MODULE

CTE331 OR CTE531:Curriculum Studies

in Mathematics I
IDE-CTE531

INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF ESWATINI
Copyright
© Institute of Distance Education, 2019

INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF ESWATINI

P/B 4 Kwaluseni
ESWATINI

Fax: +268251 70004

Website: www.ide.uniswa.sz/
Acknowledgements
The Institute of Distance Education wishes to thank those below for their contribution to this
MODULE:

Minenhle Ngcobo Author

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Editor

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Typesetting and formatting

 CTE331 OR CTE531:Curriculum Studies in Mathematics I

Contents
About this Module 1
How this Module is structured .......................................................................................... 1

Course overview 3
Welcome to Curriculum Studies Mathematics:CTE531 .................................................. 3
Curriculum Studies Mathematics: CTE531 —is this course for you?.............................. 3
Course outcomes ............................................................................................................... 3
Timeframe ......................................................................................................................... 5
Study skills ........................................................................................................................ 5
Need help? ........................................................................................................................ 6
Assignments ...................................................................................................................... 7
Assessments ...................................................................................................................... 7

Getting around this Module 8

Margin icons ..................................................................................................................... 8

Unit 1 9
1. Objectives in School Mathematics .......................................................................... 9
1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 9
1.2 Bloom‘s Taxonomies in Mathematics Teaching and Learning ....................... 11
1.3 Mathematics Objectives as Part of the Curricula ............................................ 20
1.4 The Test Specification Grid ...................................................................................... 21
1.5 Unit Summary ........................................................................................................... 22
1.6 Assignment ............................................................................................................... 22
1.7 References ................................................................................................................. 22

Unit 2 23
2. School Mathematics .................................................................................................... 23
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 23
2.2 The School Mathematics Syllabus .................................................................. 24
2.3 Secondary School Mathematics Text Books ................................................... 24
2.5 Teaching Learning Methods ............................................................................ 25
2.6 Scheming and Lesson Planning ....................................................................... 37
ii Contents

2.7 Unit summary ........................................................................................................... 43

Assignment ..................................................................................................................... 43
2.8 References ................................................................................................................. 44

Unit 3 45
3. Academic Writing (this is to aid you in writing assignment 1) .................................. 45
3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 45
3.2 Critical Reading ............................................................................................... 46
3.3 Critical Writing................................................................................................ 49
3.4 Unit summary ........................................................................................................... 51
3.5 Assignment ............................................................................................................... 52
3.6 Assessment................................................................................................................ 52
3.6 References ................................................................................................................. 52

Unit 4 53
4. The Process of Learning Mathematics........................................................................ 53
4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 53
4.2 Concept Development ..................................................................................... 54
4.3 Misconceptions ................................................................................................ 63
4.4 Motivation ....................................................................................................... 70
4.5 Unit summary ........................................................................................................... 78
4.6 Assignment ............................................................................................................... 78
4.7 Appendices ...................................................................................................... 79

Unit 5 80
5. Theories of Learning ................................................................................................... 80
5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 80
5.2 Overview of Theories of Learning .................................................................. 81
5.3 Behaviourism................................................................................................... 81
5.4 Cognitivism ..................................................................................................... 82
5.5 Humanism ....................................................................................................... 87
5.6 Constructivism................................................................................................. 87
5.7 Realistic Mathematics Education (RME) ........................................................ 89
5.8 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 90
5.9 Unit summary ........................................................................................................... 91
Assignment ..................................................................................................................... 91
5.10 References ..................................................................................................... 91
About this Module
Curriculum Studies: Mathematics CTE531 has been produced by the
University of ESwatini. All Modules produced by the Institute of
Distance Education are structured in the same way, as outlined below.

How this Module is structured

The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:

 If the course is suitable for you.

 What you will already need to know.

 What you can expect from the course.

 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.

The overview also provides guidance on:

 Study skills.

 Where to get help.

 Course assignments and assessments.

 Activity icons.

 Units.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your study.

The course content

The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:

 An introduction to the unit content.

 Unit outcomes.

 New terminology.

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  Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.

 A unit summary.

 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.

Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, you will find a list
of additional resources at the end of this Module; these may be books,
articles or web sites.

Your comments
After completing Curriculum Studies: Mathematics we would appreciate
it if you would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any
aspect of this course. Your feedback might include comments on:

 Course content and structure.

 Course reading materials and resources.

 Course assignments.

 Course assessments.

 Course duration.

 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)

Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this

course.
.

2
Course overview

Welcome to Curriculum Studies

Mathematics:CTE531

This course is a first semester mathematics methods course that is offered

to you as a PGCE student who intends to teach mathematics at junior and
senior secondary school levels. The main aim of the course is to initiate
you to teaching and learning school mathematics. Issues and theoretical
aspects of the school mathematics content will be minimally treated in
this course. You should get hold of materials used in the schools to
familiarise yourself with school mathematics. You are referred to the
Examination Council of ESwatini website,
http://www.examscouncil.org.sz/, to download school mathematics
syllabi. You will have to read a lot to supplement the work in this
module. Regurgitating the notes in this module will not make you the best
teacher you aspire to be. Whatever you read in this course ask yourself
―how will it help me do my work better?‖ Additionally I would like you
to give me feedback on the module and any other learning materials for
this course.

Curriculum Studies Mathematics:

CTE531 —is this course for you?
This course is meant for people who intend to teach mathematics at
secondary school level. The major aim of this course is to initiate you to
the teaching and learning of school mathematics. To do that we will study
and review some methods our teachers used to teach us and also examine
and critique current methods of teaching and learning. To make the
learning more relevant examples from the junior and senior secondary
syllabuses will be used to demonstrate the various teaching and learning
methods recommended in this course.

There is no prerequisite course for this course.

Course outcomes
Upon completion of Curriculum Studies: Mathematics CTE531 you will
be able to:

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  Reproduce and use Bloom‘s taxonomies as they apply to mathematics
teaching and learning.

 State and apply the country‘s general aims for Mathematics education
in your teaching.
Outcomes
including  Identify and apply the general objectives for a given school topic in
school mathematics.

 Construct instructional objectives in both the lower order abilities and

higher order abilities of the Bloom‘s taxonomy for the different topics
in the mathematics syllabus.

 Relate the general objectives of school mathematics to the

instructional objectives.

 Prepare a mathematics scheme of work for a whole year

 Prepare for daily lessons in mathematics

 Read and critique academic writing in mathematics education.

 Write an academic paper on a topic in mathematics education

 Recall and apply how learners build mathematical knowledge.

 Recall and apply conditions that support the learning of mathematics.

 Recall and apply historical and current theories of learning to the

learning of mathematics

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Timeframe
This is a one semester course

1
How long? This course requires of the semester, about 20hrs, for contact time.
3

2
You will need to dedicate of the semester, about 40hrs for independent
3
self study.

Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that
from your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will
have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will
most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities.

Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a

consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.

Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage
in that learning.

We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-

study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of
excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are:

 http://www.how-to-study.com/
The ―How to study‖ web site is dedicated to study skills resources.
You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a
good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books,

5
 using reference sources, test anxiety.

 http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
You will find links to time scheduling (including a ―where does time
go?‖ link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,
control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for
analysis, memory skills (―remembering‖).

 http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another ―How to study‖ web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (―hands-on‖ learning), memory building,
tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
www.google.com and type ―self-study basics‖, ―self-study tips‖, ―self-
study skills‖ or similar.

Need help?
Is there a course web site address?

What is the course instructor's name? Where can s/he be located (office
location and hours, telephone/fax number, e-mail address)?
Help
Is there a teaching assistant for routine enquiries? Where can s/he be
located (office location and hours, telephone/fax number, e-mail
address)?

Is there a librarian/research assistant available? Where can s/he be located

(office location and hours, telephone/fax number, e-mail address)?

Is there a learners' resource centre? Where is it located? What are the

opening hours, telephone number, who is the resource centre manager,
what is the manager's e-mail address)?

Who do learners contact for technical issues (computer problems, website

access, etc.)

6
Assignments
There will be TWO assignments for this course.

Assignments are to be submitted before 1700h on the due date.

Assignments to be submitted to the course instructor if he/she is a full-

time lecturer otherwise submit assignments to the IDE programme
Assignments
Coordinator

Assignments will be given specific dates of submission on the course

outline. A rubric for grading the assignment will be given to you at the
beginning of the course

[What is the order of the assignments? Must they be completed in the

order in which they are set?]

Assessments
Assessment will be made up of two assignments and two tests

All four pieces of assessment will be marked by the course instructor

Assessments Tests will be written in the time allocated for contact with course
instructor.

Each test will be 2hrs long

Students will be given two weeks to complete each piece of assignment

In a normal class of 12 students marking of assignments should take 1

week. Other assessment tasks given in the module or online or during
face to face will contribute towards your continuous assessment (CA)
mark.

7
Getting around this Module

Margin icons
While working through this Module you will notice the frequent use of
margin icons. These icons serve to ―signpost‖ a particular piece of text, a
new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to
find your way around this Module.

A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize

yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group activity Help Note it!

Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

8
Unit 1

1. Objectives in School
Mathematics

1.1 Introduction
In this unit you will learn how general educational aims and objectives
apply to the teaching and learning of mathematics. The unit has two parts:
Bloom‘s taxonomy in mathematics teaching and learning and
mathematics objectives as part of the curricula. In this unit you will learn
how Bloom‘s taxonomy applies to mathematics, how to translate the
taxonomy in preparation for your teaching, how to interpret and use
general aims and objectives and how to relate instructional objectives to
the general objectives. To show your understanding you will produce a
classification for a given topic, create instructional objectives and relate
them to the aims and general objectives.
 Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Identify the 3 domains of Bloom‘s taxonomy (Affective, psychomotor

and cognitive) and relate them to your teaching of mathematics.

 Identify the 6 ability levels of the cognitive domain (knowledge,

Outcomes
comprehension, application [lower order abilities] analysis, evaluation
and synthesis [higher order abilities] and their classifications.

 Apply the 6 ability levels in preparation for teaching.

 Compare current views on Bloom‘s taxonomy with the original

taxonomy.

 Contrast alternatives to objectives to behavioural objectives.

 Identify the general aims of education in ESwatini.

 Identify the general aims of school mathematics.

 Match syllabus content to relevant general objectives.

 Incorporate aims of mathematics to its teaching and learning.

