bε{T
(  )  L (7)
 / T
Fiber optic polarimetric sensors can be realized by different types of PM fibers such as Panda
Fiber type
fiber, bow-tie optic fiber,
polarimetric sensors
side-hole fiberscanand be realized
PM-HBbyMOF different types
fibers. of PM
Fiber fibers
optic such as Panda
polarimetric sensors
fiber, bow-tie type fiber, side-hole fibers and PM-HB MOF fibers. Fiber optic polarimetric sensors can
can be embedded in composite materials to measure the average strain/temperature over the sensor
be embedded in composite materials to measure the average strain/temperature over the sensor
length [39,73]. It is possible to vary the strain/temperature sensitivity of fiber optic polarimetric
length [39,73]. It is possible to vary the strain/temperature sensitivity of fiber optic polarimetric
sensors by selecting a PM fiber type with appropriate birefringence and length [74,75].
sensors by selecting a PM fiber type with appropriate birefringence and length [74,75].
For fiber
For optic
fiber polarimetric sensorssensors
optic polarimetric the phase the difference betweenbetween
phase difference the two orthogonal polarizations,
the two orthogonal
can be extractedcan
polarizations, using an experimental
be extracted setup consisting
using an experimental of a oftunable
setup consisting a tunablelaser sourceand
laser source and a
polarimeter/polarization
a polarimeter/polarization control system
control system[76]. [76].Fiber
Fiber optic polarimetric
optic polarimetric sensors
sensors cancan be also
be also operated
operated
in intensity
in intensity domain
domain withwith
thethe helpofofa apolarizer-analyzer
help polarizer-analyzer arrangement
arrangement and thethe
and experimental setupsetup
experimental
for operation in intensity domain is shown in Figure 13a. For polarimetric
for operation in intensity domain is shown in Figure 13a. For polarimetric sensors the change sensors the change in thein the
outputoutput intensity
intensity at aatwavelength
a wavelength λ λdueduetotoexternally
externally applied
appliedlongitudinal
longitudinalstrain cancan
strain be described by by
be described
the formula [73]:
the formula [73]:
I0I
22 
Is pλq
I s (“)  0r1 1` cos(  ) 
cosp∆Φqs (8) (8)

where, I0 is Ithe
where, input initial intensity.
0 is the input initial intensity.

(a)

(b)
Figure 13. (a) Experimental setup for measurements with fiber optic polarimetric sensors in intensity
Figure 13. (a) Experimental setup for measurements with fiber optic polarimetric sensors in intensity
domain [66]; and (b) Change of the polarization of fiber optic polarimetric sensors as a function of
domain [66]; and (b) Change of the polarization of fiber optic polarimetric sensors as a function of
strain applied to a composite sample [76].
strain applied to a composite sample [76].
For such polarimetric sensors operating in the intensity domain periodic variations in the output
intensity can be associated with applied strain or temperature [77]. It is reported that low strain
sensitive polarimetric sensors such as HB-PM-PCF polarimetric sensor guarantee a linear response
for a wide range of applied strain values [77]. The change of the polarization of fiber optic
polarimetric sensors based on bow tie type fiber as a function of strain applied to a composite sample
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 17 of 27

For such polarimetric sensors operating in the intensity domain periodic variations in the output
intensity can be associated with applied strain or temperature [77]. It is reported that low strain
sensitive polarimetric sensors such as HB-PM-PCF polarimetric sensor guarantee a linear response for
a wide range of applied strain values [77]. The change of the polarization of fiber optic polarimetric
sensors based on bow tie type fiber as a function of strain applied to a composite sample
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 17 of 26
is as
Sensors 2016, 16, 99
shown in Figure 13b. Moreover, the insignificant temperature sensitivity of PM-HB-PM-PCFs make 17 of 26

themistheas shown in Figure 13b.candidates

most appropriate Moreover, the
forinsignificant
composite temperature sensitivity of[77,78].
strain measurements PM-HB-PM-PCFs
However, for
is as shown in Figure 13b. Moreover, the insignificant temperature sensitivity of PM-HB-PM-PCFs
make
localmake them the
strain/temperature most appropriate
measurementscandidates
of largefor composite strain measurements [77,78]. However,
them the most appropriate candidates for composite structures
composite strain polarimetric
measurements sensors
[77,78]. cannot be
However,
for local
employed as strain/temperature
the polarimetric measurements
sensors measuresof large composite
average strain structures
over the polarimetric
length of sensors
the cannot
sensing fiber.
for local strain/temperature measurements of large composite structures polarimetric sensors cannot
be employed as the polarimetric sensors measures average strain over the length of the sensing fiber.
be employed as the polarimetric sensors measures average strain over the length of the sensing fiber.
5.4. Fiber Optic Micro Bend Sensors
5.4. Fiber Optic Micro Bend Sensors
5.4. Fiber Optic Micro Bend Sensors
Fiber optic micro bend sensors are capable of measuring parameters such as pressure, acceleration,
Fiber optic micro bend sensors are capable of measuring parameters such as pressure,
Fiber temperature
displacement, optic micro and
bendstrain
sensors are capable
[40,79,80]. of measuring
Microbending parameters
is typically causedsuchby as pressure,
defects and small
acceleration, displacement, temperature and strain [40,79,80]. Microbending is typically caused by
acceleration,
geometrical displacement,
perturbations in temperature
the optical and strain
fiber. The [40,79,80]. Microbending
curvature of radius of is typically caused
microbends is in by order
the
defects and small geometrical perturbations in the optical fiber. The curvature of radius of
defects
of micrometers. and small geometrical
Microbends perturbations in the optical fiber. The curvature of radius ofwhich
microbends is in the ordercause coupling between
of micrometers. Microbends propagating
cause couplingand between
radiation modes [40]
propagating and
microbends is in the order of micrometers. Microbends cause coupling between propagating and
results in the loss
radiation modesof intensity
[40] whichof the light
results propagating
in the through
loss of intensity of thethe fiber.
light Figure 14
propagating showsthe
through the concept
fiber.
radiation modes [40] which results in the loss of intensity of the light propagating through the fiber.
Figure 14 shows the concept underpinning a typical microbending sensor. Fiber
underpinning a typical microbending sensor. Fiber optic micro bend sensor is typically formed by optic micro bend
Figure 14 shows the concept underpinning a typical microbending sensor. Fiber optic micro bend
sensor
passing theisisfiber
typically formed
between twobysets
passing the fiber between
of corrugations two sets ofFigure
as shown corrugations
14. asasshown
shown in Figure 14.
sensor typically formed by passing the fiber between two setsinof corrugations in Figure 14.

