UNIT II

MECHANICAL TESTING

Introduction to mechanical testing, Hardness test (Vickers, Brinell, Rockwell), Tensile test,
Impact test (Izod, Charpy) - Principles, Techniques, Methods, Advantages and Limitations,
Applications. Bend test, Shear test, Creep and Fatigue test - Principles, Techniques, Methods,
Advantages and Limitations, Applications.

. HARDNESS TEST:

The hardness test is a mechanical test for material properties which are used in
engineering design, analysis of structures, and materials development.
The principal purpose of the hardness test is to determine the suitability of a material for
a given application, or the particular treatment to which the material has been subjected.

Hardness is defined as the resistance of a material to permanent deformation such

as indentation, wear, abrassion, scratch

Significance of hardness:
Hardness is not a fundamental property of a metal and it varies in meaning with the
method of measurement. However it is a resultant effect of several basic properties and appears
to be fairly closely related to the nominal strength.
Measurement of hardness provides a very useful Non destructive method for checking
on the nominal strength of a material .
it is also useful for checking on the quality of various metallurgical treatments, for
example heat treatment, cold working
CLASSIFICATION OF HARDNESS:
The hardness testing are divided in to two categories
1 Macrohardness-
 Macrohardness refers to testing with applied loads on the indenter of more than 1 kg and
covers, for example, the testing of tools, dies, and sheet material in the heavier gages.
Macro hardness test are classified into three categories
 Rockwell
 Brinell
 Vickers
2. Microhardness-
In microhardness testing, applied loads are 1 kg and below, and material being tested is
very thin (down to 0.0125 mm, or 0.0005 in.)
 Knoop diamond
 Vickers diamond pyramid
Rockwell Hardness Test :
The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond cone
or hardened steel ball indenter.
The indenter is forced into the test material under a preliminary minor load 𝐹0 (Fig. 1A)
usually 10 kgf.When equilibrium has been reached, an indicating device, which follows the
movements of the indenter and so responds to changes in depth of penetration of the indenter is
set to a datum position.
While the preliminary minor load is still applied an additional major load is applied with
resulting increase in penetration (Fig. 1B). When equilibrium has again been reach, the
additional major load is removed but the preliminary minor load is still maintained.
Removal of the additional major load allows a partial recovery, so reducing the depth of
penetration (Fig. 1C). The permanent increase in depth of penetration, resulting from the
application and removal of the additional major load is used to calculate the Rockwell hardness
number. There are nine Rockwell hardness scales, each scale representing a different
combination of load and indenter.
The diamond indenter has a cone angle of 1200 with a spherical tip ground to a radius of 0.2
mm. The cone is
given the name BRALE. The most commonly used scales are A, Band C
 Figure 1. Rockwell Principle

There are several considerations for Rockwell hardness test

- Require clean and well positioned indenter and anvil
- The test sample should be clean, dry, smooth and oxide-free surface
- The surface should be flat and perpendicular to the indenter 3
-Low reading of hardness value might be expected in cylindrical surfaces
- Specimen thickness should be 10 times higher than the depth of the indenter
- The spacing between the indentations should be 3 to 5 times of the indentation diameter
- Loading speed should be standardized.

Advantages of the test

1. There is no error resulting from distortion and deformation around the indentation as occurs
with Brinell and
Vickers tests.
2. It is faster than the Vickers and Brinell tests because it gives arbitrary direct readings.
3. It is a simple test since neither calculation nor table reference is required to obtain the hardness
number.
4. Due to the influence of the minor load, it is claimed that poor surface finish does not adversely
influence test
results to the same extent as in other test systems.
5. As with the Vickers test the diamond indenter permits testing ofvery hard metals.
Limitations of the test
l. For accuracy, the number should be between 20 and 70 on the C scale but 0 to 100 can be used
on the A and B
scales.
2. Any oil or dirt on the support faces of the specimen or anvil of the machine can cause
inaccurate reading.
3. The size of specimens limited by the size of the anvil.
4. There is no direct relati(;m between the various scales.
5. The hardness number has no significance if the scale letter is omitted from the result.
The Brinell Hardness Test

The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm
diameter hardened steel or carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kg.