 Construct instructional objectives for topics in the school mathematics

syllabus and relate them to general objectives of school mathematics.

Taxonomy: Classification

Socio-gram: a chart which portrays the social relationship of

individuals in a particular group
Terminology
[Term]: [Term description]
Adding extra rows to the
Table graphicRemoving [Term]: [Term description]
rows from the table graphic
[Term]: [Term description]

[Term]: [Term description]

[Term]: [Term description]

[Term]: [Term description]

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1.2 Bloom’s Taxonomies in Mathematics Teaching and Learning
Taxonomy is a classification. Bloom created rubrics for classifying
objectives in three areas called domains. You need to learn these
classifications to make your teaching easier.

The history of Bloom‘s taxonomy dates back to 1948 (Wendell, 2007).

This, she says, was as a result of a need to classify educational goals in
order to evaluate a learner‘s performance. This resulted in three major
domains:

(i) The affective domain

(ii) The psychomotor domain
(iii) The cognitive domain.

Fraser and Gillam (1972) simplifies these domains as changes in the

feeling area, changes in the acting area and changes in the thinking area.

Activity 1

Complete the sentences below:

(i). Objectives that test learners on acquiring a practical

skill belong to the ………………………….domain.

(ii). Objectives that test learners‘ ability to think are

classified in the ……………………………. domain

1.21 The Affective Domain

It is expedient for you as a mathematics teacher to pay attention to the

affective domain in order to inculcate enthusiasm about mathematics. The
affective domain is recognised by attributes such as an interest in or
appreciation of the subject, attitudes, values and adequate adjustment to
the learning of the subject (Fraser & Gillam, 1972; Wendell, 2007).
Fraser and Gillam (1972, p. 35) suggest two instruments that can be used
in measuring objectives in the affective domain:
 (i) A socio-gram – a chart which portrays the social relationship
of individuals in a particular group.
(ii) A questionnaire – to measure attitudes and opinions.

On the same page they also suggest categories to use in testing objectives
in the affective domain. These I have modified as:

1.0 Receiving (attending)

1.1 Awareness
1.2 Willingness to receive
1.3 Controlled or selected attention
2.0 Responding (describes interest objectives)
2.1 Compliance in responding
2.2 Willingness to respond
2.3 Satisfaction in response
3.0 Valuing
3.1 Acceptance of a value
3.2 Preference for a value
3.3 Commitment
4.0 Organization
4.1 Conceptualisation of a value
4.2 Organisation of a value system
5.0 Characterization by a value or a value complex
5.1 Generalised set
5.2 characterisation

From the above categories I have designed a possible socio-gram you

could use with your class. You can add more columns to include other
aspects that you view as belonging to the affective domain.

12
 Table 1: an exemplar socio-gram you could use with any of your classes.

Name Arrival Presence/Participa Submission Presentatio Creativity Independence Relating Positive

for tion/concentration of work n of work of thought with ness
lessons on task. and action others during
lessons

Musa

Hazel

Richmond

Dumisile

The socio-gram should be completed weekly for you to establish a

learner‘s position and also be prepared to help him or her.

Another tool to use is a questionnaire. For this I refer you to the modified
Fennema-Sherman scale which you can find on the internet. This
questionnaire you should administer to the learners when you meet them
for the first time and again at the end of each term. In this way, you will
be able to establish if there were improvements in their attitudes or not.
The advantage of paying attention to the affective domain is that it will
move you away from teaching mathematics to teaching learners
mathematics. There is a difference between the two. When you teach
mathematics your emphasis is the content but when you teach learners
mathematics you place the importance on the learners.

Group Activity

In groups analyse and discuss the responses to the Fennema-Sherman

questionnaire by a learner assigned to your group. Write a report about
this learner‘s attitude to mathematics in the different aspects of the
questionnaire. You will submit this report to the course lecturer.
 1.22 The Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor manifests itself through manual and motor skills

(Fraser & Gillam, 1972; Wendell, 2007). The skills you look out for are
those that involve doing such as constructing solid shapes, transformation
and all other geometric activities. This also includes activities during and
at the end of a laboratory lesson. Categories and their sub-categories in
the psychomotor domain are subsequently shown. The sub-categories are
bolded before the explanation. To help your understanding of this domain
think about teaching and learning to dance. Translate this to the
psychomotor skills in school mathematics.

1.0 Imitation
1.1 Drive such as the determination in doing the practical
activity
1.2 Evident repetition, this can also be evidence of affect but in
this domain it means following the steps the teacher
demonstrates, such as constructing a line bisector
2.0 Manipulation
2.1 Follows the actions directly: this is when the learner is on
his/her own doing the practical activity as during the
demonstration
2.2 Selection: this is choosing the correct instrument, the correct
shape during a practical activity
2.3 Passion: showing interest in the activity
3.0 Precision
3.1 Reproduction for example accurately producing a shape or
diagram.
3.2 Control such as control in the handling of measuring
instruments
4.0 Articulation
4.1 Sequence: following steps of doing an activity correctly
4.2 Harmony: demonstrates an orderly understanding of the
concept
5.0 Adaptation
5.1 Automatism: shows naturalness in doing the activity
5.2 Interiorization: Indication of internalising the activity

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 Group Activity

Prepare objectives that would test the above categories for a geometry
topic assigned to your group.

1.23 The Cognitive Domain

Historically more attention has been given to this domain. You might
have studied or will study Bloom‘s taxonomy generally in one of the
courses in the programme. In this course you will learn how to apply the
taxonomy to the teaching and learning of mathematics. The cognitive
domain is responsible for attainment of knowledge and development of
those skills and abilities necessary to use knowledge. The cognitive
domain has six categories or ability levels each of which can be classified
either as knowledge or as intellectual ability to use knowledge (Fraser &
Gillam, 1972). There have been developments on the taxonomy. Table 2
is the original Bloom‘s taxonomy with examples of how the categories
may apply to mathematics. Table 3 is the new Bloom‘s taxonomy. The
taxonomy is hierarchical in nature as each level is dependent on the
level(s) before it, see Table 1 below.

Table 1: The Hierarchical Nature of Bloom‘s Taxonomy

Knowledge

Knowledge Comprehension

Knowledge Comprehension Application

Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis

Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis

Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation

 This shows that a learner at the comprehension level also has knowledge
and one at the evaluation level also has or uses categories at the lower
levels.

When you have read through the tables in the next three
pages, search the web for Bloom‘s taxonomy action verbs and Bloom‘s
taxonomy of measurable verbs. Identify the verbs that you could use in
mathematics.

16
Table 2: Original Bloom‘s Taxonomy for Mathematics Adapted from (Fraser & Gillam, 1972; Wendell, 2007)
Cognitive Process
Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation
Knowledge and The ability to translate data Use information Seeing patterns Use old ideas to create new Compare and discriminate
information: the ability to from one form to another/ ones between ideas
recall definitions, concepts translate knowledge into Use methods, concepts, Organization of parts
and theories new context , such as theories in novel situations Generalize from given Assess value of theories,
verbal into graphical and presented in unfamiliar Recognition of hidden facts presentations
Knowledge of techniques vice versa ways meanings
and skills: the use of Relate knowledge from Make choices based on
straight forward Grasp meaning e.g. solve Solve problems using Identification of several areas reasoned argument
calculations and problems where choice of required skills or components
computations, and the method is necessary knowledge Predict, draw conclusions Verify value of evidence
ability to manipulate Recognize subjectivity
symbols; solutions Interpret or deduce the
significance of data and to
Knowledge of major ideas follow and extend
reasoning, compare,
Mastery of subject matter contrast Order, group, infer
causes Predict
consequences
 Table 3: The New Bloom‘s Taxonomy with Mathematics Education Examples (Adapted from (Wendell, 2007)

Cognitive Process
Understand Interpret Apply Analyse Evaluate Create
Remember
Exemplify Classify Execute Differentiate Check Generate
Recognise Recall
Summarise Implement Organise Critique Plan
Infer Attribute Produce
Compare
Explain

Types of Knowledge
Factual Recognise and recall Understand Apply basic Analyse basic Evaluate a Improvise, and
Terminology mathematics mathematics mathematical mathematical tasks mathematical task create knowledge by
Basic Elements vocabulary, terminology and knowledge by checking for using basic
conventions pedagogical completeness of knowledge
symbols, definitions concepts, etc. information to
notations, formulae enable solving the
Conceptual etc. Analyse a task.
Interrelationships Understand, explain, Apply mathematics mathematical tasks Improvise, and
among the basic Recognise and recall and discuss concepts to the that requires use of Evaluate a piece of solve novel
elements within the mathematics mathematics solving of novel various concepts to mathematics problems by using
larger structure. concepts, theories concepts and its mathematics solve through conceptual principles, theories,
Classification and etc. relationships to problems critique such as and multiple
Category other areas both proof. mathematical
Principles and within itself and concepts
Generalisations outside to other
Theories, models subjects or contexts.
and structure

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Procedural
Skills Apply certain skills, Analyse how to
Techniques and Recognize and Understand, explain, methods, apply specific types Evaluate Improvise, create,
Methods recall algorithms, and discuss techniques, and of skills, methods, mathematics and solve
Performance procedures such as procedures used in performance criteria and techniques to through checking mathematics
criteria factorising, use of solving routine to mathematics. mathematics and critiquing problems by using a
instruments, mathematics whether certain variety of skills,
transformations etc. problems techniques, techniques, and
methods, and skills methods.
Metacognitive were used correctly
Knowledge of e.g. during group
self and personal Apply Analyse how discussions.
cognition of Recognize and metacognition metacognition
mathematics recall self- Understand, explain, ability to assists in Improvise, create,
Strategic knowledge and and discuss self- mathematical tasks understanding and Critique and self- and solve
knowledge personal cognition knowledge and analysing a evaluation of how mathematics
Knowledge of in mathematics; personal cognition mathematical mathematics is problems by using
cognitive demands strategies for in mathematics; problem personally perceived self-knowledge and
for remembering personal strategies through project personal cognition
different tasks mathematical for solving routine work
self knowledge symbols, problems
procedures, facts,
techniques, etc.

19
1.3 Mathematics Objectives as Part of the Curricula
Once you have learnt the taxonomy and you have the school syllabi that
tell you the aims of the curriculum, the aims of mathematic and the
objectives there are other important parts of the whole process to be
considered such as:

i) your creation and collection of appropriate learning experiences to

achieve the objectives
ii) your measurement (evaluation) of the degree to which the
objectives have been achieved
iii) From the results of (ii) your modification of the choice of the
objectives and learning experiences could follow.