Figure
Figure 14.Micro
14. Microbend
bend sensor
sensor concept
concept[40].
[40].
Figure 14. Micro bend sensor concept [40].

(a)
(a)

(b)
(b)
Figure 15. The temporal profiles corresponding to loading (a) and optical signal attenuation (b) [40].
Figure 15. The temporal profiles corresponding to loading (a) and optical signal attenuation (b) [40].
Figure 15. The temporal profiles corresponding to loading (a) and optical signal attenuation (b) [40].
Delamination or cracking in the layers of a composite produces corrugations in that cause
Delamination or cracking in the layers of a composite produces corrugations in that cause
microbending in an embedded optical fiber. Specifically during delamination of a multilaminated
microbending in an embedded optical fiber. Specifically during delamination of a multilaminated
composite structure the stress fields in a damaged layer and an undamaged layer are different. The
composite structure the stress fields in a damaged layer and an undamaged layer are different. The
higher stress level in the damaged layer causes the optical fiber to micro-bend in the material
higher stress level in the damaged layer causes the optical fiber to micro-bend in the material
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 18 of 27

Delamination or cracking in the layers of a composite produces corrugations in that cause

microbending in an embedded optical fiber. Specifically during delamination of a multilaminated
composite
Sensors 2016, structure
16, 99 the stress fields in a damaged layer and an undamaged layer are different. 18 The
of 26
higher stress level in the damaged layer causes the optical fiber to micro-bend in the material resulting
in the attenuation
resulting of the output,
in the attenuation and
of the therefore
output, and this method
therefore thiscan be used
method tobe
can measure
used tothe strain the
measure fieldstrain
due
to delamination
field in a composite
due to delamination material material
in a composite [40]. As [40].
an example the temporal
As an example profile profile
the temporal of loading in the
of loading
composite materialmaterial
in the composite and theand
corresponding optical signal
the corresponding opticalattenuation are shown
signal attenuation areinshown
Figurein 15.Figure
Another 15.
method
Anotherofmethod
damage detection
of damage using the fiberusing
detection optic micro bend optic
the fiber sensor micro
utilizesbend
mechanical/acoustic
sensor utilizes
waves propagating inwaves
mechanical/acoustic the composite material
propagating [80,81].
in the Whenmaterial
composite a mechanical wave
[80,81]. Whenhitsa an optical fiber,
mechanical wave it
bends the fiber locally and so some coupling between propagating and radiation
hits an optical fiber, it bends the fiber locally and so some coupling between propagating and modes may appear.
As a result,modes
radiation temporalmayfeatures
appear.inAs
theameasured optical signal
result, temporal featurescaninbethe
related to stress
measured waves
optical released
signal can by be
delamination,
related to stress matrix cracking
waves or reinforcing
released fibre rupture
by delamination, matrix[40]. The main
cracking disadvantage
or reinforcing fibreofrupture
micro bend [40].
sensors
The main is their low accuracy
disadvantage which
of micro makes
bend them
sensors is unsuitable for precise
their low accuracy stress
which measurements.
makes them unsuitable for
precise stress measurements.
5.5. Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors
5.5. Distributed
DistributedFiber Optic Sensors
fiber-optic sensors (DFS) are capable of providing a continuous measurand profile
over the length offiber-optic
Distributed the opticalsensors
fiber and thus are
(DFS) are capable
very promising for strain/temperature
of providing measurements
a continuous measurand profile
in large structures such as bridges, buildings and pipelines [41,82,83]. However
over the length of the optical fiber and thus are very promising for strain/temperature measurements given the nature
of
in composite structures,
large structures such asthebridges,
length is normally
buildings limited
and to 80[41,82,83].
pipelines m or less However
with a strain
givenor the
temperature
nature of
requirement of at leastthe
1 C˝ or 20 isµεnormally
with a few centimeters
composite structures, length limited to 80 mresolution.
or less withDFSs are categorized
a strain into
or temperature
several types based on the sensing technology employed and the related physical
requirement of at least 1 °C or 20 µε with a few centimeters resolution. DFSs are categorized into effect underpinning
the operating
several principle:
types based (i) sensing
on the optical time–domain reflectometry
technology employed (OTDR)
and the relatedand opticaleffect
physical frequency–domain
underpinning
reflectometry
the operating(OFDR),
principle:both based on
(i) optical Rayleigh scattering;
time–domain (ii) Raman
reflectometry (OTDR)optical
andtime–domain reflectometry
optical frequency–domain
(ROTDR) and Raman optical frequency–domain reflectometry (ROFDR),
reflectometry (OFDR), both based on Rayleigh scattering; (ii) Raman optical time–domain both based on Raman
scattering;
reflectometry and(ROTDR)
(iii) Brillouin
and Ramanopticaloptical
time–domain reflectometry
frequency–domain (BOTDR) and
reflectometry Brillouin
(ROFDR), bothoptical
based
frequency-domain reflectometry (BOFDR), both based on Brillouin scattering
on Raman scattering; and (iii) Brillouin optical time–domain reflectometry (BOTDR) and Brillouin [84–86].
OTDR
optical and OFDR arereflectometry
frequency-domain the first generation
(BOFDR), of fiber
both optic
baseddistributed
on Brillouinsensors, based
scattering on the use
[84–86].
of Rayleigh
OTDR scattering
and OFDRtoare reflect the generation
the first attenuationofprofiles of long-range
fiber optic distributedoptical fiber
sensors, linkson[83,84].
based the useAnof
example of strain measurement by OFDR technique for various loading conditions
Rayleigh scattering to reflect the attenuation profiles of long-range optical fiber links [83,84]. An is shown in
Figure
example16.of strain measurement by OFDR technique for various loading conditions is shown in Figure 16.

Figure 16. Strain

Figure 16. Strain measured
measured by
by the
the optical
optical fiber
fiber bonded
bonded to
to aa composite
composite sample
sample for
for various
various loading
loading
conditions
conditions (data
(dataredrawn fromLuna
redrawnfrom LunaEngineering
EngineeringNote
NoteEN-FY1317).
EN-FY1317).