For softer materials the load can be reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg to avoid excessive
indentation. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds in the case of iron and steel
and for at least 30 seconds in the case of other metals.

The diameter of the indentation left in the test material is measured with a low powered
microscope. The Brinell harness number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface
area of the indentation. When the indentor is retracted two diameters of the impression, d1 and
d2 , are measured using a microscope with a calibrated graticule and then averaged as shown in
Fig.2(b).
Figure 2. Brinell Principle
Where:
P is the test load [kg]
D is the diameter of the ball [mm]
d is the average impression diameter of indentation [mm]

The diameter of the impression is the average of two readings at right angles and the use
of a Brinell hardness number table can simplify the determination of the Brinell hardness
A well structured Brinell hardness number reveals the test conditions, and looks like this,
"75 HB 10/500/30" which means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was obtained using a 10mm
diameter hardened steel with a 500 kilogram load applied for a period of 30 seconds
On tests of extremely hard metals a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball.
Advantages:
Compared to the other hardness test methods, the Brinell ball makes the deepest and
widest indentation,
This method is the best for achieving the bulk or macro-hardness of a material,
particularly those materials with heterogeneous structures.

Vickers Hardness Test

The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond indenter,
in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136 degrees between opposite
faces subjected to a load of 1 to 100 kgf
The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds. The two diagonals of the indentation left
in the surface of the material after removal of the load are measured using a microscope and their
average calculated
The area of the sloping surface of the indentation is calculated. The Vickers hardness is the
quotient obtained by dividing the kgf load by the square mm area of indentation.

Figure 3. Vickers Principle

F= Load in kgf
d = Arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1 and d2 in mm
HV = Vickers hardness

When the mean diagonal of the indentation has been determined the Vickers
hardness may be calculated from the formula, but is more convenient to use conversion tables.

The Vickers hardness should be reported like 800 HV/10, which means a Vickers hardness of
800, was obtained using a 10 kgf force.

ADVANTAGES:

The advantages of the Vickers hardness test are that extremely accurate readings can be taken.
just one type of indenter is used for all types of metals and surface treatments

it is very precise for testing the softest and hardest of materials, under varying loads,

Disadvantages:

Vickers machine is a floor standing unit that is more expensive than the Brinell or Rockwell
machines.

Factors affecting hardenss test:

The various factors which affect the hardness test are as follows

1. Condition of identer:
• Ball flattened or worn.
• Diamond chipped.
2. Applied force:
Forces greater than those recommended for the particular metal should not be used.
3. Impact application:
• Can possibly give a greater force than required.
• Can damage the indenter.
4. Surface of specimen must be:
• Flat, unless correction factors are available.
• Representative of the material as a whole.
• Polished to the appropriate finish.
5. Specimen thickness must be at least ten times the depth of the indentation.
6. Location of indentation:
• At least 2\0 times the indentation diameter from the specimen edge.
• At least 5 times the indentation diameter from adjacent indentation.
7. The performance of each mac;hine should be tested with standard block of appropriate
hardness before testing the
sample.

Applications of Hardness Tests

  Similar materials may be graded according to hardness, and a particular grade as
indicated by the test may be specified for one type of service.
 The quality level of materials or products may be checked or controlled by hardness tests.
uniformity of samples of a metal or uniformity within the one samplevmay be
determined.
 By establishing a correlation between hardness and some other desired property