The above can be diagrammatically presented as:

Objectives

Learning Experiences Review Evaluation

Evaluation

Your instructional objectives should:

i) Be stated clearly in terms of behaviour and at

the correct level of generality; be specific and
use active verbs.
ii) Be stated such that there is no overlapping
between them. This helps you identify the
objective that was not achieved.
iii) specify the kinds of responses that may be
accepted as evidence of the aspect of

20
 behaviour related to the problem of
evaluation
iv) Specify the limiting conditions under which
these responses are likely to take place (Furst,
1964 in Fraser & Gillam, 1972).
Example: Given a quadratic equation, ax2 + bx + c = 0, with a = 1
learners should be able to factorise it by first breaking the bx term and
writing it as a sum of factors of c then factorise in parts to obtain a double
bracket expression.

Activity 2
1. Critique the above objective using Furst‘s four steps.
2. Choose a topic in the secondary school mathematics
syllabus and break it down into ability levels of the cognitive
domain using either the new or the old taxonomy.

1.4 The Test Specification Grid

Before you prepare a test or an examination you need to make a
specification grid. You might be asking, what is a specification grid? A
specification grid is a table where you specify what the test will cover and
what each part will weigh. What the test will cover is specified in terms of
Bloom‘s taxonomy abilities in the cognitive domain and topic content.
What each part will weigh refers to the marks allocated to each ability
level and each subtopic. The example on quadratic equations will make
this clearer.

Table 4: Test specification grid for quadratic equations

Subtopic Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Evaluation Synthesis

Graphically

Factorising

Completing
the Square

Formula

21
1.5 Unit Summary

In this section you have learnt about the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domains. You also were exposed to the taxonomies of these
domains. The aims and the objectives of the ESwatini senior secondary
syllabus were discussed as well as preparation of a test specification grid..
Summary

1.6 Assignment
For assignments do activities in this unit.

Assignment

1.7 References
Fennema, E. and Sherman, J.A.: 1976, ‗Fennema-Sherman Mathematics
Attitude Scales. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology,
6(1), 31.

Fraser, W. G. & Gillam, J. N. (1972). The principles of objective testing in

mathematics. London: Heinemann Educational Book.

Wendell, H. (2007). The New Bloom‘s Taxonomy: Implications for Music

Education. Arts Education Policy Review 108(4)

22
Unit 2

2. School Mathematics

2.1 Introduction
Recent research about development of teachers‘ competence in
mathematics has identified three major components of teachers‘
knowledge base which permit them to perform their role effectively:
Mathematics content knowledge (MCK), pedagogical knowledge (PK),
and the blend of knowledge of content and pedagogy (PCK) (Chinnappan
& Lawson, 2005). I will briefly explain the first two as they are pertinent
in this section. You will read and write in detail about these three types of
knowledge in one of your assignments.
 Mathematical content knowledge includes information such
as mathematical concepts, rules and associated procedures
for problem solving (Chinnappan & Lawson, 2005). This
includes the higher mathematics you have studied and your
full understanding of secondary school mathematics.
 Pedagogical knowledge refers to teachers‘ understanding of
their students, and the processes involved in teaching
(Chinnappan & Lawson, 2005).
In this unit you will be exposed to the school syllabus and the
mathematics books used in the school to sharpen your school
mathematics content knowledge. To improve your pedagogical
knowledge you will be exposed to different planning, teaching and
learning methods.
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Identify learning methods that are teacher-centred.

 Identify learning methods that are learner-centred.

 Prepare a scheme of work for any class at secondary school

Outcomes
level.

 Use learner-centred methods to prepare lesson plans.

 Work confidently on any topic in the School mathematics

syllabus.

 Use the recommended text books effectively.

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 Mathematical Knowledge and understanding of mathematics.
Content Knowledge: This includes higher mathematics and school
mathematics

Pedagogical Knowledge of teaching and how children learn

Terminology
Knowledge:

Teacher-Centered: Teacher is more active than the learners

Learner-Centered: Learners play a more active role.

Problem: Novel question that requires a number of

mathematical concepts to solve

Investigation: Same as a problem except it sometimes has no

solution

Misconception: Formally incorrect conception that makes sense to

the one having it.

2.2 The School Mathematics Syllabus

The Primary, Junior Secondary and Senior Secondary School Mathematics
Syllabuses.

As a secondary school teacher it is important for you to be aware of the

mathematics content covered in the primary school. School mathematics is
hierarchical in nature so you need to be aware of the foundation you will
be building on for the Form one learners. To do this you will need to
familiarize yourself with the primary school syllabus.

By now you should be having all school mathematics syllabuses. You

need to ensure that you can handle any topic on the secondary school
mathematics syllabus. If you find that there is a topic you are not confident
in raise it so that we can deal with it during our face to face meetings or on
the online forum. Knowing the content is important because you need to
have the school mathematics content knowledge to be able to teach it as
well as understand learners‘ errors in mathematics.

2.3 Secondary School Mathematics Text Books

PRISM Alive Books

For junior secondary learners we have PRISM Alive books 1 to 3 and for
senior secondary we have PRISM alive book 4.Book 4 has a learner‘s
book and a teacher‘s guide only. Each of the junior secondary school
books has a learner‘s book, a workbook and a teacher‘s guide. Make sure
you understand the icons that are used in the books. When preparing for

24
 lessons read the teacher‘s guide and ensure familiarity with the work you
intend assigning to the learners.

2.5 Teaching Learning Methods

In this section we will learn about teaching learning methods. What is
important hear is that you will use the teaching/learning methods to teach
new concepts or facilitate learning of these concepts. Before you decide on
a method you should ask yourself how you will use it to enable the
learners to learn the concept you want them to learn. The methods
discussed below are relevant in the teaching/learning of school
mathematics. You will get an opportunity to observe how each method can
be used in teaching/learning. Some of the methods are more learner-
centred than others; you will be required to classify a method as more
learner centred than another. Except for problem solving and
investigations ideas for the methods discussed here were sourced from
Farrell & Farmer, (1979).

2.51 Lecture

This method is often discouraged by teacher educators. Can you guess

why? You guessed right it is one method which is highly teacher-centred.
In this method the teacher talks and sometimes uses the chalkboard or
overhead project (OHP) or power point while learners listen quietly and
sometimes take notes. This may occur for an entire class period or for
smaller segments of a class session. When it is used briefly we may term
it teacher-exposition. Teacher exposition is better than lecturing because in
teacher exposition the teacher could be giving instructions to start off
group discussion or a particular activity. This does not mean learners
should not take notes in a mathematics lesson. Notes are very useful
especially if they are not what they already have in their text books.

In mathematics teaching you will use teacher exposition when you define
terms such as quadratic expressions or linear expressions. Notice that you
cannot build these ideas from anything that the learners already know.
Therefore you will define and show examples of the concepts. If a concept
can be built from what learners already know then we could use question
and answer to develop the idea.

If you spend most of your teaching time standing in front of the class then
you should know that your method of teaching is highly teacher-centred.

2.52 Question and Answer

In this method you ask a question, one learner answers, you ask another
related question which is responded to by a second learner and so on. This
may continue for all or part of a lesson. As is the case with the lecture
method the teacher may write something on the chalkboard and sometimes
learners take notes. The question and answer method is not a method that
you will use only during revision lessons. It can be used to teach a concept
new to the learners. Its advantages are that:

25
  It guides the development of a concept
 It stimulates creative problem solving
 It initiates discussions
 It can be used effectively in combination with other methods
Its weaknesses are that:
 It is limited as one student answers at a time
 Learners may get a hint from earlier responses to a question
You can minimise the weakness of one learner answering at a time by
requiring every learner to attempt the asked question in writing before
choosing one of them to answer.

Question and answer could be used in teaching and learning of a

number of topics such as solving of linear equations by the balancing
method. The important thing to remember is that your questioning should
lead to the grasping of the concept you intend the learners to learn. We
will look at a practical demonstration of this at one of our face to face
lessons.

2.521 Considerations for the Question and answer method

2.5211 Things to do when preparing for a question and answer lesson

1. Write down the questions in a developmental sequence and
analyse the possible responses ahead of time.
2. Prepare a brief lecture to start the lesson with. This is where you
lay down the procedures for the lesson.
3. Prepare questions that require a phrase or a sentence in response.
4. Do not ask yes/no or complete a sentence type of questions
5. Do not ask leading questions.
2.5212 The Lesson Delivery
1. Tell the learners that there is no penalty for incorrect or partially
correct answers. Tell them it is not a quiz but a learning
experience.
2. Pose the question before you call on someone to answer.
3. Without making it obvious ask shyer and slower learners low level
questions.
4. Save high level questions for brighter learners without making it
obvious to the class
5. Randomly choose any learner to answer and follow up with a
request for justification.
6. When a learner gives an answer ask another to add to the answer
7. Ask the learner to explain how (s)he arrived at the answer.
8. Ask if there is another way to answer the question
9. Give praise to encourage learners to answer
10. If a learner cannot answer a difficult question, ask a backup
question on a lower level.
11. Do not call learners in only one area of the room for all the
answers

26
 12. Do not direct a series of quick questions to learners row by row or
in any clear pattern.
13. Do not only call on learners who volunteer/lift their hands.
14. Do not accept chorus responses
15. Only accept responses that are audible to all learners in the room.
2.53 Discussion

For this method you prepare an activity for the discussion. The method
involves learner to learner talk with occasional verbal intervention by the
teacher. The discussion does not involve the whole class; they may be in
small groups. Avoid a whole class discussion as it usually becomes a
question and answer lesson. For effective group discussion the group size
should not be above seven learners. Some people think this method will
not work in large classes. However, where there is a will there is always a
way. One way could be having the class in the open or in a bigger room.
Try this method if you have a large class, we might learn from your
experience. The following should be attended to for a successful
discussion:
 Ensure the topic is suitable for the group and that they have a
grasp of needed prerequisites for the task.
 Set each group such that maximum communication will occur in
the group. Can you think of situations that might hinder effective
communication? Yes friends might start other discussions,
enemies could start fighting etc. This means you should know the
learners you teach.
 Arrange learners such that communication flows. Communication
flows across a circle not around it.
 Ask learners to select a chairperson and a recorder.
 Give a time limit to complete the task
 Ensure there is always some form of feedback after the discussion
this is on way to keep them focussed on the task.
 During the discussion you must move around from group to group
to look out for intelligent ideas and misconceptions and also keep
them on task.