An optical pulse is launched into an optical fiber and the power of the Rayleigh backscattered
light is detected using a photo detector as the light pulse propagates along the fiber link [85].
Frequency based Brillouin method can provide rapid strain/temperature sensing [87,88]. BOFDR can
be employed to measure strain/temperature variations as small as 1 °C or 20 µε with few centimeters
of resolution [88–90]. For BOFDR based long distance measurements single-mode fibers are used
[89,91]. ROTDR is an appropriate candidate for temperature measurements in composites since the
intensity ratio between anti-Stokes components and Stokes components of the ROTDR response
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 19 of 27

An optical pulse is launched into an optical fiber and the power of the Rayleigh backscattered
light is detected using a photo detector as the light pulse propagates along the fiber link [85].
Frequency based Brillouin method can provide rapid strain/temperature sensing [87,88]. BOFDR can
be employed to measure strain/temperature variations as small as 1 ˝ C or 20 µε with few centimeters of
resolution [88–90]. For BOFDR based long distance measurements single-mode fibers are used [89,91].
ROTDR is an appropriate candidate for temperature measurements in composites since the intensity
ratio between anti-Stokes components and Stokes components of the ROTDR response provide
information about temperature [88]. ROTDR can be employed to measure temperature variations
as small as 0.1 ˝ C with a few meters of resolution [87,88]. Multimode fibers are commonly used
for ROTDR based short distance measurements [89]. In the case of composite strain/temperature
measurements from the above mentioned categories of DFS, an appropriate sensing technology
can be selected based on the application and its requirements, specifically BOFDR is more suitable
for strain measurements and ROTDR is more suitable for temperature measurements in composite
material [88,89,91]. Other than the technologies mentioned above, quasi-distributed optical fiber
sensors can be realized by multiplexing a number of grating-based sensors [85].

5.6. Hybrid Sensing Approaches for Simultaneous Strain and Temperature Measurements in
Composite Materials
In most of practical applications of composite materials, the key requirement is to measure more
than one parameter. For example, for SHM applications in composite parts such as helicopter rotor
blades, wind turbines and aircraft structures a simultaneous monitoring of temperature and strain is
favorable. Several FOSs such as FBGs, PM polarimetric sensors, etc are capable of measuring strain
and temperature, but there is always an issue of accurate discrimination between these two influencing
factors [35,37]. One of the simplest and promising methods for simultaneous measurement of strain
and temperature in composite parts is the hybrid fiber optic sensing approach; in this two or more FOS
operate in a combined manner to eliminate the disadvantages of individual FOSs providing accurate
and independent strain/temperature information [92]. Many researchers have investigated different
hybrid sensing approaches for simultaneous strain and temperature measurements such as using a
combination of FBG sensors with various type sensors such as long period gratings (LPG) [55,92],
Fabry-Perot interferometer sensors [54], PCF modal interferometers [93], and fiber loop mirrors
using a small core micro-structured fiber [94]. Sensors based on gratings written in micro structured
fibers and standard optical fibers have also been reported for discrimination between strain and
temperature [95]. Previously we reported a hybrid approach which involves an FBG sensor and a
HB-PM-PCF polarimetric sensor for simultaneous measurement of strain and temperature [96] of
composite materials. In the context of composite structures, the temperature sensitivity of a FOS can be
influenced by the thermal strain of the composite material [16]. Sensors based on stripped HB-PM-PCF
based polarimetric fibers have been reported for thermal strain and thermal expansion measurements
in composite materials [15]. A hybrid optical fiber sensor embedded in a composite material which is
capable of discriminating between strain, temperature and thermal strain has great potential for future
FOS based SHM applications.
In the previous sections we have detailed the major types of FOS used for strain and temperature
measurements in composite materials. Appropriate sensor selection for any application is only possible
by identifying the particular features of all FOS. The FOS types discussed in this review are compared
in Table 1.

6. Recent Trends, Issues and Future Challenges of the FOS Technology

Embedding FOS inside composite materials is a minimally invasive technique; but for industrial
applications still there exist a few issues which are under investigation and in this section we discuss
those challenging issues.
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 20 of 27

One of the challenges with composite structures embedded with FOS is the provision of a reliable
method for connecting to the sensor [97,98]. Custom designed connectors with ingress/egress optical
fiber ends are promising technique, and one example of such a connector is shown in Figure 17.
However, such egress optical fibers with connectors may cause the composite to become brittle at the
edges of the structure [99]. Also edge trimming of the composite after the connector installation is
impossible. Free space coupling is more promising than surface and edge mounted connectors [100].
For example, in [101] a novel method of free-space passive coupling of light into FBG sensors is
reported which consists of an angled 45˝ mirror integrated directly into the fiber. Also to resolve
the connection issues associated with ingress/egress optical fiber ends of L-shaped composite a
reconnection technique is established by situating the optical fiber connector on a 6-axis automatic
stage together with the assistance of CCD camera [102].

Table 1. Comparison of FOSs.

Main
FOS Technology Advantages Disadvantages Remarks
Applications
Most accepted Typical strain
technology, allows sensitivity Strain, temperature,
Temperature and
for point ~1.2 pm/µε and vibration, cure
Standard FBGs strain cross
measurements of typical temperature process, localized
sensitivity issues
strain and sensitivity damage, etc.
temperature ~11.6 pm/˝ C
FBGs written in
Can discriminate bow-tie fibers have
The
both axial and temperature and
cross-sensitivity
transverse strain strain cross Multi directional
issue can be
FBGs written in components of sensitivity. But FBGs strain sensing,
resolved by using
MOF composite material written in MOF have localized damage,
FBGs written in
with insignificant lower strain etc.
low temperature
temperature sensitivity compared
sensitive MOFs
sensitivity to FBGs written in
bow-tie fibers.
The
Possesses higher
Temperature and cross-sensitivity Strain, temperature,
Interferometric temperature and
strain cross issue can be vibration, cure
fiber optic strain sensitivities
sensitivity issue, and resolved by using process, localized
sensors and are flexible in
brittle sensor low temperature damage, etc.
terms of size
sensitive MOFs
The
Difficult to measure
Sensitivity can be cross-sensitivity
strain/temperature
tuned by choosing issue can be Strain, temperature,
Polarimetric at localized points,
different optical fiber resolved by using vibration, cure
sensors provide information
types and sensor low temperature process, etc.
averaged over the
lengths sensitive
sensor’s length
HB-PM-PCF
Output signal is
Can measure
strongly attenuated
continuous strain
Fiber optic micro by any mechanical Delamination and
profile in a composite Low accuracy
bend sensors wave propagating damage detection
material using single
in the composite
optical fiber
material
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 21 of 27

Table 1. Cont.