FATIGUE
The term fatigue is borrowed from human reaction of ‘tiredness’ due to repetitive work.
• When a metal is subjected to a repetitive or fluctuating stress, it will fail at stress much lower
than the required to cause fracture on a single application of load i.e. nominal maximum stress is
lower than UTS or yield stress limit.
• Failures occurring under the condition of dynamic loading are called fatigue failure.
• Fatigue is a progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when. Material is subjected
to cyclic or dynamic loading e.g.: fatigue is generally observed in bridge, automobile, machine
parts, compressor etc.
• A fatigue failure occurs without any warning and results in a brittle –appearing fracture, with
no gross deformation at the fracture.
• This failure usually occurs at a point of stress concentration such as sharp corner, notch or
inclusion. This is because when the applied load is above a certain value then microscopic cracks
will start to form at the stress concentration and these cracks will eventually reach to a critical
size, the crack will propagate suddenly and the structure crack will propagate suddenly and the
structure will fracture.
• The fatigue fracture surface is usually normal to the direction of the principal tensile
stress.
• The fracture surface is usually shows a smooth region because of the rubbing action (due to
crack propagation) and a rough region (where it has failed in a ductile manner when the cross
section was no longer able to carry the load).
• Fatigue failure progression is as series of rings / beach marks, progressing inward from the
point of initiation of failure.
Three basic factor are necessary for fatigue failure are:-
1. A max tensile stress of high value
2. A large enough variation or fluctuation in applied stress.
3. Large no of cycles of the applied stress.
Variables factors affecting fatigue failure are:
1) Stress concentration
2) Corrosion
3) Temperature
4) Overload
5) Metallurgical structure
6) Residual and combined stress
Stress cycle:
There are 3 general type of fluctuating stress which can cause fatigue
1. Reversed stress cycle:
2. Repeated stress cycle:
3. Random /complicated stress cycle:
S-N curve:
The basic method of presenting the engineering fatigue data is the S-N curve.
 S-N curve is a plot of stress’s’ against the no of cycles to failure 'N' in a log-log scale.
 The stress can be σ max, σ min or σa.
 S-N relationship is determined for a specific value of σa, R, A.
 S-N chiefly deals with the fatigue failure at high number of cycles i.e N> 10^5, where the
 stress is normally elastic but some amount of plastic deformation is also seen in highly
localized way. These are called high cycle fatigue.
 At high stress fatigue life is decreased progressively.
Types of S-N curve:
Broadly there are 2 kinds of S-N curve on the basis of their fatigue life
S-N curve having a true fatigue limit:
S-N curve without a true fatigue limit

