Fundamentals of Microelectronics

➢ CH1 Why Microelectronics?

➢ CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors
➢ CH3 Diode Circuits
➢ CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors
➢ CH5 Bipolar Amplifiers
➢ CH6 Physics of MOS Transistors
➢ CH7 CMOS Amplifiers
➢ CH8 Operational Amplifier As A Black Box

1
Chapter 4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors

➢ 4.1 General Considerations

➢ 4.2 Structure of Bipolar Transistor

➢ 4.3 Operation of Bipolar Transistor in

Active Mode

➢ 4.4 Bipolar Transistor Models

➢ 4.5 Operation of Bipolar Transistor in

Saturation Mode

➢ 4.6 The PNP Transistor

2
 Bipolar Transistor

➢ In the chapter, we will study the physics of bipolar

transistor and derive large and small signal models.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 3

 4.1. General Considerations
Voltage-Dependent Current Source

Vout
AV    KR L
Vin

➢ A voltage-dependent current source can act as an amplifier.

➢ If KRL is greater than 1, then the signal is amplified.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 4

 4.1. Voltage-Dependent Current Source with Input
Resistance. Example 4.1

➢ Regardless of the input (internal) resistance, the magnitude

of amplification remains unchanged.
CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 5
 4.1. Exponential Voltage-Dependent Current Source

➢ A three-terminal exponential voltage-dependent current source is

shown above.
➢ Ideally, bipolar transistor can be modeled as such.
➢ Under certain conditions, this model can be approximated by Figure a.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 6

 4.2. Structure and Symbol of Bipolar Transistor (1/2)

➢ Bipolar transistor can be thought of as a sandwich of three doped

Si regions. The outer two regions are doped with the same
polarity, while the middle region is doped with opposite polarity.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 7

 4.2. Structure and Symbol of Bipolar Transistor (2/2)
Injection of Carriers

➢ Reverse biased PN junction creates a large electric field that sweeps

any injected minority carriers to their majority region.
➢ This ability proves essential in the proper operation of a bipolar
transistor.
CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 8
4.3. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode (1/9)
Forward Active Region

➢ Forward active region: VBE > 0 (Forward Biased BEJ), VBC <
0 (Reverse Biased BCJ).
➢ Figure b) presents a wrong way of modeling figure a).
CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 9
4.3. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode (2/9)
Accurate Bipolar Representation

➢ Collector also carries current due to carrier injection from base.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 10
 4.3. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode (3/9)
4.3.1. Collector Current
AE qDn ni2  VBE 
IC   exp  1
N EWB  VT 
VBE
I C  I S exp
VT
AE qDn ni2
IS 
N EWB
➢ WB: Width of the ➢ AE: Emitter cross ➢ NE: Emitter doping
base region section concentration

➢ Applying the law of diffusion, we can determine the charge flow across
the base region into the collector.
➢ The equation above shows that the transistor is indeed a voltage-
controlled element, thus a good candidate as an amplifier.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 11

 4.3. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode (4/9)
Example 4.2:Parallel Combination of Transistors

➢ When two
transistors are put
in parallel and
experience the
same potential
across all three
terminals, they can
be thought of as a
single transistor
with twice the
emitter area.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 12

4.3. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode (5/9)
Example 4.3

V3
V2

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 13

4.3. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode (6/9)
Example 4.4

AE qDn ni2  VBE 

IC   exp  1
N EWB  VT 
CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 14
 4.3. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode (7/9)
Example 4.5

 VBE 
I C  I S  exp  1
 VT 

➢ Although a transistor is a voltage to current converter, output voltage

can be obtained by inserting a load resistor at the output and allowing
the controlled current to pass through it.
CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 15
 4.3. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode (8/9)
Constant Current Source

➢ Ideally, the collector current does not depend on the collector to

emitter voltage. This property allows the transistor to behave as a
constant current source when its base-emitter voltage is fixed.

➢ Remember: Forward active region: VBE > 0 (Forward Biased BEJ),

VBC < 0 (Reverse Biased BCJ)  VCE > VBE.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 16

 4.3. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode (9/9)
4.3.2. Base and Emitter Currents
IC VBE
I C  bI B  b  IC  I S exp
IB VT
1 VBE
IC IB  I S exp
IB  b VT
b
b 1 VBE
I E  IC  I B IE  I S exp
b VT
 1 b
I E  I C 1   a
 b b 1
➢ Applying Kirchoff’s current law to the transistor, we can easily find the
emitter current.
➢ b is called the "current gain" of the transistor
➢ For b = 100, a = 0.99  1 and IC  IE … reasonable approximations
CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 17
 4.3. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode
Problem 4.5

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 18

 4.3. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode
Problem 4.10

The question is:

What is the value of VB?