Main
FOS Technology Advantages Disadvantages Remarks
Applications
Can measure For better resolution Appropriate
continuous require the use of sensing technology
Strain, temperature,
Distributed strain/temperature spectral can be selected
delamination,
sensors profile in a composite demodulation based on the
damage detection
material using single techniques that are application and its
optical fiber expensive and bulky requirements
Two or more FOS
operate in a
combined manner to Since two or more
Capable of Strain, thermal
eliminate the sensors are
discriminating strain, temperature,
disadvantages of employed
Hybrid sensors between strain, vibration, cure
individual FOSs complicated
temperature and process, damage
providing accurate interrogation
thermal strain point, etc.
and independent methods are needed
strain/temperature
information

The second issue is the structural damage to the composite material due to the fact that optical
fibers have larger diameter compared to reinforcement fibers. As a solution researchers are considering
new optical fibers with a reduced diameter and an optimized coating. One example of such fibers is
a thinner optical fiber with 80 micron diameter known as Draw Tower Grating (DTG) fiber, which
should be less
Sensors 2016, 16, 99invasive when embedded within a laminate composite structure [103]. 21 of 26

Figure 17.
Figure 17. Egress optical fiber
Egress optical fiber with
with connector.
connector.

Another issue related to embedding of FOS in a composite part in weight or space sensitive
Another issue related to embedding of FOS in a composite part in weight or space sensitive
applications is the large size of conventional FOS interrogators which could present difficulties for
applications is the large size of conventional FOS interrogators which could present difficulties
sensing of composite parts that for example are in constant motion, such as helicopter rotor blades
for sensing of composite parts that for example are in constant motion, such as helicopter rotor
and wind turbine structures [104]. To an extent this issue can be resolved by adopting miniaturized
blades and wind turbine structures [104]. To an extent this issue can be resolved by adopting
interrogation modules based on photonic integrated circuits (PIC) or flexible polymer
miniaturized interrogation modules based on photonic integrated circuits (PIC) or flexible polymer
waveguides [105,106]. Such surface attachable flexible interrogators allow for integration of photo
waveguides [105,106]. Such surface attachable flexible interrogators allow for integration of photo
detector arrays with wireless communication technology and thus have strong potential in smart
detector arrays with wireless communication technology and thus have strong potential in smart
sensing of composite parts in motion.
sensing of composite parts in motion.
Finally, it must be recognised the FOS embedding procedure is often a labor intensive task.
Finally, it must be recognised the FOS embedding procedure is often a labor intensive task.
Therefore, ideally it requires a reliable automated optical fiber placement system that matches well
Therefore, ideally it requires a reliable automated optical fiber placement system that matches well
with the existing industrial composite production processes. Several composite manufactures, such
with the existing industrial composite production processes. Several composite manufactures, such as
as for example Airborne, have introduced automated fiber placement system that provide control
for example Airborne, have introduced automated fiber placement system that provide control over
over embedding depth, pre-strain, position and alignment. Such an all automated fiber placement
embedding depth, pre-strain, position and alignment. Such an all automated fiber placement system is
system is shown in Figure 18. The biggest challenge in using most of automated FOS embedding
shown in Figure 18. The biggest challenge in using most of automated FOS embedding systems, is that
systems, is that it is difficult to ensure an adequate repeatability of the FOS placement. In addition,
during such an automated fabrication process the safety of delicate areas of FOS (such as grating
written area of FBG, spliced and buffer coating removed areas of sensing optical fiber, etc.) and
control over the alignment of specialized optical fibers such as micro structured optical fibers are not
well assured. Thus, an automated fiber placement system together with an X-ray based micro
sensing of composite parts in motion.
Finally, it must be recognised the FOS embedding procedure is often a labor intensive task.
Therefore, ideally it requires a reliable automated optical fiber placement system that matches well
with the existing industrial composite production processes. Several composite manufactures, such
as for example Airborne, have introduced automated fiber placement system that provide control
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 22 of 27
over embedding depth, pre-strain, position and alignment. Such an all automated fiber placement
system is shown in Figure 18. The biggest challenge in using most of automated FOS embedding
systems, is that
it is difficult it is difficult
to ensure to ensure
an adequate an adequate
repeatability repeatability
of the of the FOS
FOS placement. placement.
In addition, In addition,
during such an
during
automated suchfabrication
an automatedprocessfabrication
the safetyprocess the areas
of delicate safetyofofFOS
delicate
(such areas of FOS
as grating (sucharea
written as grating
of FBG,
written
spliced andareabuffer
of FBG, spliced
coating and buffer
removed coating
areas of sensingremoved areasetc.)
optical fiber, of sensing optical
and control overfiber, etc.) and
the alignment
control over theoptical
of specialized alignment
fibersofsuch
specialized
as microoptical fibers such
structured as fibers
optical micro are
structured optical
not well fibers
assured. are not
Thus, an
well assured.
automated fiberThus, an automated
placement fiber placement
system together with an X-raysystem
based together with an X-ray
micro controlled based micro
tomography could
controlled
be a suitable tomography
solution forcould be control
quality a suitable solution
of the for quality
embedded FOS and control of the option
a realistic embedded FOS and a
for appropriate
realistic
alignment option for appropriate
of optical alignment
fibers for future smartofsensing
opticalapplications.
fibers for future smart sensing applications.

Figure
Figure 18.
18. Automated
Automated optical
optical fiber
fiber placement
placement system
system (from
(from “Airborne:
“Airborne: the
the future
future in
in composites”
composites” website).
website).