CREEP
 when a metal is subjected to a constant tensile load at an elevated temperature will
undergo a time dependent increases in length.
  The continuous change in the deformation of material at elevated temperature when stress
is applied below yield point.
 Creep is a time-dependent deformation of a material while under an applied load that is
below its yield strength.
 Material have its own melting point so temperature is not constant for all since each will
creep when homologous temperature > 0.5 ( homologous temperature= testing
temperature/ melting temperature)
STRESS- RUPTURE- is a sudden and complete failure of a material held under a definite
constant load for a given period of time of a specific temperature.
CREEP TEST- measure the dimensional change of a metal which occur when subjected to high
temperature (according to ASTM E139-70).
STRESS-RUPTURE TEST- measures the effect of temperature on the long time load bearing
characteristics.
CREEP CURVE:
A typical creep curve shows three distinct stages with different creep rates. After an
initial rapid elongation ẹ, the creep rate decreases with time until reaching the steady state
THREE STAGES- .
1) Primary creep ( Decreasing creep rate)
2) Secondary creep (constant creep rate)
3. Tertiary creep (rapid creep rate)
PRIMARY CREEP- primary creep is a period of transient creep. The creep resistance of the
material increases due to material deformation. Predominate at low temperature test such as in
the creep of lead RT. It has decreasing strain rate.
SECONDARY CREEP- provides a nearly constant creep rate. The average value of the creep
rate during this period is called the minimum creep rate/ steady creep. There is a balance occur
between strain hardening and recovery.
TERTIARY CREEP- shows a rapid increase in the creep rate due to effectively reduced cross
sectional area of the specimen. Strain rate increases continuously up to the fracture; stress is high
with increasing temperature.
STRUCTURAL CHANGE DURING CREEP
Different creep rates result from changes in internal structure of the materials with creep rate and
time.
There are three principal deformation processes at elevated temperature
1) Deformation by slip –
 more slip systems operate at high temperature .
 slip bands are coarser and widely spaced
2) Sub grain formation
 Creep deformation produces inhomogeneity especially around grain boundaries,
to arrange themselves into a low-angle grain boundary folding or grain boundary
migration.
3) Grain boundary sliding
 Temperature or decreasing strain rate.
 Results in grain boundary folding or grain boundary migration.
MECHANISMS OF CREEP DEFORMATION
The chief creep deformation mechanisms can be grouped into;
1) DISLOCATION GLIDE
It is a dislocation motion along a crystallographic direction is called glide or slip. As a
result such dislocation motion through a crystal, one part of the dislocation moves one lattice
point along a plane known as the slip plane, relatively to the rest of the crystal.
Dislocation glide allows plastic deformation to occur at a much lower stress than would
be required to move a while plane of atoms past another. Creep resulting from a dislocation glide
mechanism.It occurs at stress level which is high relative to those normally considered in creep
deformation.
2) DISLOCATION CREEP
It is a deformation mechanism in crystalline materials. Dislocation creep involves the
movement of dislocations through the crystal lattice of the material. It causes plastic deformation
of the individual crystals and in the end the materials itself’’. Dislocation creep occurs by
dislocation glide aided by vacancy diffusion.
3) DIFFUSIONAL CREEP
 It refers to the deformation of crystalline solids bythe diffusion of vacancies through their
crystal lattice. Diffusion creep results in plastic deformation rather than brittle failure of the
material. Diffusion creep is more sensitive to temperature than deformation mechanisms.
4) GRAIN BOUNDARY SLIDING
It is a deformation mechanism of materials which includes displacement of grains against
each other at high homologous temperature and low strain rate. This mechanism is the main
reason of ceramics failure at high temperatures due to deformation of glassy phase in their grain
boundary.
BEND TEST:
Bend tests deform the test material at the midpoint causing a concave surface or a bend to
form without the occurrence of fracture and are typically performed to determine the ductility or
resistance to fracture of that material.
Unlike in a flexure test the goal is not to load the material until failure but rather to
deform the sample into a specific shape.
The test sample is loaded in a way that creates a concave surface at the midpoint with a
specified radius of curvature according to the standard in relation to which the test is performed.
Bending tests are as popular as tensile test, compression test, and fatigue tests. 

Purpose of Bend Testing:

Bend testing a material allows for the determination of that materials ductility, bend
strength, fracture strength and resistance to fracture.
These characteristics can be used to determine whether a material will fail under pressure
and are especially important in any construction process involving ductile materials loaded with
bending forces.
If a material begins to fracture or completely fractures during a three or four point bend
test it is valid to assume that the material will fail under a similar in any application, which may
lead to catastrophic failure.
TYPES OF BEND TEST:
FOUR common types of bend test are
1.  guided bend test
2. semi-guided bend test
 3. free bend test
4. fracture toughness test
GUIDED BEND TEST:
The sample is placed horizontally across two supports and then a force applied to
the top of the midpoint deforming the sample into a “U” shape
 SEMI-GUIDED BEND TEST
In the semi guided bend test,the specimen’s midpoint is bent to a specific angle or
inside radius
FREE BEND TEST
In a free bend test, the ends of the sample are pushed together, but no force is
applied to the bend itself
 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS TEST
it consists of a sample with a precracked starter crack on the bottom side of the
midpoint which is loaded into a 3-point bend fixture so that the midpoint force is applied
on the opposite face from the fracture.

Types of Materials Used in Bending Applications

Generally a bending test is performed on metals or metallic materials but can also
be applied to any substance that can experience plastic deformation, such as polymers
and plastics.
These materials can take any feasible shape but when used in a bend test most
commonly appear in sheets, strips, bars, shells, and pipes.
Bend test machines are normally used on materials that have an acceptably high
ductility. 
Applications :
 One of the more popular uses of bend testing is in the area of welds.
 The purpose of bend testing welds is to make sure that the weld has properly fused to the
parent metal and that the weld itself does not contain any defects that may cause it to fail
when it experiences bending stresses.
 The sample weld is deformed using a guided bend test so that it forms a “U” subjecting the
material on the outer surface to a tensile force and the material on the inside to a
 compressive force. If the weld holds and shows no sign of fracture it has passed the
test and is deemed an acceptable weld. 