Use Calculator: Solve

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 19

 4.3. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode
Problem 4.16

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 20

 4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (1/21)
4.4.1. Bipolar Transistor Large Signal Model

➢ A diode is placed between base and emitter and a voltage controlled

current source is placed between the collector and emitter.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 21

 4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (2/21)
4.4.1. Example 4.7: Maximum RL

➢ As RL increases, Vx drops and eventually forward biases the collector-

base junction. This will force the transistor out of forward active
region.
➢ Therefore, there exists a maximum tolerable collector resistance.
CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 22
4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (3/21)
4.4.2. I/V Characteristics of Bipolar Transistor

V
I C  I S exp BE
VT
CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 23
4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (4/21)
4.4.2. Example 4.8: IV Characteristics

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 24

 4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (5/21)
4.4.3. Concept of Transconductance

dI C
gm   Slope
dV BE
d  V BE 
gm   I S exp 
dV BE  VT 
1 V BE
g m  I S exp
VT VT
IC
gm 
VT
➢ Transconductance, gm shows a measure of how well the transistor
converts voltage to current.
➢ It will later be shown that gm is one of the most important parameters in
circuit design.
CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 25
 4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (6/21)
4.4.3. Visualization of Transconductance

Remember :
dI C
gm   Slope
dV BE

➢ gm can be visualized as the slope of IC versus VBE.

➢ A large IC has a large slope and therefore a large gm.
CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 26
 4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (7/21)
4.4.3. Example 4.9: Transconductance and Area

➢ When the area of a transistor is increased by n, IS increases by n. For

a constant VBE, IC and hence gm increases by a factor of n.

IC 1 V BE
g m   I S exp
VT VT VT

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 27

 4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (8/21)
4.4.3. Transconductance and Ic

DIC2=gm2DV =(IC2/VT) DV

DIC1=gm1DV =(IC1/VT) DV

➢ DIC=gmDV=(IC/VT) DV
➢ The figure above shows that for a given VBE swing, the current
excursion DIC around IC2 is larger than it would be around IC1. This is
because gm is larger for IC2.
CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 28
 4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (9/21)
4.4.4. Small-Signal Model: Derivation

➢ Small signal model is derived by perturbing voltage difference every

two terminals while fixing the third terminal and analyzing the change
in current of all three terminals.
➢ We then represent these changes with controlled sources or resistors.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 29

 4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (10/21)
4.4.4. Small-Signal Model: VBE Change

Variations
only

➢ For the definition of transconductance: DIC=gmDVBE

➢  a Voltage-Controlled Current Source must be connected between C and E
➢ Value of VCCS between C and E is gmDVBE
➢ For simplicity, we denote DVBE by vp and DIC by gm vp
➢ DIB=DIC/b=gmDVBE/b  DVBE/DIB= b/gm= rp resistor placed between B and E

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 30

 4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (11/21)
4.4.4. Small-Signal Model: VCE Change

➢ Ideally, VCE has no effect on the collector current. Thus, it will not
contribute to the small signal model.
➢ It can be shown that VCB has no effect on the small signal model, either.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 31

 4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (12/21)
4.4.4. Small-Signal Model in active mode

𝛽 𝐼𝐶
𝑟𝜋 = 𝑔𝑚 =
𝑔𝑚 𝑣𝑇

➢ The simple small-signal model developed serves as a powerful, versatile tool in the
analysis and design of bipolar circuits.
➢ We should remark that both parameters of the model, gm and rπ , depend on the
bias (DC) current of the device.
➢ With a high collector bias current IC, a greater gm is obtained, but the impedance
between the base and emitter falls to lower values.
➢ As we will see in Chapter 5, this trade-off proves undesirable in some cases.
➢ DC analysis  IC  gm & rp
CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 32
 4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (13/21)
4.4.4. Example 4.10: Small Signal Example I

DC analysis  IC  gm & rp
IC 1 b
gm   ; rp   375
V T 3.75 gm
➢ Here, small signal parameters are calculated from DC operating point
and are used to calculate the change in collector current due to a
change in VBE.
CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 33
 4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (14/21)
4.4.4. Example 4.11: Small Signal Example I

➢ In this example, a resistor is placed between the power supply and

collector, therefore, providing an output voltage.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 34

4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (15/21)
4.4.4. Example 4.12: Small Signal Example II

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 35

4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (16/21)
4.4.4. AC Ground

➢ Since the power supply voltage does not vary with time,
it is regarded as a ground in small-signal analysis.