27
 2.531 Advantages of a discussion are:
 It is learner-centred
 It has potential to reveal learners‘ strengths such as mathematical
power, leadership skills and public speaking.
 It can point out to you some mathematical misconceptions that
learners have and errors they make.
 It can also point out gaps in the learners‘ knowledge
 It will show you some things that you might not have
communicated well.
2.532 Disadvantages of a discussion are:
 Extroverts tend to dominate the discussion
 Extroverts might confidently lead the group to misconceptions
 Shy learners‘ ideas might not be heard
 Intelligent learners might do the task alone
2.54 Demonstration

Typically but not always the teacher shows something such as a specimen
or a model while learners watch. In some cases one learner may do the
showing while others watch. Some talking is involved but silent
demonstration can be used effectively. Demonstrations are used mainly in
the teaching of geometry. When you show learners how to solve an
equation or do any piece of mathematics IT IS NOT A
DEMONSTRATION but teaching by examples. When preparing for a
demonstration lesson make sure:
 That the specimen is large enough to be visible to everyone in the
room.
 Students know what they should be looking for.
For example you can prepare a large face of the calculator that you have
recommended for use to demonstrate its use in various topics in the school
syllabus. You can also use a demonstration in interpreting graphs and
tables. What other topic would work well with this method? Ask yourself
this question for all the methods in this unit to help you choose the right
method(s) for the different topics in the school syllabus. The weakness of
the demonstration method is that feedback at the time of the demonstration
is almost zero.

2.55 Laboratory

This does not necessarily take place in a laboratory, it may occur in a

regular classroom. The key idea is that learners manipulate concrete
objects, specimen or equipment under the direction of the teacher. This is
in clear contrast to demonstration in which only one individual does the
manipulation while all the others watch. You can have a laboratory lesson
constructing solid shapes. Can you think of other topics where you could
use the laboratory method?

2.56 Individual Learner Projects

28
In this method learners are all doing different varied library research or
different problem-solving/ investigation tasks on an individual basis.
Some learner choice of activity is also implied by this method. We will
study more about problem solving and investigations in the next sub-
section.

Activity 3

The ESwatini school mathematics syllabus includes three aims related to

problem solving. These aims are found in the mathematics syllabus.
Identify them and write them in the space provided.

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

In addition there are five general objectives on problem solving:

8. Recognise and use spatial relationships in two and three
dimensions, particularly in solving problems;
12. Respond to a problem relating to a relatively unstructured
situation by translating it into an appropriately structured form
13. Analyse a problem, select a suitable strategy and apply an
appropriate technique to obtain its solution
14. Apply combinations of mathematical skills and techniques in
problem solving
15. Set out mathematical work, including the solution of
problems, in a logical and clear form using appropriate
symbols and terminology.
The above is an indication that you need to use problem solving in your
teaching of mathematics. However, do you know what problem solving is?

2.57 Problem solving and or Investigations.

―The exact distinction between an investigation and a problem is not all

that clear‖ (Orton, 1987, p.91). What is clear is that both investigations
and problem solving are process oriented methods of teaching/learning
(Ngcobo, 1991). Below one definition of an investigation and three of
problem solving are given.

29
 An investigation presents an open situation. For the learner there are no
known outcomes. There may be no -known outcomes at all. Learners are
not expected to produce ‗the right answer‘, but are required to explore
possibilities, make conjectures and convince themselves and others of what
they find. The emphasis is on exploring a piece of mathematics in all
directions. The journey not the destination is the goal (Pirie, 1987, p. 2).

Lester in Sahu (1983) defines a problem and problem solving thus:

A problem is a situation in which an individual or a group is called upon to

perform a task for which there is no readily accessible algorithm which
determines completely the method of solution. And problem solving
typically involves performing sets of actions to arrive at a Solution to some
particular task (Sahu, 1983, p. 555)

Gagne says:

…… problem solving involves the combining of previously learned rules

into a new higher order rule which ‗solves‘ the problem and generalises to
an entire class of stimulus situations embodying other problems of the
same type (Gagne, 1977, p. 165).

And lastly Schoenfeld says:

A problem is only a problem if you don‘t know how to go about solving it.
A problem that holds no ‗surprise‘ in store, and that can be solved
comfortably by routine or familiar procedures (no matter how difficult) is
an exercise. A problem is not a problem until one wants to solve it
(Schoenfeld, 1983, p. 411).

When one looks at the way Pirie defined an investigation and relates the
given definitions of problem solving, one is bound to feel like Orton
(1987) in that the distinction between the two is not clear (Ngcobo, 1991).
The main related features of all the definitions is that in all of them the
emphasis is on how the problem solver goes about solving the problem,
thus Pirie says; the journey not the destination is the goal‖. Lester says;
―performing actions to arrive at a solution‖ and Gagne‘s: ―combining of
previously learned rules‖. The only marked difference is that the
definitions of problem solving seem to imply that there is always a
destination. What is clear is that they are all interested in the processes
involved in performing the task.

One reacts to Schoenfeld‘s second part of the second sentence by

wondering what a ‗Routine and familiar procedure is‘? Does this
contradict Gagne‘s ‗combining of previously learned rules‘? or does he
mean the same as Lester‘s ‗No readily accessible algorithm‘ ? Thus
implying the solver creates his/her own algorithms for solving the problem
as Kantowski puts it:

―A problem differs from an exercise in that the problem solver does not
have an algorithm that when applied will certainly lead to a solution‖
(Kantowski, 1977, p.163)

In this course, problem solving and investigations will be taken as one and
the same method of teaching/learning and the words will be used

30
interchangeably. In the next section the advantages or benefits that
problem solving has for learners, factors that influence success in problem
solving, and a teacher‘s preparedness for using problem solving in his/her
classes are discussed.

2.571Benefits and difficulties of problem solving

In this section, advantages and difficulties of using problem solving will
be viewed in relation to the learners. In addition we look at how you might
prepare yourself for using problem solving. This section is divided into
three sub-sections 2.573 Benefits to the learners. 2.574 Difficulties
learners‘ face in problem solving and 2.575 Preparing to use problem
solving in your teaching. This section gives the reasons why investigations
should be incorporated in a content oriented curriculum and also how it
can be incorporated.

2.573 Benefits to the learners

Presents mathematics as a creative subject

 Investigations offer learners a way to become involved in
mathematics in making (Pirie, 1987).
 Great scientific discoveries or great works of art, are results
of problem solving (Gagne, 1977).
 Develops in the learners the ability to create mathematics
problems. (Hirst, 1981)
 Encourages creative and critical thinking (Singer, Ellerton
and Cai, 2013)
Learners are motivated to learn
 Investigations encourage learners to engage in mathematical
thinking rather than merely to absorb mathematical thought.
 Promotes learners enjoyment of mathematics.
 Restores and develops learners‘ faith in their own common
sense.
 Gives learners the understanding that even in mathematics
classes, opinions and personal ideas are valued.
 Increases learners‘ willingness to ‗have a go‘ since the threat
of being wrong no longer hangs over them (Pirie, 1987).
 Furnishes a context in which LEARNERS may actually care
about what they are doing for its own sake (Kissane, 1988)
 They learn that: There is no clear defined route in the
process of learning mathematics.
 They also learn that: There are areas for which even teachers
do not have all the answers at their fingertips (Hirst, 1981).

31
 Improves their learning of mathematics
 Makes mathematical experience accessible to learners by
clarifying its subject matter.
 Presents mathematics not as an imposing body of knowledge
to be digested, but as an activity in which learners can
participate.
 Provide situations where learner-learner and learner-teacher
discussion arise naturally.
 Offer variety to the pace and presentation of mathematical
lessons.
 They raise the teacher‘s awareness of each learner‘s thinking
in a way that no marked exercise can.
 One can write/talk about his/her mistakes and difficulties.
 Learners learn that mathematics does not only consist of
manipulations of numbers or formulae.
2.574 Difficulties learners’ face in problem-solving

The difficulties of learning problem solving

The following difficulties have to do with recognition and recall

 Memorization of facts, rules and procedures so that they may
be recalled when solving a problem.
 The mental activity of generalizing or transferring learning
from one context to another.
 Ability to ignore distracting information.
 Processes, heuristics (see Poyla‘s heuristics, how to solve it
at the end of the problem solving section) in particular that
are used to recall and construct information while solving
problems.
The next difficulties have to do with formulating a strategy
 The mental activity of recognizing and restructuring the
variables in a problem so that new relationships which
facilitate the finding of a solution emerge.
 Selecting the right approach and making decisions to pursue
or abandon particular approaches.
 Manner of organizing and processing information, the type
of cognitive strategies used to plan and carry out the attack
and the methods used to evaluate what was done.
Other difficulties are on carrying out a strategy and testing the strategy
 Accuracy in computing or measurement.
 Making and testing conjectures.
The difficulties of solving the problem

32
  The solver‘s reaction under stress or pressure (emanates
from time given to solve the problems)
 The mathematical content of the problem(arises from
problem itself)
 The format of the problem and its structure (arises from
problem itself).
Arise from conceptual style of the solver
 Example: Spatial problems may be quite difficult for
individuals who have analytic orientation.
Arise from previous mathematical background

When a learner has difficulty in remembering or recalling facts he/she will

have difficulty in solving problems because problem solving demands
recall of skills and facts which the learner has to use in solving the
problem. It is possible to conclude that a learner has a problem in
remembering facts and skills and yet the learner knows the skills and
routines associated with the problem but has a difficulty of transferring
them to the new situation. This difficulty can be revealed if a learner can
successfully do routine exercises using the same skills and procedures a
problem demands but cannot apply the same routines in a problem solving
situation.

Another difficulty is that of formulating and carrying out a strategy.

Learners might have the facts and be able to answer the question ―What do
I Know‖? But still fail to formulate a strategy to solve the problem.

2.575 Preparing to use problem solving in your teaching

First and foremost in preparation for problem solving lessons is that you
must be ready and willing to use this kind of method in your teaching.