Shear Test
 A shear test is designed to apply stress to a test sample so that it experiences a sliding
failure along a plane that is parallel to the forces applied.
 Generally, shear forces cause one surface of a material to move in one direction and the
other surface to move in the opposite direction so that the material is stressed in a sliding
motion.
 Shear tests differ from tension and compression tests in that the forces applied are parallel
to the two contact surface, whereas, in tension and compression they are perpendicular to
the contact surfaces.

Purpose of shear testing:

 The most common use of a shear test is to determine the shear strength, which is the
maximum shear stress that the material can withstand before failure occurs, of a material.
 This is a very important design characteristic of many types of fasteners such as bolts and
screws. For example, when a bolt is used to secure two plates together it will experience a
shear forces if the plates themselves experience any forces parallel to their plane that attempt
to separate them.
 If the small fastener fails in shear it may lead to a chain of failures that could lead to the
entire destruction of a much larger structure.

Types of shear tests

There are two common types of shear test

1. The first requires that the sample be setup in a modified three point flexure or four point
bend fixture. The purpose of this test is to load the sample so that it experiences double
shear or so that the sample has two locations where the forces are applied. Each end of
the sample is anchored and the force is applied over the middle of the sample in an
attempt to remove the midsection so that both ends are left behind
2. The second test requires that the sample have tapered ends that are each placed into grip
fixtures that have been offset from the vertical axis of the sample. The sample is then
pulled so that the opposite faces are pulled in opposing directions

Types of materials tested in shear:

Three materials are commonly tested in shear:
 1. rigid substrates, -rigid substrates may be composed of metals, plastics, ceramics,
composites or woods but usually come in a solid form and are used as building
materials or fasteners
2. adhesives, -Adhesives are used to bond two materials together and experience shear
stress when the materials are pulled in opposing directions in an attempt to slide them
apart
3. layered composites-Layered composites experience shear stress in a similar manner to
adhesives as the shear forces are applied to the glue or laminate used to hold the
layers together

IMPACT TEST
 In mechanics, an impact is a high force or shock applied over a short time period when
two or more bodies collide. Such a force or acceleration usually has a greater effect
than a lower force applied over a proportionally longer period.
 At normal speeds, during a perfectly inelastic collision, an object struck by a projectile
will deform, and this deformation will absorb most or all of the force of the collision
 The effect depends critically on the relative velocity of the bodies to one another. 
Example : car crush, wind force, earthquake etc
 Impact test:- Is the test used for observing the mechanics that a material will exhibit
when it experiences a shock loading that causes the specimen to immediately:-
(1)deform, (2)fracture or rupture completel

IMPORTANCE OF IMPACT TEST:

 To measure (A):-Impact energy - the energy required to break a standard sized sample
with a sudden, sharp load.  Joule is the unit used in measure the impact energy
 Find (B)Toughness - the impact test is used to find a material's toughness , it's ability
to absorb energy without breaking. Or the material's resistance to fracture when
stressed
 To determine (C)the tendency of a material in a brittle manner .It detects difference
between materials which are not in a tension test. These values are important for the
selection of materials that will be used in applications that require the material to
undergo very rapid loading processes such as in vehicular collisions

Materials for impact test:

 Nearly all materials may benefit from impact testing, but the most common types used are
metals, plastics, woods, composites, ceramics, and polymers.
 Generally these materials take the form of sheets of varying thicknesses or short rods
depending on the test.
 However, most materials will experience either ductile or brittle failure depending on the
(1)type of test, (2)the rate of loading and (3)the temperature of the sample

 The term brittle fracture is used to describe rapid propagation of cracks without any
excessive plastic deformation at a stress level below the yield stress of the material
 Impact tests are used not only measure the energy absorbing capacity of the material
subjected to sudden loading; but also to determine the transition temperature from ductile to
brittle behavior