➢ In small signal analysis:

– DC V  Short Circuit
– DC I  Open Circuit

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 36

 4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (17/21)
4.4.5. Early Effect Illustration

➢ With Early effect, collector current becomes larger than usual and a
function of VCE.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 37

4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (18/21)
4.4.5. Early Effect Representation

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 38

 4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (19/21)
4.4.5. Early Effect and Large-Signal Model

➢ Early effect can be accounted for in large-signal model by simply

changing the collector current with a correction factor.
➢ In this mode, base current does not change.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 39

4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (20/21)
4.4.5. Early Effect and Small-Signal Model

𝐼𝐶
𝑔𝑚 =
𝑣𝑇
DVCE VA VA
ro    𝛽
DI C I exp VBE I C 𝑟𝜋 =
S
VT 𝑔𝑚
𝑉𝐴
𝑟𝑜 =
𝐼𝐶
CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 40
4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics (21/21)
4.4.5. Summary of Ideas

𝐼𝐶
𝑔𝑚 =
𝑣𝑇
𝛽
𝑟𝜋 =
𝑔𝑚
𝑉𝐴
𝑟𝑜 =
𝐼𝐶
CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 41
 4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics
Problem 4.21b

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 42

 4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics
Problem 4.21c

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 43

 4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics
Problem 4.22b

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 44

 4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics
Problem 4.22c

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 45

4.5. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Saturation Mode (1/5)

➢ When collector voltage drops below base voltage and

forward biases the collector-base junction, base current
increases and decreases the current gain factor, b.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 46

4.5. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Saturation Mode (2/5)
Large-Signal Model for Saturation Region

➢ The net collector current decreases as the device enters saturation because part
of the controlled current IS1exp(VBE /VT) is now provided by the B-C diode
➢ In fact, as illustrated in Fig. 4.34(b), if the collector is left open, then DBC is
forward-biased so much that its current becomes equal to the controlled current.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 47

4.5. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Saturation Mode (3/5)
Overall I/V Characteristics
➢ IC begins to fall for VCE less than V1,
about a few hundred millivolts.
➢ The term “saturation” is used
because increasing the base
current in this region of operation
leads to little change in the collector
current.
➢ b drops in saturation.
➢ The speed of the BJT also drops in
saturation.
➢ As a rule of thumb, we permit soft
saturation with VBC < 400 mV and
transistor continues to operate as in
the active mode because the
current in the B-C junction is
negligible

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 48

 4.5. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Saturation Mode (4/5)
Example 4.16: Acceptable VCC Region

VCC  I C RC  (VBE  400mV )

➢ In order to keep BJT at least in soft saturation region, the collector

voltage must not fall below the base voltage by more than 400mV.
➢ A linear relationship can be derived for VCC and RC and an acceptable
region can be chosen.
CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 49
4.5. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Saturation Mode (5/5)
Deep Saturation

➢ In deep saturation region:

– the transistor loses its voltage-controlled current
capability and VCE becomes constant.
– the collector-emitter voltage VCE approaches a
constant value called VCE,sat≈ 200 mV

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 50

 4.6. The PNP Transistor (1/11)
4.6.1. Structure and Operation

VEB
VEC VEC

VEB

➢ With the polarities of emitter, collector, and base reversed, a PNP

transistor is formed:
Forward Active Region
VBE VCE
NPN >0 >0
PNP <0 <0

➢ All the principles that applied to NPN's also apply to PNP’s, with
the exception that emitter is at a higher potential than base and
base at a higher potential than collector.
CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 51
 4.6. The PNP Transistor (2/11)
4.6.2. A Comparison between NPN and PNP Transistors

➢ The figure above summarizes the direction of current flow

and operation regions for both the NPN and PNP BJT’s.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 52

 4.6. The PNP Transistor (3/11)
PNP Equations

VEB
I C  I S exp
VT
IS VEB
IB  exp
b VT
b 1 V
IE  I S exp EB
b VT
 VEB  VEC 
Early Effect I C   I S exp 1  
 VT  VA 

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 53

 4.6. The PNP Transistor (4/11)
Large Signal Model for PNP

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 54

 4.6. The PNP Transistor (5/11)
Example 4.17: PNP Biasing

➢ Note that the emitter is at a higher potential than both the base and
collector.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 55

 4.6. The PNP Transistor (6/11)
Example 4.18: Small Signal Analysis

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 56

 4.6. The PNP Transistor (7/11)
4.6.3. Small-Signal Model for PNP Transistor

➢ The small signal model for PNP transistor is exactly IDENTICAL to that
of NPN. This is not a mistake because the current direction is taken
care of by the polarity of VBE.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 57

 4.6. The PNP Transistor (8/11)
4.6.3. Example 4.20. Small Signal Model Example I

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 58

 4.6. The PNP Transistor (9/11)
4.6.3. Example 4.20. Small Signal Model Example II

➢ Small-signal model is identical to the previous ones.

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 59
 4.6. The PNP Transistor (10/11)
4.6.3. Example 4.20. Small Signal Model Example III

➢ Since during small-signal analysis, a constant voltage

supply is considered to be AC ground, the final small-signal
model is identical to the previous two.
CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 60
 4.6. The PNP Transistor (11/11)
4.6.3. Example 4.21. Small Signal Model Example IV

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 61

 4.5. & 4.6.
Problem 4.41

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 62

 4.5. & 4.6.
Problem 4.45

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 63

 4.5. & 4.6.
Problem 4.53

CH4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 64