7.
7. Conclusions
Conclusions
This paper presents
This paper presents aa comprehensive
comprehensive overview
overview ofof the
the FOS
FOS sensors
sensors used
usedforforstrain/temperature
strain/temperature
sensing
sensing of composite materials. This review article provides essential information regarding
of composite materials. This review article provides essential information regarding many
many
aspects, including different type composite materials, properties, and their performance,
aspects, including different type composite materials, properties, and their performance, the relevance the
relevance of fiber
of fiber optic sensoroptic
(FOS) sensor (FOS) formaterial
for composite composite material
sensing sensing applications,
applications, future
future challenges of challenges
embedded
of embedded FOS and recent trends. Embedded FOS have proved themselves useful
FOS and recent trends. Embedded FOS have proved themselves useful to smart sensing applications to smart sensing
applications
of compositeof composite
materials materials
in wide rangeinofwide
areasrange of areasaerospace,
that include that include aerospace,
structural, civilstructural, civil
and the sports
industry. Extensive research and development continues worldwide and will inevitably make this
technology more commercially viable and more beneficial to society in general.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by Enterprise Ireland under the international research grant
MATERA ERA-NET.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Garg, D.P.; Zikry, M.A.; Anderson, G.L.; Gros, X.E. Current and potential future research activities in adaptive
structures: An ARO perspective. Smart Mater. Struct. 2001, 10, 610–623. [CrossRef]
2. Balageas, D. Introduction to structural health monitoring. In Structural Health Monitoring; ISTE: London, UK,
2006; pp. 16–43.
3. Cai, J.; Qiu, L.; Yuan, S.; Shi, L.; Liu, P.; Liang, D. Structural Health Monitoring for Composite Materials. In
Composites and Their Applications; InTech: Rijeka, Croatia, 2012.
4. Zhu, Y.K.; Gui, Y.T.; Rong, S.L.; Hong, Z. A review of optical NDT technologies. Sensors 2011, 11, 7773–7798.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. Gros, X.E. Current and Future Trends in Non-Destructive testing of Composite Materials. Ann. Chim. Sci.
Mater. 2000, 25, 539–544. [CrossRef]
6. Ye, X.W.; Su, Y.H.; Han, J.P. Structural health monitoring of civil infrastructure using optical fiber sensing
technology: A comprehensive review. The Sci. World J. 2014, 2014. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
7. Méndez, A.; Csipkes, A. Overview of fiber optic sensors for NDT applications. In Nondestructive Testing of
Materials and Structures; Springer Netherlands: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2013; pp. 179–184.
8. Chung, D.D.L. Composite Materials: Science and Applications, 2nd ed.; Springer-Verlag London: London,
UK, 2010.
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 23 of 27

9. Hull, D.; Clyne, T.W. An Introduction to Composite Materials; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge,
UK, 1996.
10. Kaw, A.K. Mechanics of Composite Materials; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2005.
11. Bunsell, A.R.; Jacques, R. Fundamentals of Fibre Reinforced Composite Materials; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL,
USA, 2005.
12. Fernando, G. Sensors and Composites: Requirements, Opportunities and Complexity. In Presented at
the 1st International Workshop on Embedded Optical Sensors for Composite Materials, Ghent, Belgium,
7–8 October 2013.
13. Kaufmann, M. Composite Materials: State-of-the-art and Future Challenges. In Presented at the
1st International Workshop on Embedded Optical Sensors for Composite Materials, Ghent, Belgium,
7–8 October 2013.
14. Elmar, W.; Bernhard, J. Composites Market Report 2014. Available online: http://www.eucia.eu/userfiles/
files/20141008_market_report_grpcrp.pdf (accessed on 13 January 2016).
15. Ramakrishnan, M.; Rajan, G.; Semenova, Y.; Boczkowska, A.; Domański, A.; Wolinski, T.; Farrell, G.
Measurement of thermal elongation induced strain of a composite material using a polarization maintaining
photonic crystal fiber sensor. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2013, 190, 44–51. [CrossRef]
16. Ramakrishnan, M.; Rajan, G.; Semenova, Y.; Lesiak, P.; Domanski, A.; Wolinski, T.; Boczkowska, A.; Farrell, G.
The influence of thermal expansion of a composite material on embedded polarimetric sensors. Smart Mater.
Struct. 2011, 20. [CrossRef]
17. Lesiak, P.; Szelag,
˛ M.; Budaszewski, D.; Plaga, R.; Mileńko, K.; Rajan, G.; Semenova, Y.; Farrell, G.;
Boczkowska, A.; Domański, A.; et al. Influence of lamination process on optical fiber sensors embedded in
composite material. Measurement 2012, 45, 2275–2280. [CrossRef]
18. Degrieck, J.; Wim, D.W.; Patricia, V. Monitoring of fibre reinforced composites with embedded optical fibre
Bragg sensors, with application to filament wound pressure vessels. NDT&E Int. 2001, 34, 289–296.
19. Hernández-Moreno, H.; Collombet, F.; Douchin, B.; Choqueuse, D.; Davies, P.; Velázquez, J.G. Entire life
time monitoring of filament wound composite cylinders using Bragg grating sensors: I. Adapted tooling
and instrumented specimen. Appl. Compos. Mater. 2009, 16, 173–182. [CrossRef]
20. Keulen, C.; Rocha, B.; Yildiz, M.; Suleman, A. Embedded fiber optic sensors for monitoring processing,
quality and structural health of resin transfer molded components. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2011, 305. [CrossRef]
21. Bektaş, G.; Boz, T.; Keulen, C.J.; Yıldız, M.; Öztürk, C.; Menceloğlu, Y.Z.; Suleman, A. Fiber Bragg grating
and etched optic sensors for flow and cure monitoring of resin transfer molded composite structures. In
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Composite Materials (ICCM18), Jeju Island, Korea,
21–26 August 2011.
22. Tuccillo, F.; Antonucci, V.; Calabro, A.M.; Giordano, M.; Nicolais, L. Practical and theoretic analysis of resin
flow in vacuum assisted resin transfer molding processes. In Macromolecular Symposia; WILEY-VCH Verlag:
Campania, Italy, 2005; Volume 228, pp. 201–218.
23. Yuan, S.; Huang, R.; Rao, Y. Internal strain measurement in 3D braided composites using co-braided optical
fiber sensors. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 2004, 20, 199–202.
24. Antonucci, V.; Esposito, M.; Ricciardi, M.R.; Raffone, M.; Zarrelli, M.; Giordano, M. Permeability
characterization of stitched carbon fiber preforms by fiber optic sensors. Express Polym. Lett. 2011, 5,
1075–1084. [CrossRef]
25. Jensen, D.W.; Pascual, J. Degradation of graphite/bismaleimide laminates with multiple embedded
fiber-optic sensors. Proc. SPIE 1990, 1370. [CrossRef]
26. Lee, D.C.; Lee, J.J.; Yun, S.J. The mechanical characteristics of smart composite structures with embedded
optical fiber sensors. Compos. Struct. 1995, 32, 39–50. [CrossRef]
27. Güemes, J.; Perez, J.S. Fiber Optics Sensors. In New Trends in Structural Health Monitoring; Springer: Vienna,
Austria, 2013; pp. 265–316.
28. Luycks, G.; Voet, E.; Lammens, N.; Degrieck, J. Strain Measurements of Composite Laminates with Embedded
Fibre Bragg Gratings: Criticism and Opportunities for Research. Sensors 2011, 11, 384–408. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
29. Błażejewski, W.; Gasior,
˛ P.; Kaleta, J. Application of Optical Fiber Sensors to Measuring the Mechanical
Properties of Composite Materials and Structures. In Advances in Composite Materials. Ecodesign and Analysis;
InTech: Rijeka, Croatia, 2011.
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 24 of 27