Types of impact test:

1. izod impact test

2. charpy test

Izod Impact Test:

 Izod impact is defined as the kinetic energy needed to initiate fracture and continue the
fracture until the specimen is broken.
 This test can be used as a quick and easy quality control check to determine if a material
meets specific impact properties or to compare materials for general toughness.
 The Standard Size of Izod  impact test Specimen is (64mm x  12.7mm x 3.2mm) . 
 The V notch  Shaped bar is also used .  the Izod specimen is held rigidly in a vice type
fixture with the notched side facing the direction of impact.
 The centerline of the notch must be in the plane of the vice top within .125 mm.
 Once the specimen is in place the hammer is released from a preset height and allowed
to strike the specimen thus fracturing it at the vee notch Izod
 The test piece is a cantilever, clamped upright in an anvil, with a V 
notch at the level of the top of the clamp.   The  test  piece  is  hit  by  a  striker  carried 
on  a  pendulum  which  is 
allowed to fall freely from a fixed height, to give a blow of 120 ft lb  energy
Charpy Impact Test:

 The principle of the test differs from that of the Izod test in that the test piece is
tested as a beam supported at each end; a notch is cut across the middle of one
face, and the striker hits the opposite face directly behind the notch.
 The Charpy impact test, also known as the Charpy Vnotch test, is a standardized high
strain-rate test which determines the amount of energy absorbed by a material during
fracture. This absorbed energy is a measure of a given material’s notch toughness and
acts as a tool to study.
 Charpy test specimens normally measure 55x10x10mmwith 2mm deep notch at the middle of a
specified surface and have a notch machined across one of the larger faces.
 The notches may be:  •         
V-notch – A V-shaped notch, 2mm deep, with 45° angle and 0.25mm radius along the
base  •      
 U-notch or keyhole notch – A 5mm deep notch with 1mm radius at the base of the

notch. absorbed energy is a measure of a

The specimen is set like a simply supported beam.

 When the results of a number of tests performed in different temperatures are

plotted, ductile-to-brittle transition curves, as in Fig. 3, may be obtained.
 As the temperature is reduced through the transition range, the fracture surface changes
from one having a 'fibrous' or 'silky' appearance with much distortion at the sides,
to one of completely crystalline appearance with negligible distortion.
 There is a strong correlation between the energy absorbed and the proportion of the
cross-section which suffers deformation in fracture, and the fracture surface is
frequently described in terms of the percentage of its area which is crystalline in
appearance. Typical fracture appearances with crystallinity increases as the
temperature is reduced.
 Tensile test
Tensile test Uses an utm to apply measured force to an test specimen. The amount of
extension can be measured and graphed
Variables such as strain, stress, elasticity, tensile strength, ductility and shear strength can
be gauged.
The following material properties can be determined by tensile testing:
 STRENGTH
 DUCTILITY
 ELASTICITY
 STIFFNESS
 MALLEABILTY
 MODULUS of TOUGHNESS
 MODULUS of RESILIENCE
Stress:

The term stress (s) is used to express the loading in terms of force applied to a
certain cross-sectional area of an object. Stress distribution may or may not be uniform, For
example, a bar loaded in pure tension will essentially have a uniform tensile stress distribution

Strain

Strain is the response of a system to an applied stress. When a material is loaded

with a force, it produces a stress, which then causes a material to deform. For example, the strain
in a bar that is being stretched in tension is the amount of elongation (or change in length)
divided by its original length.
Elastic deformation

If the stress is small, the material may only strain a small amount and the material
will return to its original size after the stress is released. This is called elastic deformation,

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE

The engineering tension test is widely used to provide basic design information on the strength
of materials and as an acceptance test for the specification of materials.
 In the tension test a specimen is subjected to a continually increasing uniaxial tensile force
while simultaneous observations are made of the elongation of the specimen.

The stress used in this stress-strain curve is the average longitudinal stress in the tensile
specimen. It is obtained by dividing the load by the original area of the cross section of the
specimen.