Teachers who have themselves experienced mathematics as the perfection

of routine skills may be unwilling or unable to perform investigations or to
involve learners in this activity (Watson, 1983). This is the very reason we
have this section in the module; to train you to use problem solving in
your teaching. Following below are some questions you might have about
using investigations in your teaching:
 How do I create problems which are at the .level of the
learner and are interesting as well?
 How will I create problems from our content oriented
curriculum?
 How will I identify the problem features that influence the
solution process?
 How can I deal with difficult problems, avoiding fruitless
effort and a sense of discouragement without implying that
every problem has a solution if you are sufficiently clever?
 How do I organize the learners for a problem solving lesson.

33
 On embarking on the use of investigations in the classroom, you should
decide on how you want to use investigations in your classes.

Do you want to use it as a tool of learning the content of the syllabus or to

provide situations in your classes where learners will be involved with any
form of investigational work? Once the decision has been made you
should then formulate and collect the problems or investigations you will
use in your classes.

Since you have questions on incorporating investigations in a content

oriented curriculum consider Hirst‘s suggestion:

One of the most useful ways of developing expertise in finding topics for
investigations related to a standard mathematics syllabus is to take a
familiar topic or an examination question and try to open it up, perhaps
exploring it in a novel fashion. This will counter the feeling that
investigations suitable for coursework have to be on non-standard topics
unrelated to mainstream mathematics (Hirst, 1988, p. 20).

In creating a bank of problems to use in the classroom, you need to ensure

that you have posed the problems in a challenging manner and that the
problems are at the level of the learners. Leblanc et al. list four factors that
affect the difficulty level of a problem i.e. (i) Choice of vocabulary (ii) the
length and structure of the phrases or sentences, (iii) the size and
complexity of the numbers and (iv) the problem setting or representation
(Leblanc, Proudfit, & Putt, 1980)

Additionally Butt (1980) says:

The fundamental action of posing an open search problem is pose the

problem in a manner that requires the solver to guess the solution…As a
rough rule of thumb, any problem whose statement includes ‗prove that‘,
‗show that‘ and so on will not encourage guessing.

On the next pages is rubrics for grading problem solving and a model for
solving a problem. The grading rubric will guide you on grading learners‘
work. Poyla‘s heuristics is on strategy you can take learners through when
showing them an example of problem solving.

34
Problem Solving Rubric/Marking Guide

This implies that the problem will be marked out of 6.

Stage Points Observed Characteristics

Understanding the 0 Completely misinterprets the problem

Problem
1 Misinterprets part of the problem

2 Complete understanding of the

problem

Solving the Problem 0 No attempt or a totally inappropriate

plan

1 Partially correct procedure based on

part of the problem interpreted
correctly

2 A plan that could lead to a correct

solution with no arithmetic errors

Answering the 0 No answer or wrong answer based on

Problem an appropriate plan

1 Copying error, computational error.

Partial answer for problem with
multiple answers, answer labelled
incorrectly

2 Correct solution

35
 How to solve it

UNDERSTANDING THE PROBLEM

1st You have to What is the unknown? What are the data? What is the
understand the condition?
problem
Is it possible to satisfy the condition? Is the condition
sufficient to determine the unknown? Or is it
insufficient? Or redundant? Or contradictory?

Draw a figure. Introduce suitable notations. Separate

the various parts of the condition. Can you write
them down?

2nd Find the DEVISING A PLAN

condition between
the data and the Have you seen it before? Or have you seen the same
unknown. You problem in a slightly different form? Do you know a
may be obliged to related problem? Do you know a theorem that could
consider auxiliary be useful? Look at the unknown and try to think of a
problems if an familiar problem having the same or a similar
immediate unknown. …..Once you find a problem related to
connection cannot yours and has been solved ask yourself: Can I use it?
be found. You Can I use results from it? Can I use methods from it?
should obtain Should I introduce some auxiliary element in order to
eventually a plan make its use possible? Can I restate the problem? Can
of the solution. I restate it still differently?

If you cannot solve the proposed problem try to solve

first some related problem. Can you imagine a more
accessible related problem? A more general problem?
A more special problem? An analogous problem?
Can you solve a part of the problem? Keep only part
of the condition, drop the other part; how far is the
unknown then determined, how can it vary? Can you
derive something useful from the data? Can you think
of other data appropriate to determine the unknown?
Can you change the unknown or the data, or both if
necessary, so that the new unknown and the new data
are nearer to each other? Have you used all the data?
Have you used the whole condition? Have you taken
into account all essential notions involved in the
problem?

3rd Carry out your CARRYING OUT THE PLAN

plan
Carrying out the plan of the solution, check each step.
Can you see clearly that the step is correct? Can you
prove that it is correct?

4th Examine the LOOKING BACK

36
 solution obtained
Can you check the result? Can you check the
argument? Can you derive the result differently? Can
you see it at a glance? Can you use the result, or the
method for some other problem?

Modified from (Polya, 1990, p. xxxvi-xxxvii)

Does the syllabus use the term problem the same way as
discussed in the previous section?

Further Reading
English, L. Sriraman, B. (2010). Problem Solving in for the 21st century.
In Sriraman, B. &English, L. (Eds.) Theories of mathematics education
(pp.263-290) SpringerLink.

Educational Studies in Mathematics 2013 Volume 83 obtainable from

Springer.

2.6 Scheming and Lesson Planning

Both scheming and lesson planning are ways of preparing for teaching and
learning. In this course we will look at an individual teacher‘s scheme of
work. In this section you will learn the rationale for scheming and lesson
planning, how to prepare a scheme of work and a lesson plan.

2.61The Teacher’s Scheme of Work

A scheme of work is a teaching plan; it helps you fit the work for the
whole year into the time available for teaching. It is important to do this
in order to guard against time wastage. Even one day is wasted if it is not
planned for. In scheming you consider the number of periods you have
per week and consider how to organise the work such that it is done in the
time available. This means you should be aware of disturbances that
occur in your school. Do not pretend you have a full term if this never
happens at your school. Apart from planning the time it also helps you
organise teaching/learning materials and resources or equipment in
advance. Imagine realising in the classroom that it would have helped to
organise some circular objects to lead the learners to discover the
relationship between circumference and diameter! Giving much thought
into your scheme of work makes lesson planning very easy. It makes you
aware of related topics in advance and gives you a holistic approach to the
subject.

The scheme book is a school property as well as a Ministry of Education

and Training (MOET) property. It helps the department and the school in

37
  Maintaining continuity of the syllabus content as learners move
from class to class or as changes occur in the teaching staff
 Maintaining continuity in approach as learners move from teacher
to teacher
 Monitoring your work and the learners‘ progress. It also helps
you monitor your own work and makes you accountable for the
work.
 Guiding the sharing of teaching equipment and resources
 Giving informed feedback to the MOET about the curriculum
 Guiding the HOD on what materials or reference materials to buy
 Guiding the HOD on professional needs of the department
A suitable scheme of work in addition to outlining the content for a
particular group should also;
 Set out the aims and the general objectives for the course (see the
school syllabus for general aims and objectives).
 Give guidance on assessment procedures to be followed (e.g. there
shall be a test at the end of each topic or unit where units are
used). These tests should be planned into the scheme of work.
When preparing a scheme of work you need to have the text book, other
reference books, the examination syllabus and past examination question
papers. A well prepared and frequently updated scheme of work also
assists in your professional development such as making you a better
teacher. On the next page is a template for a scheme of work.

Activity 4

Prepare a detailed scheme of work for the first chapters in the Form 4 text
book using a copy of the template.

38
Typical Scheme of Work Template
1. Aims of the course
2. General objectives for the course
3. Assessment procedures
4. Time frame: no. of weeks
No. of periods/week

Length of a period
5. Number of learners
No. of girls

No. of boys

Da Date Topic Subtopics Content Methods Materials& Forecast Actual Comments

References date of date of
completion completion

39
2.62 LESSON PLANNING

Lesson planning is an in advance active decision making that you do in

preparation for instruction. Lesson planning involves your‘ deliberate
efforts in developing a logical system of activities that help the
development of learners‘ cognitive structures. Planning meaningful
experiences for learners is a basic requirement for successful teaching.
Well organised lessons and presentations facilitate learners‘ perceptions
of connections among mathematical concepts and major ideas. While the
learner is constructing new knowledge, the form in which you present the
information affects how the new knowledge is constructed. Teaching
mathematics is a purposeful activity and is best accomplished when it is
thoroughly planned. Planning meaningful experiences for learners is a
basic requirement for successful teaching. Following is a lesson plan
templates that you can us for different types of approaches.

Typical Lesson Plan Template

Lesson Plan Subheadings

Class: No. of learners: No. of girls: No. of boys:

Date:

Time:

Subject:

Topic:

Subtopic:

Lesson Objectives:

Presumed Knowledge:

Materials and Resources:

Method(s):

Time Stage Teacher’s Learners’

Activity Activity
Introduction
Presentation Steps
Assessment
Summary/Conclusion
Homework
Lesson Evaluation:

41
 Notes on the above template

Allocate time to each section such that it covers the length of time you
have for the lesson, avoid having to rush through some sections. The
evaluation section is only completed after the lesson; it reminds you of
how the lesson went. Were you able to cover everything in the allocated
time? What are the highlights of the lesson? Were there any setbacks? It
is not sufficient to write ‗the lesson was successful‘. When completing
this section think about the content itself, the learners and yourself.
Analyse the content in relationship to the learners and yourself. What
would you do exactly the same way if you were to teach this lesson
again? What would you change? Why? What misconceptions emerged?
What were the sources? Were there comments or questions to link to
other mathematical content that arose during the lesson? Etc.

The introduction should be relevant to the lesson; it should make the

learners want to listen to you. Do not teach in the introduction! There
should be a smooth link between the introduction and step 1 of the
presentation. All the steps should link logically. There should also be
within steps assessments which help the teacher decide if the time is right
to move on. The assessment after presentation is overall assessment for
the day‘s work. Do not wait until you have poured out everything before
checking for understanding, you might discover you lost the learners in
step 1. The conclusion puts together the things that the learners have
learnt on that day, if you use questions to summarize make sure the
important points of the lesson do come out clearly. Doing an exercise is
not a conclusion and writing ―the teacher will summarise the lesson‖ does
not tell the reader you know what you were doing. The homework should
connect the day‘s work with previous and subsequent lessons. The
homework should stretch the learners instead of being a continuation of
the exercise they were doing in class. It should help them see the
usefulness of mathematics.