30. Emmanwori, L.; Shivakumar, K.N. Structural performance of composite laminates with embedded fiber optic
sensor under tension and compression loads. In Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Conference of American
Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Denver, CO, USA, 22–25 April 2002.
31. Ciang, C.C.; Jung, R.L.; Hyung, J.B. Structural health monitoring for a wind turbine system: A review of
damage detection methods. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2008, 19. [CrossRef]
32. Zhou, G.; Sim, L.M. Damage detection and assessment in fibre-reinforced composite structures with
embedded fibre optic sensors-review. Smart Mater. Struct. 2002, 11. [CrossRef]
33. Di Sante, R. Fibre Optic Sensors for Structural Health Monitoring of Aircraft Composite Structures: Recent
Advances and Applications. Sensors 2015, 15, 18666–18713. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
34. Minakuchi, S. From Material Characterization to Product Quality Control: Applicability of Fibre-Optic
Sensors to Composites Process Monitoring. In Presented at the 1st International Workshop on Embedded
Optical Sensors for Composite Materials, Ghent, Belgium, 7–8 October 2013.
35. Du, W.; Tao, X.M.; Tam, H.Y.; Choy, C.L. Fundamentals and applications of optical fiber Bragg grating
sensors to textile structural composites. Compos. Struct. 1998, 42, 217–229. [CrossRef]
36. Di Sante, R.; Donati, L.; Troiani, E.; Proli, P. Reliability and accuracy of embedded fiber Bragg grating sensors
for strain monitoring in advanced composite structures. Met. Mater. Int. 2014, 20, 537–543. [CrossRef]
37. Lau, K.T. Structural health monitoring for smart composites using embedded FBG sensor technology. Mater.
Sci. Technol. 2014, 30, 1642–1654. [CrossRef]
38. Rao, Y.J. Recent progress in fiber-optic extrinsic Fabry-Perot interferometric sensors. Opt. Fiber Technol. 2006,
12, 227–237. [CrossRef]
39. Murukeshan, V.M.; Chan, P.Y.; Ong, L.S.; Asundi., A. On-line health monitoring of smart composite structures
using fiber polarimetric sensor. Smart Mater. Struct. 1999, 8. [CrossRef]
40. Rippert, L.; Jean-Michel, P.; Martine, W.; Sabine, V.H. Fibre optic sensor for continuous health monitoring in
CFRP composite materials. Proc. SPIE 2002, 4693. [CrossRef]
41. Murayama, H.; Kazuro, K.; Hiroshi, N.; Akiyoshi, S.; Kiyoshi, U. Application of fiber-optic distributed
sensors to health monitoring for full-scale composite structures. J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct. 2003, 14, 3–13.
[CrossRef]
42. López-Higuera, J.M.; Rodriguez Cobo, L.; Quintela Incera, A.; Cobo, A. Fiber optic sensors in structural
health monitoring. J. Lightwave Technol. 2011, 29, 587–608. [CrossRef]
43. Gerard, F.F. Fibre optic sensor systems for monitoring composite structures. In Porceedings of the RP Asia
2005 Conference, Bangkok, Thailand, 25–26 August 2005.
44. Montanini, R.; d’Acquisto, L. Simultaneous measurement of temperature and strain in glass fiber/epoxy
composites by embedded fiber optic sensors: I. Cure monitoring. Smart Mater. Struct. 2007, 16. [CrossRef]
45. Glisic, B.; Inaudi, D. Fibre Optic Methods for Structural Health Monitoring, 1st ed.; John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.:
Southern Gate, Chichester, UK, 2007.
46. Hill, K.O.; Meltz, G. Fiber Bragg grating technology fundamentals and overview. J. Lightwave Technol. 1997,
15, 1263–1276. [CrossRef]
47. Raman, K. Fiber Bragg Gratings; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 1999.
48. Yashiro, S.; Okabe, T.; Toyama, N.; Takeda, N. Monitoring damage in holed laminates using embedded
chirped FBG sensors. Int. J. Solids Struct. 2007, 44, 603–613. [CrossRef]
49. Dong, X.; Zhang, H.; Liu, B.; Miao, Y. Tilted fiber Bragg gratings: Principle and sensing applications. Photonic
Sens. 2011, 1, 6–30. [CrossRef]
50. Zhao, Y.; Yanbiao, L. Discrimination methods and demodulation techniques for fiber Bragg grating sensors.
Opt. Lasers Eng. 2004, 41, 1–18. [CrossRef]
51. Xu, M.G.; Archambault, J.L.; Reekie, L.; Dakin, J.P. Discrimination between strain and temperature effects
using dual-wavelength fibre grating sensors. Electron. Lett. 1994, 30, 1085–1087. [CrossRef]
52. James, S.W.; Dockney, M.L.; Tatam, R.P. Simultaneous independent temperature and strain measurement
using in-fibre Bragg grating sensors. Electron. Lett. 1996, 32, 1133–1134. [CrossRef]
53. Samer, K.B.; Sun, T.; Grattan, K.T.V. Simultaneous measurement of temperature and strain with long period
grating pairs using low resolution detection. Sens. Actuators 2008, 144, 83–89.
54. Oliveira, R.D.; Ramos, C.A.; Marques, A.T. Health monitoring of composite structures by embedded FBG
and interferometric Fabry-Perot sensors. Comput. Struct. 2008, 86, 340–346. [CrossRef]
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 25 of 27