Stress strain curve

  The strain used for the engineering stress-strain curve is the average linear strain, which
is obtained by dividing the elongation of the gage length of the specimen, δ, by its
original length.

 Since both the stress and the strain are obtained by dividing the load and elongation by
constant factors, the load-elongation curve will have the same shape as the engineering
stress-strain curve. The two curves are frequently used interchangeably.
 The shape and magnitude of the stress-strain curve of a metal will depend on its
composition, heat treatment, prior history of plastic deformation, and the strain rate,
temperature, and state of stress imposed during the testing.
 The parameters which are used to describe the stress-strain curve of a metal are the
tensile strength, yield strength or yield point, percent elongation, and reduction of area.
The first two are strength parameters; the last two indicate ductility

 In the elastic region stress is linearly proportional to strain. When the load exceeds a
value corresponding to the yield strength, the specimen undergoes gross plastic
deformation.
 It is permanently deformed if the load is released to zero. The stress to produce continued
plastic deformation increases with increasing plastic strain, i.e., the metal strain-hardens.
 The volume of the specimen remains constant during plastic deformation, AL = A0L0,
and as the specimen elongates, it decreases uniformly along the gage length in cross-
sectional area.
Tensile Strength

 The tensile strength, or ultimate tensile strength (UTS), is the maximum load divided by
the original cross-sectional area of the specimen.

 For ductile metals the tensile strength should be regarded as a measure of the maximum
load which a metal can withstand under the very restrictive conditions of uniaxial
loading.

 Extensive empirical correlations between tensile strength and properties such as hardness
and fatigue strength are often quite useful. For brittle materials, the tensile strength is a
valid criterion for design

Measures of Yielding

 The stress at which plastic deformation or yielding is observed to begin depends on the
sensitivity of the strain measurements.
 With most materials there is a gradual transition from elastic to plastic behavior, and the
point at which plastic deformation begins is hard to define with precision.

Modulus of Elasticity
  The slope of the initial linear portion of the stress-strain curve is the modulus of
elasticity, or Young's modulus.
 The modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness of the material.
 The greater the modulus, the smaller the elastic strain resulting from the application of a
given stress.
 Since the modulus of elasticity is needed for computing deflections of beams and other
members, it is an important design value.
 The modulus of elasticity is determined by the binding forces between atoms. Since
these forces cannot be changed without changing the basic nature of the material, it
follows that the modulus of elasticity is one of the most structure-insensitive of the
mechanical properties.
 It is only slightly affected by alloying additions, heat treatment, or cold-work.
 However, increasing the temperature decreases the modulus of elasticity. The modulus is
usually measured at elevated temperatures by a dynamic method.
DUCTILITY MEASUREMENT IN TENSION TEST

 the standard measurements of ductility can be obtained from the tension test, i.e., percent
elongation and reduction of area, we return again to this subject armed with an
understanding of the phenomenon of necking

 The measured elongation from a tension specimen depends on the gage length of the
specimen or the dimensions of its cross section.

 This is because the total extension consists of two components, the uniform extension up
to necking and the localized extension once necking begins.

 The extent of uniform extension will depend on the metallurgical condition of the
material (through n) and the effect of specimen size and shape on the development of the
neck.

 It readily can be seen that the shorter the gage length the greater the influence of localized
deformation at the neck on the total elongation of the gage length.
 The tensile elongation then is given by

 Which clearly indicates that the total elongation is a function of the specimen gage
length. The shorter the gage length the greater the percentage elongation.
Advantages of tensile testing:

The data produced in a tensile test can be used in many ways including:

• To determine batch quality

• To determine consistency in manufacture
• To aid in the design process
• To reduce material costs and achieve lean manufacturing goals

APPLICATION:
 Aerospace Industry
 Shear and tensile strength testing of fasteners e.g. Bolts, nuts and screws
 Textiles Industry
 'Pull-off' characteristics of buttons, stitched-on decorations, press studs, zip fasteners,
hookand- loop fasteners