When you have finished preparing your lesson check it to see where and
how each objective is covered. Make sure the exercises you give are
relevant to the work covered and can be done. Include the different
cognitive skills in your lesson i.e. Knowledge, comprehension,
application and higher order abilities.

Activity 5

Use one of the subtopics from the scheme you made to prepare a lesson
plan for a Form 4 class.

42
2.7 Unit summary
This section has made you aware of the following teaching and learning
methods: the lecture method, the question and answer method, the
discussion method, the demonstration method, the laboratory method and
the project method. With the project method we furthermore looked at
Summary problem solving and investigations in the teaching of mathematics. Lastly
you were shown how to scheme and plan for lessons.

Assignment
You must have already seen an assignment on scheming and lesson
planning in your course outline

Assignment

43
2.8 References
Butt, T. (1980). Posing problems properly, in S. Krulik (Ed.) Problem
solving in school mathematics, NCTM 1980 year book.
Chinnappan, M. & Lawson, M. J. (2005). A Framework for Analysis Of
Teachers‘ Geometric Content Knowledge And Geometric Knowledge
for Teaching. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 8 p. 197-
221
Cockcroft, W.H. (1982). Mathematics Counts London. HMSO.
Farrell, M. A. & Farmer, W. A. (1979). Systematic instruction in
mathematics for the middle and high school years. Addison- Wesley
Educational Publishers Inc.
Gagne, R.M. (1977). The conditions of learning. 3rd edition Holt
Reinhart and Watson.
Hirst, K.E. (1981). Undergraduate Investigations. Educational Studies in
Mathematics 12.
Hirst, K.E. (1988). An investigation on quadratic equations, Mathematics
in School 17.
Kantowski, M.G. (1977). Processes in mathematical problem solving,
Journal for Research in Mathematical Education 8.
Kissane, B.V. (1988). Mathematical investigations: Description,
Rationale and Example, Mathematics Teacher 1988.
Leblanc, J. F., Proudfit, L. & Putt, I. J. (1980). Teaching problem-solving
in the elementary school, in S. Krulik (Ed.). Problem-solving in school
mathematics NCTM 1980 year book.
Ngcobo, M. (1991). Incorporating investigations in a content oriented
curriculum. Unpublished paper written for module E10 Mathematics
and Society University of Leeds
Orton, A. (1987). Learning Mathematics. Cassel Education.
Pirie, S. (1987). Mathematical investigations in your classroom,
McMillan Education.
Polya, G. (1990). How to solve it. Penguin.
Sahu, A.R, (1963). On some educational and psychological aspects of
problem-solving, International Journal of Mathematical Education in
Science and Technology 14
Schoenfeld, A.H. (1983). The wild, wild, wild, wild, wild word of
problem-solving (a Review of sorts), For the Learning of Mathematics
(3)3.
Singer, F. M., Ellerton, N. & Cai, J. (2013). Problem-posing research in
mathematics education: new questions and directions. Educational
Studies in Mathematics (83) p. 1-7

Watson, F. R. (1983). Investigations. Educational Analysis 5(3).

44
Unit 3

3. Academic Writing (this is to aid

you in writing assignment 1)

3.1 Introduction
This unit is aimed at reminding you of some things you learnt in year one
about academic writing. It is important for us to go over some issues in
writing academically so that we harmonise our thinking. In this unit you
will be told how I expect you to format your essays and how I want you
to write the different sections of an essay. Additionally you will learn
how to read and write critically.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Identify relevant reading for your academic writing.

 Record important information on the sources you read.

 Critique a piece of academic writing including your own by reading

Outcomes
critically.

 Summarise other people's writings in order to use in your own work..

 Write academically by using correct language grammar, citing and

referencing sources appropriately..

 [verb] [complete the sentence].

Warrant/evidence: Supporting facts or data

Flaw in an argument: An argument with some mistakes as shown in

Table 3.
Terminology
Claim: An argument with no warrant or evidence

Argument: A claim with evidence

45
3.2 Critical Reading
What you read is what you will use as evidence to support your
arguments so that they are valid. Evidence is found in books, journals,
internet and your research findings. Find where your library keeps
mathematics education books and other sources. In the case of books and
journals look at the content page or the subject index to see if what you
are interested in is there. You have to have a note book for your library
search. In the note book
 Note authors surname and initials
 Title of book or article
 Name of journal
 Place of publication and publisher
 Date of publication
When taking notes from various sources note the page numbers from
which you are reading so that you are able to cite the page numbers when
necessary. In the essay evidence could be:
 A paraphrase from a book or journal
 A quotation from a book or journal (this needs to be relevant and
accurately reproduced)
 Data from an experiment
 From some observation of some other type.
Start by reading generally around the topic, collecting the evidence.
Break the essay into themes or parts. Isolate relevant issues and questions
for each theme. Always think while you read. React to what you read
and researching for your essay will be fast.

Each piece of evidence should be used to support one argument. Quotes

and statements from other authors need to be cited correctly and
explained. However, not everything you read on your topic is useful for
your assignment or essay. This demands that you learn how to read
critically.

Once you know how to critically read you will be able to write critically.
It is easy to criticise another person‘s work therefore one of the activities
in this unit is to read critically. These are steps you use to read critically:
1. Identify the author‘s main aims and agendas or purposes so
as to take them into consideration in your evaluation of the
text.
2. Focus your reading by asking questions and search for
answers that will help you achieve your goals.
3. Evaluate what you are reading by identifying the author‘s
arguments and judging the adequacy of the
backing/evidence they offer (Wallace and Wray, 2006).

46
Focussing your reading through a central question and review
questions
1. Formulate a broad central question related to your study or
task e.g. you have been asked to write an essay on teaching
learning mathematics. A broad question could be ‗What
does teaching learning mathematics entail?‘
2. Construct review questions i.e. more specific questions that
are derived from the central question. Answering these
questions contribute to answering the central question e.g.
‗What does research/literature suggest are good methods of
teaching?‘ Add more review questions to help you write
your essay academically (Wallace and Wray, 2006).
Evaluating the usefulness of what you read
1. Use literature that is reliable and relevant to your task.
2. You determine reliability of the material by identifying and
evaluating its argument(s).
An argument consist of a conclusion (one or more claims that something
is, or should be, the case) and a warrant (the justification for why the
claim or claims should be accepted)

Sources of a warrant are:

 Evidence from the author‘s professional experience
 Evidence from the author‘s research
 Evidence from the Literature
A strong conclusion is one that is sufficiently warranted by some form of
evidence. Only with this kind of evidence should you be convinced of a
conclusion‘s validity (Wallace and Wray, 2006)

How to identify the warrants and conclusions of arguments

Key indicators are the words or phrases that link the conclusion to the
warrant such as therefore, because, since, so, it follows that, it can be
concluded that etc.

47
 Table 3. Identifying Flaws in Arguments

Flaw Questions that indicate the flaw

Conclusion without a warrant Why? How do you know?

Warrant without a conclusion So What? Why are you telling me

this? What does it imply?

Conclusion with an inadequate Does this evidence really mean as

warrant much as you claim? Is this
evidence robust enough?

Warrant leading to an illogical Does this reasoning add up? Aren‘t

conclusion. there other more plausible
conclusions?

Conclusion that is not explicitly What are you trying to claim?

linked to its warrant. What is the causal relationship
between the factors?

(Wallace and Wray, 2006 p. 31)

Structure for a critical summary of an article or chapter

 Title of chapter or article you reviewed
 Introduction (50-100 words) informed by your answer to
the question ―why am I reading this?‖
 Content (100-200 words) informed by your answer to the
following questions; ―What are the authors trying to do in
writing this?‖ and ―What are the authors saying that is
relevant to what I want to find out?‖
 Evaluating the content (100-200 words) informed by your
answer to the question: ―How convincing is what the
authors are saying?‖
 Drawing your conclusion (100-150 words) informed by
your answer to the question: ―In conclusion what can I
make of this?‖ (Wallace and Wray, 2006).
Bear in mind that your summary of the chapter or article will not have
sub-heading but will read as one coherent whole. The sub-sections are
there only to guide your thinking.

Activity 6: Critically read the article given to you as part of

reading for your assignment 2. Submit a critical summary as suggested by
(Wallace and Wray, 2006).

48
3.3 Critical Writing
When you write critically you read your work as though it is somebody
else‘s work. It is evident from the previous sentence that critical writing
happens from the start to the end. One of the important points in
academic writing is presenting valid argument.

Make a coherent argument this is more important than the amount of

information presented. Degree essays are not about a right or wrong
answer but a good argument (debate). Avoid lots of disconnected facts
which do not lead to your conclusion. Your facts must be relevant to the
question you are trying to address.

Two elements to making your essay an easy read:

 The structure of the essay
 The clarity of your language.
The following three points might be helpful in writing your essay:
1. Introduce your opinion and your reasons for holding it
2. Present evidence for your opinion
3. Conclude your essay with a look at other people‘s ideas to
show how your opinion fits with theirs (Mounsey, 2002)
Generally this is what we call parts of the essay i.e. the introduction, the
body and the conclusion.

3.31 Subsections of your essay

The title

The title of your essay must identify the main issues of the paper and
typically should serve as a pathway to the paper (https://www.e-
education.psu.edu/styleforstudents). Begin it with the subject of the
paper. The title of your essays must be accurate, unambiguous, specific
and complete. At the same time it must be as short as possible.

Lastly you must not use abbreviations that could be unfamiliar to your
readers.

The introduction

The introduction of your essay generally sets the background for the
assignment and how it is arranged. It should answer the following
questions:
 What are you going to write about
 Which sources will you call upon to support your
arguments?
Additionally it must include a brief statement of what you hope to
demonstrate.

The body
 Presents some evidence.

49
  Say where the evidence came from (context)
 Say why the evidence is part of the argument (comment)
The body could also be subtitles of the themes but it should still flow i.e.
one essay not pieces of different essays.

Conclusion

The conclusion draws the reader to the important issues discussed and for
this reason:
 It should restate that the preceding argument is valid and
why.
 It should repeat the introduction though it should be briefer.
 You should state where your argument stands with respect
to other ideas about the same topic.
 Draw conclusions only from the evidence you have
presented.
3.32 Style of the paper
Formatting
For all academic writing assignments I want you to type using the
following specifications: The paper should be at least 10 typed pages and
at most 13 pages typed on font 12 Times New Roman 1.5 spacing portrait
2.5cm or 1 inch margins. Include a name and title page on font 18. This
tile page must have your name and ID and the title of the essay, do NOT
copy and paste the assignment task as it is.