55. Guan, B.O.; Tam, H.Y.; Tao, X.M.; Dong, X.Y. Simultaneous strain and temperature measurement using a
superstructure fiber Bragg grating. IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 2000, 12, 675–677. [CrossRef]
56. Rajan, G.; Ramakrishnan, M.; Lesiak, P.; Semenova, Y.; Wolinski, T.; Boczkowska, A.; Farrell, G. Composite
materials with embedded photonic crystal fiber interferometric sensors. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2012, 182,
57–67. [CrossRef]
57. Kreuzer, M. Strain Measurement with Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors; HBM: Darmstadt, Germany, 2006.
58. Sonnenfeld, C.; Sulejmani, S.; Geernaert, T.; Eve, S.; Lammens, N.; Luyckx, G.; Eli, V.; Thienpont, H.
Microstructured optical fiber sensors embedded in a laminate composite for smart material applications.
Sensors 2011, 11, 2566–2579. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
59. Guemes, J.A.; Menendez, J.M. Response of Bragg grating fiber-optic sensors when embedded in composite
laminates. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2002, 62, 959–966. [CrossRef]
60. Luyckx, G.; Voet, E.; Geernaert, T.; Chah, K.; Nasilowski, T.; De Waele, W.; van Paepegem, W.; Becker, M.;
Bartelt, H.; Urbanczyk, W.; et al. Response of FBGs in microstructured and bow tie fibers embedded in
laminated composite. IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 2009, 21, 1290–1292. [CrossRef]
61. Azmi, A.I.; Deep, S.; Wenjuan, S.; John, C.; Gang, D.P. Performance enhancement of vibration sensing
employing multiple phase-shifted fiber Bragg grating. J. Lightwave Technol. 2011, 29, 3453–3460. [CrossRef]
62. Webb, D.J. Polymer optical fibre Bragg gratings. OSA Tech. Dig. 2012. [CrossRef]
63. Kalli, K.; Dobb, H.L.; Webb, D.J.; Carroll, K.; Themistos, C.; Komodromos, M.; Peng, G.-D.; Fang, Q.;
Boyd, I.W. Development of an electrically tuneable Bragg grating filter in polymer optical fibre operating at
1.55 µm. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2007, 17, 3155–3164. [CrossRef]
64. Zhang, W.; Webb, D.J.; Peng, G.-D. Investigation in to time response of polymer fibre Bragg grating based
humidity sensors. J. Lightwave Technol. 2012, 30, 1090–1096. [CrossRef]
65. Rajan, G.; Ramakrishnan, M.; Semeonva, Y.; Ambikairajah, E.; Farrell, G.; Peng, G.D. Experimental study
and analysis of a polymer fibre Bragg grating embedded in a composite material. J. Lightwave Technol. 2014,
32, 1726–1733. [CrossRef]
66. Lee, B.H.; Kim, Y.H.; Park, K.S.; Eom, J.B.; Kim, M.J.; Rho, B.S.; Choi, H.Y. Interferometric fiber optic sensors.
Sensors 2012, 12, 2467–2486. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
67. Udd, E.; Spillman, W.B. Fiber Optic Sensors: An Introduction for Engineers and Scientists, 2nd ed.; John Wiley &
Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2011.
68. Liu, T.; Wu, M.; Rao, Y.; Jackson, D.A.; Fernando, G.F. A multiplexed optical fibre-based extrinsic Fabry-Perot
sensor system for in-situ strain monitoring in composites. Smart Mater. Struct. 1998, 7. [CrossRef]
69. Leng, J.S.; Asundi, A. Structural health monitoring of smart composite materials by using EFPI and FBG
sensors. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2003, 103, 330–340. [CrossRef]
70. Fernando, G.F.; Liu, T.; Crosby, P.; Doyle, C.A.; Martin, D.B.; Ralph, B.; Badcock, R. A multi-purpose optical
fibre sensor design for fibre reinforced composite materials. Meas. Sci. Technol. 1997, 8. [CrossRef]
71. Woliński, T.R. I Polarimetric optical fibers and sensors. Prog. Opt. 2000, 40, 1–75.
72. Domanski, A.W.; Tomasz, R.W.; Wojtek, J.B. Polarimetric fiber optic sensors: State of the art and future. Proc.
SPIE 1994, 2341. [CrossRef]
73. Woliński, T.R.; Lesiak, P.; Domański, A.W. Polarimetric optical fiber sensors of a new generation for industrial
applications. Tech. Sci. 2008, 56, 125–132.
74. Ma, J.; Asundi, A. Structural health monitoring using a fiber optic polarimetric sensor and a fiber optic
curvature sensor-static and dynamic test. Smart Mater. Struct. 2001, 10, 181–188. [CrossRef]
75. Hogg, W.D.; Roderick, D.T. Polarimetric fibre optic structural strain sensor characterisation. Proc. SPIE 1990,
1170, 542–550.
76. Domański, A.W.; Lesiak, P.; Karolina, M.; Boczkowska, A.; Budaszewski, D.; Ertman, S.; Woliński, T.R.
Temperature-insensitive fiber optic deformation sensor embedded in composite material. Photonics Lett. Pol.
2009, 1. [CrossRef]
77. Kim, D.H.; Kang, J.U. Analysis of temperature-dependent birefringence of a polarization-maintaining
photonic crystal fiber. Opt. Eng. 2007, 46. [CrossRef]
78. Murukeshan, V.M.; Chan, P.Y.; Ong, L.S.; Asundi, A. Effects of different parameters on the performance
of a fiber polarimetric sensor for smart structure applications. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2000, 80, 249–255.
[CrossRef]
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 26 of 27