In text citation examples:

1. (Mkhonta, 2005, p. 120) if it‘s a quote. This style is used at
the end of the statement.
2. (Mhlanga, 2005) an idea not written in exact words at the
end of statement.
Or at the beginning of the statement;
1. Mkhonta (2005, p.120) for a quote and
2. Mhlanga (2005) for an idea
Example of how your reference page should look like

Adam, S., Alangui, W. & Barton, B. (2003). A comment on: Rowlands

& Carson ―Where would formal, academic mathematics stand in a
curriculum informed by ethno mathematics? A critical review‖
Educational Studies in Mathematics, 52, 327-335.

Adie, H. (1987). Planning for Effective Learning. Southern African

Education Program., G. (1994). What is STS Science Teaching? In
Solomon, J. & Aikenhead, G. (Eds.), STS Education: International
Perspectives on Reform (pp. 47-59) London: Teachers College.

Ainley, M. (2006). Connecting with learning: Motivation, affect and

cognition in interest processes. Educational Psychology Review, 18,
391-405

50
 Anderman, L. H. & Midgley C. (1998). Motivation and middle school
learners.

ERIC clearing house on elementary and early childhood education.

Babbie, E. (2007). The practice of social research (11th ed.). Australia,

Brazil, Canada, Mexico, Singapore, Spain, United Kingdom, United
States: Thomson Wadsworth.

Betts, P. & McNaughton K. (2003). Towards how to add an aesthetic

image to mathematics education. International journal of teaching
and learning. Retrieved July 25 2005 from
http://www.cimt.plymouth.ac.uk/journal/bettspaul.pdf

Boaler, J. (2002). Experiencing school mathematics; revised and

expanded edition. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.

Borg, W. R. & Gall, M. D. (1989). Educational research an

introduction. New York & London: Longman

Blinko, J. (2004). Mathematics in context. Mathematics Teaching, 188,

3-9

Activity 7: Critically read your own assignment 1 before

submitting it. Submit a critical summary as suggested (Wallace and
Wray, 2006) together with your assignment.

3.4 Unit summary

You were reminded on how to search for relevant literature for your
academic papers. With this you learnt how to read and write critically.
Additionally you learnt how to organise your essay and how to cite and
reference your sources.
Summary

51
3.5 Assignment
Do the activities in this unit

Assignment

3.6 Assessment
All academic papers you will write in this programme will be assessment
for this unit.

Assessment

[Continue your body text here]

3.6 References
https://www.e-education.psu.edu/styleforstudents

Mounsey, C. (2002). One Step Ahead: Essays and Dissertations. Oxford

University press.

Wallace, M. & Wray, A. (2006). Critical reading and writing for

postgraduates. London: Sage publications

52
Unit 4

4. The Process of Learning

Mathematics

4.1 Introduction
Teachers‘ ability to connect content knowledge to lessons and
instructional strategies is the essence of pedagogical content knowledge
(Koirala, Davis, & Johnson, 2008). This they say includes ability to
analyse learners‘ work and plan lessons that build upon what they know
about the learners‘ understandings/misunderstandings. In this section we
study concepts development and factors that affect the development of
concepts such as motivation and misconceptions.
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Define a concept.

 Identify contributory concepts to a given concept.

 Use principles of concept development in lesson planning.

Outcomes
 Define misconceptions and errors.

 Identify possible misconceptions and errors in the learning of

mathematics.

 Identify sources of misconceptions.

 Avoid creating misconceptions.

 Eradicate or use misconceptions to enable correct conception.

 Define intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

 Identify methods of developing intrinsic motivation.

 Build motivational strategies into lesson plans

Concept: idea

Misconception: Formally incorrect conception that makes sense to

the one having it
Terminology
Error: A haphazard mistake

53
 Extrinsic motivation: Motivation that depends on external rewards or
conditions

Intrinsic motivation: Motivation that sterms from the inner self

Conceptual Having knowledge that is guided by notions

understanding:

Procedural knowledge of algorithims or knowing how to do a

understanding: piece of mathematics

interest: positive aspect of motivation

4.2 Concept Development

In this section we shall examine what we mean by concepts, and how we
form, use and communicate these (conceptualising). Learners need to
experience conceptual knowledge of mathematics, procedural knowledge
of mathematics and understand the relationship between conceptual and
procedural knowledge (Tevfik & Ahmet,2003).Therefore we will also
consider the meanings of these types of knowledge.

What we mean by concept

Though the term ‗concept‘ is widely used, it is not easy to define (Skemp,
1986). However, Skemp continues to give some definitions such as 1 and
2:
1. A concept is an idea
2. A concept is an abstraction i.e. a result of abstracting. An
abstraction is some kind of lasting mental change, the result
of abstracting, which enables us to recognize new
experiences as having the similarities of an already formed
class. The next definition comes from
3. A concept is defined as knowledge structure of common
characteristics of different substances and events captured
by human brain (Tevfik & Ahmet, 2003)

Two kinds of knowledge

There are two kinds of knowledge -Conceptual knowledge and

procedural knowledge- that educators have described as either distinct
kinds of knowledge or intersecting knowledge. In this section I will give
you the different meanings that people have given to each of these kinds
of knowledge.

Conceptual knowledge/understanding

Conceptual knowledge is knowledge of concepts (Rittle-Johnson,

Schneider, & Star, 2015). They say there is broad agreement that

54
conceptual knowledge supports procedural knowledge. Star (2005) in
(Broody, 2007) proposed defining conceptual knowledge as "knowledge
of concepts or principles"-as knowledge that involves relations or
connections (but not necessarily rich ones). A learner with conceptual
understanding has an integrated and functional grasp of
mathematical ideas and knows more than disconnected facts and
methods (Kilpatrick, Swafford, & Findell, 2001).

Conceptual knowledge involves:

 reasoning with relationships among concepts (Lehrer,
Kobiela & Weinberg, 2012; Long, 2005)
 connecting mathematical concepts, skills and strategies to
purposeful, relevant and meaningful contexts thus
promoting a deeper level of understanding (Keng & Kian,
2010)
 Creation of relationships between existing knowledge and
new information that is just entering the system (Long,
2005).
Procedural knowledge/understanding
Procedural knowledge is knowledge of procedures (Rittle-Johnson,
Schneider, & Star, 2015). Star (2005) in (Broody, 2007) defined
procedural knowledge as "knowledge of procedures" and deep
procedural knowledge as involving "comprehension, flexibility,
and critical judgment and [as] distinct from (but possibly related to)
knowledge of concepts. In mathematics it defines symbols, rules,
and knowledge used in solving mathematical problems (Tevfik &
Ahmet,2003). Mills (2016) alludes that mathematics literature
states that a learner must have a comprehensive foundation of
factual and procedural knowledge in order for conceptual
understanding to happen. This is an indication that procedural
knowledge is essential for conceptual understanding

Procedural knowledge involves:

 Knowing the formal language or the symbol representation
system (Long, 2005)
 Knowing algorithms and rules for completing tasks and
procedures (Long, 2005)
 Knowing strategies for solving problems (Long, 2005)
Conceptualising/Abstracting and Classifying

The three examples below should give you a clear picture of abstracting
and classifying.

A baby boy aged twelve months, having finished sucking his bottle,
crawled across the floor of the living room to where two empty wine
bottles were standing and stood his own empty feeding bottle neatly
alongside them (Skemp, 1986). A two-year-old boy, seeing a baby on the
floor, reacted to it as he usually did to dogs, patting it on the head and
stroking its back (Skemp, 1986). A two year old girl seeing a goat for the

55
 first time looked at it sternly and said ―dog?‖ The mother responded ―no,
goat‖ the child stared at the animal and said ―goat‖. In all these cases the
behaviour of the children concerned implies:
(i) some kind of classification of their previous experience
(Skemp, 1986);
(ii) The fitting of their present experience into one of these
classes (Skemp, 1986).
He says everyone behaves like this all the time; it is thus that we bring to
bear our past experience on the present situation.

Abstracting is an activity by which we become aware of similarities

among our experiences (Skemp, 1986). He says a concept therefore
requires for its formation a number of experiences which have something
in common. Once the concept is formed, we may (retrospectively [with
hindsight] and prospectively [with anticipation]) talk about examples of
the concept.

Classifying involves collecting together our experiences on the basis of

these similarities (Skemp, 1986).

Important Points on Concept Development

More frequently encountered objects are, in most cases, conceptualized

quickly; but there may be other factors that are at work, which make this
statement a generalizing statement. One of these factors is contrast.
Objects which thus stand out from their environments are more likely to
be remembered and their similarities have a high chance to be abstracted
across intervals of space and time.

x + 3 = 4, 2x – 7 = 3, x2 + 2x – 5, 6 = 4x – 2.

In the example above the quadratic expression stands out perceptually as

it is different from the linear equations. The example also illustrates the
function of non-examples in determining a class. The quadratic
expression, by its difference makes the similarity between the linear
equations more obvious. This is especially useful in fixing the borderline
of a class — we use objects which might be examples, but aren‘t. How
would you use these three points - More frequently encountered,
contrast and non-examples - in your teaching of mathematics:

Naming

We have just used naming again. Language is, in humans, so closely

linked with concepts and concept-formation that we cannot for long keep
it out of our discussion. The distinction between a concept and its name is
an essential one for our present discussion. A concept is an idea; the
name of a concept is a sound, or a mark on paper, associated with it. This
association can be formed after the concept has been formed (‗what is
this called?‘) or in the process of forming it. If the same name is heard or
seen each time, an example of a concept is encountered; by the time a
concept is formed, the name has become so closely associated with it that
it is not only by children that it is mistaken for the concept itself. In
particular, numbers (which are mathematical concepts) and numerals (the

56
names we use for numbers) are widely confused. If you ask a class of
learners to give you numbers between 1 and 10 they will in most cases
give you counting numbers.

Being associated with a concept, the use of a name in connection with an

object helps us to classify it, that is, to recognize it as belonging to an
existing class. ‗What‘s this?‘ ‗A new kind of equation called a quadratic
equation the highest power of a variable in this type of equation is 2.‘
Now we have named it and defined it i.e. identify its class, which we
were unable to do by its perceptual properties alone. This classification
was done by bringing the concept of an equation to consciousness at the
same time as the new experience.