79. Berthold, J.W. Historical review of microbend fiber-optic sensors. J. Lightwave Technol. 1995, 13, 1193–1199.
[CrossRef]
80. Pandey, N.K.; Yadav, B.C. Embedded fibre optic microbend sensor for measurement of high pressure and
crack detection. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2006, 128, 33–36. [CrossRef]
81. Wevers, M.; Rippert, L.; Papy, J.M.; van Huffel, S. Processing of transient signals from damage in composite
materials monitored with embedded intensity-modulated fiber optic sensors. NDT&E Int. 2006, 39, 229–235.
82. Adachi, S. Distributed optical fiber sensors and their applications. In Proceedings of the SICE Annual
Conference, Tokyo, Japan, 20–22 August 2008.
83. Niklès, M. Fibre optic distributed scattering sensing system: Perspectives and challenges for high
performance applications. Proc. SPIE 2007, 6619. [CrossRef]
84. Grattan, K.T.V.; Sun, T. Fiber optic sensor technology: An overview. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2000, 82, 40–61.
[CrossRef]
85. Kersey, A.D. A review of recent developments in fiber optic sensor technology. Opt. Fiber Technol. 1996, 2,
291–317. [CrossRef]
86. Bao, X.; Liang, C. Recent progress in Brillouin scattering based fiber sensors. Sensors 2011, 11, 4152–4187.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
87. Hartog, A.H. Progress in Distributed Fiber Optic Temperature Sensing. Environmental and Industrial
Sensing. Proc. SPIE 2002, 4578. [CrossRef]
88. Culshaw, B. Optical fiber sensor technologies: Opportunities and-perhaps-pitfalls. J. Lightwave Technol. 2004,
22. [CrossRef]
89. Ravet, F. Distributed Brillouin Sensor Application to Structural Failure Detection. In New Developments
in Sensing Technology for Structural Health Monitoring; Springer Berlin Heidelberg: Berlin, Germany, 2011;
pp. 93–136.
90. Bernini, R.; Minardo, A.; Zeni, L. Distributed Sensing at centimetre-scale spatial resolution by BOFDA:
Measurements and signal processing. IEEE Photonics J. 2012, 4, 48–56. [CrossRef]
91. Zeng, X.; Bao, X.; Chia, Y.C.; Theodore, W.B.; Anthony, W.B.; Michael, D.D.; Graham, F.; Alexander, L.K.;
Anastasis, V.G. Strain measurement in a concrete beam by use of the Brillouin-scattering-based distributed
fiber sensor with single-mode fibers embedded in glass fiber reinforced polymer rods and bonded to steel
reinforcing bars. Appl. Opt. 2002, 41, 5105–5114. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
92. Patrick, H.J.; Williams, G.M.; Kersey, A.D.; Pedrazzani, J.R. Hybrid fibre Bragg grating/long period grating
sensor for strain/temperature discrimination. IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 1996, 8, 1223–1225. [CrossRef]
93. Dong, B.; Hao, J.; Liaw, C.; Lin, B.; Tjin, S.C. Simultaneous strain and temperature measurement using a
compact photonic crystal fiber inter-modal interferometer and a fiber Bragg grating. Appl. Opt. 2010, 49,
6232–6235. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
94. Andre, R.M.; Marques, M.B.; Roy, P.; Frazao, O. Fiber Loop Mirror Using a Small Core Micro-structured Fiber
for Strain and Temperature Discrimination. IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 2010, 22, 1120–1122. [CrossRef]
95. Frazão, O.; Carvalho, J.P.; Ferreira, L.A.; Araújo, F.M.; Santos, J.L. Discrimination of strain and temperature
using Bragg gratings in microstructured and standard optical fibres. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2005, 16. [CrossRef]
96. Rajan, G.; Ramakrishnan, M.; Semenova, Y.; Karolina, M.; Lesiak, P.; Domanski, A.W.; Wolinski, T.R.;
Farrell, G. A Photonic Crystal Fiber and Fiber Bragg Grating-Based Hybrid Fiber-Optic Sensor System. Sens.
J. 2012, 12, 39–43. [CrossRef]
97. Kang, H.K.; Park, J.W.; Ryu, C.Y.; Hong, C.S.; Kim, C.G. Development of fibre optic ingress/egress methods
for smart composite structures. Smart Mater. Struct. 2000, 9. [CrossRef]
98. Green, A.K.; Zaidman, M.; Shafir, E.; Tur, M.; Gali, S. Infrastructure development for incorporating fibre-optic
sensors in composite materials. Smart Mater. Struct. 2000, 9. [CrossRef]
99. Simon, W.R.; William, R.P. Apparatus for Ingress and Egress of Fiber Optic Sensor Leads from the Surface of
Composite Parts and a Method for the Manufacture Thereof. U.S. Patent 6,173,090, 9 January 2001.
100. Kinet, D.; Mégret, P.; Goossen, K.W.; Qiu, L.; Heider, D.; Caucheteur, C. Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors toward
Structural Health Monitoring in Composite Materials: Challenges and Solutions. Sensors 2014, 14, 7394–7419.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
101. Qiu, L.; Goossen, K.W.; Heider, D.; Wetzel, E.D. Nonpigtail optical coupling to embedded fiber Bragg grating
sensors. Opt. Eng. 2010, 49. [CrossRef]
Sensors 2016, 16, 99 27 of 27

102. Minakuchi, S.; Umehara, T.; Takagaki, K.; Ito, Y.; Takeda, N. Life cycle monitoring and advanced quality
assurance of L-shaped composite corner part using embedded fiber-optic sensor. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci.
Manuf. 2013, 48, 153–161. [CrossRef]
103. Chojetzki, C.; Rothhardt, M.; Ommer, J.; Unger, S.; Schuster, K.; Mueller, H.R. High-reflectivity draw-tower
fiber Bragg gratings—Arrays and single gratings of type II. Opt. Eng. 2005, 44. [CrossRef]
104. Palmer, D.D.; Engelbart, R.W.; Vaccaro, C.M. Future Directions Relative to NDE of Composite Structures.
SAE Tech. Pap. 2004. [CrossRef]
105. Van, H.; Bram, G.L.; Erwin, B.; Jeroen, M.; Sandeep, K.; Oliver, M.; David, J.W.; Kate, S.; Peter, V.D.; Geert, V.S.
Ultra small integrated optical fiber sensing system. Sensors 2012, 12, 12052–12069. [CrossRef]
106. Missinne, J.; Geert, V.S.; Bram, V.H.; Kristof, V.C.; Tim, V.G.; Peter, D.; Jan, V.; Peter, V.D. An array waveguide
sensor for artificial optical skins. Proc. SPIE 2009, 7221. [CrossRef]

© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons by Attribution
(CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).