Naming can also play a useful, sometimes an essential, part in the

formation of new concepts. Hearing the same name-in connection with
different experiences predisposes us to collect them together in our minds
and also increases our chance of abstracting their intrinsic similarities (as
distinct from the extrinsic one of being called by the same name).
Experiment has also shown that associating different names with classes
which are only slightly different in their characteristics helps to classify
later examples correctly, even if the later examples are not named. The
names help to separate the classes themselves.

Skemp (1986) on communication of concepts

We can see that language can be used to speed up the formation of a

concept by helping to collect and separate contributory examples and
none-examples. Can it be used to short-circuit the process altogether by
simply defining a concept verbally? Particularly in mathematics, this is
often attempted, so let us examine the idea of a definition, as usual with
the help of examples. Let us consider similar shapes. What would you do
or say if a child asked you what similar shapes are?

You could give a definition: ―Similar shapes have the same number
of sides, all corresponding angles equal , and the ratio of
corresponding sides are equal‖ The child might then ask you ―what is a
ratio?‖ That would be an indication that he/she still has no idea what
similar shapes are. Such a definition would be useless to him/her if he/she
does not have the concept of ratio. What could help is giving him/her
different sets of similar shapes and asking him/her to identify and
measure corresponding sides and angles from which we hope he/she will
abstract the common property of same ratios and equal angles.

If he now asks a different question, ‗What does ―shape‖ mean we can no

longer collect together examples for him by pointing, for the examples
we want are all sorts of shapes, plane and solid and these are themselves
concepts. This leads us to an important distinction between two kinds of
concept:

Those which are derived from our sensory and motor experiences of the -
outside world, such as red, motor car, heavy, hot, sweet, will be called
primary concepts; those which are abstracted from other concepts will be
called secondary concepts. If concept A is an example of concept B, then
we shall say that B is of a higher order than A. Clearly, if A is an example

57
 of B, and B of C, then C is also of higher order than both B and A. ‗Of
higher order than‘ means ‗abstracted from‘ (directly or indirectly). So
‗more abstract‘ means ‗more removed from experience of the outside
world‘, which fits in with the everyday meaning of the word ‗abstract‘.
This comparison can only be made between concepts in the same
hierarchy.

These related ideas, of order between concepts and a conceptual

hierarchy, enable us to see more clearly why, for the child, the definition
of similar shape presupposes concepts such as shape, corresponding, side,
angle, and ratio. In general, concepts of a higher order than those which
people already have cannot be communicated to them by a definition but
only by collecting together, for them to experience, suitable examples.

Of what use, then, if any, is a definition?

Two uses can be seen at once. If it were necessary to specify exactly

within what limits we would still say shapes are similar, then the above
definition would enable us to define the boundaries for any shapes to be
similar. And having gone further in the process of abstraction, that is, in
the formation of larger classes based on connections, a definition enables
us to retrace our steps. By stating all those (and only those) classes to
which our particular concept belongs, we are left with just one possible
concept — the one we are defining. In the process we have shown how it
relates to the other concepts in its hierarchy. Definitions can thus be seen
as a way of adding precision to the boundaries of a concept, once
formed, and of stating explicitly its relation to other concepts.

In mathematics, not only are the concepts far more abstract than those of
everyday life, but the direction of learning is for the most part in the
direction of still greater abstraction. The communication of mathematical
concepts is therefore much more difficult, on the part of both
communicator and receiver. This problem will be taken up again shortly,
after certain other general topics have been explored.

The role of noise in concept formation

Now, there are two ways of evoking a concept, that is, of causing it to
start functioning. One is by encountering an example of the concept. The
concept then comes into action as our way of classifying this example,
and our subjective experience is that of recognition. The other is by
hearing, reading or otherwise making conscious the name, or other
symbol, for the concept. We can do this due to our ability to isolate
concepts from any of the examples which give rise to them. Only by
being detachable from the sensory experiences from which they
originated can concepts be collected together as examples from which
new concepts of greater abstraction can be formed.

Our ability to make concepts independent of the experiences which gave

rise to them and to manipulate them by the use of language is the very
core of human superiority over other species. This is the first step towards
the realization of the potential which this greater intelligence gives.
Intelligence makes speech possible, but speech (which has to be learnt) is
essential for the formation and use of the higher-order concepts which,
collectively, form our scientific and cultural heritage.

58
A concept is a way of processing data which enables the user to bring
past experience usefully to bear on the present situation. Without
language each individual has to form their own concepts direct from the
environment. Without language, these primary concepts cannot be
brought together to form concepts of higher order. By language, however,
the first process can be speeded up and the second is made possible.
Moreover, the concepts of the past meticulously abstracted and slowly
accumulated by successive generations, become available to help each
individual form his/her own conceptual system.

The actual construction of a conceptual system is something which

individuals have to do for themselves. But the process can be enormously
speeded up if, so to speak, the materials are to hand. It is like the
difference between building a boat from a kit of wood already sawn to
shape and having to start by walking to the forest, felling the trees,
dragging them home, making planks — having first mined some iron ore
and smelted it to make an axe and a saw!

What is more the work of geniuses can be made available to everyone.

Concepts like that of gravitation, the result of years of study by one of the
greatest intelligences the world has known, become available to all
scientists who follow. The first person to form a new concept of this
order has to abstract it relatively unaided. Thereafter, language can be
used to direct the thoughts of those who follow so that they can make the
same discovery in less time and with less intelligence. Yet even Newton
(1642-1727) was by no means altogether unaided. He said, with modesty,
‗if I have seen a little farther than others, it is because I have stood on the
shoulders of giants.‘ The conceptual structures of earlier mathematicians
and scientists were available to him.

Noise

By this is meant data which is irrelevant to a particular communication,

so that what is noise in one context may not be so in another. (For
example, if we are listening and enjoying music when the telephone
rings, the sound of the bell conveys information that someone is calling
us, but is noise relative to the music.) The greater the noise, the harder it
is to form the concept. An attribute of high intelligence is the ability to
form concepts under conditions of great noise. But- once we have a
concept, we can see examples of it where previously we could not.

Learning of mathematical concepts

The particular problem (but also the power) of mathematics lies in its
great abstractness and generality, achieved by successive generations of
particularly intelligent individuals each of whom has been abstracting
from, or generalizing, concepts of earlier generations. The present-day
learner has to process not raw data but the data-processing systems of
existing mathematics. This is not only an immeasurable advantage, in that
an able learner can acquire in years ideas which took centuries of past
effort to develop; it also exposes the learner to a particular hazard. Higher
mathematics or even some school mathematics cannot be learnt directly
from the everyday environment, but only indirectly from other
mathematicians, in conjunction with one‘s own reflective intelligence. At
best, this makes one largely dependent on teachers (including all who

59
 write mathematics textbooks); at worst, it exposes one to the possibility
of acquiring a lifelong fear and dislike of mathematics.

Though the first principles of the learning of mathematics are straight

forward, it is the communicator of mathematical ideas, and not the
recipient, who most needs to know them. And though they are simple
enough in themselves, their mathematical applications involve much hard
thinking. The first of these principles was stated earlier in the chapter:
(i) Concepts of a higher order than those which people already
have cannot be communicated to them by a definition, but
only by arranging for them to encounter a suitable
collection of examples.
The second follows directly from it:
(ii) Since in mathematics these examples are almost invariably
other concepts, it must first be ensured that these are
already formed in the mind of the learner
The first of these principles is broken by the vast majority of textbooks,
past and present. Nearly everywhere we see new topics introduced not by
examples but by definitions, definitions of the most admirable briefness
and exactitude for the teacher (who already has the concepts to which
they refer) but incomprehensible to the learner. For reasons which will be
apparent, examples cannot be quoted here, but readers are invited to
verify this statement for themselves. It is also a useful exercise to look at
some definitions of ideas new to oneself in books about mathematics
beyond the stage which one has reached. This enables one to experience
at first hand the confusion of the younger learner.

Good teachers intuitively help out a definition with examples. To choose

a suitable collection is, however, harder than it sounds. The examples
must have in common the properties which form the concept but no
others. To put it differently, they must be alike in the ways which are to
be abstracted and otherwise different enough for the properties irrelevant
to this particular concept to cancel out or, more accurately, fail to
summate. Remembering that these irrelevant properties may be regarded
as noise, we may say that some noise is necessary to concept formation.
In the earlier stages, low noise — clear embodiment of the concept, with
little distracting detail — is desirable; but as the concept becomes more
strongly established, increasing noise i.e. stretching learners to higher
order thinking, teaches the recipient to abstract the conceptual properties
from more difficult examples and so reduces dependence on the teacher.

Composing a suitable collection thus requires both inventiveness and

awareness of the concept to be communicated. Now, it is possible to
have, and use, a concept at an intuitive level without being aware of it.
This applies particularly to some of the most basic and frequently used
ideas: partly because the more automatic any activity the less we think
about it; partly because the most fundamental ideas of mathematics are
acquired at an early age, when we have not the ability to analyse them;
and partly because some of these fundamental ideas are also among the
most subtle. But it is easy to slip up even when these factors do not apply.

60
Some children were learning the theorem of Pythagoras. They had copied
a right -angled triangle from the blackboard –figure a- and were told to
make a square on each side. This they did easily enough for the shorter
sides- figure b-; but they were nearly all in difficulty when they tried to
draw the square on the hypotenuse. Many of them drew something like
figure c. From this, it can be inferred that the squares from which they
had formed their concepts had all been ‗square‘ to the paper and had
included no obliquely placed examples.

The second of the two principles, that the necessary lower-order concepts
must be present before the next stage of abstraction is possible, seems
even more straightforward. To put this into effect, however, means that
before we try to communicate a new concept, we have to find out what
are its contributory concepts; and for each of these, we have to find out
its contributory concepts, and so on, until we reach either primary
concepts or experience which we can assume. When this has been done, a
suitable plan can then be made which will present to the learner a
possible, and not an impossible, task.

There are two other consequences of the second principle. The first is that
in the building up of the structure of successive abstractions, if a
particular level is imperfectly understood, everything from then on is in
danger. This dependency is probably greater in mathematics than in any
other subject. One can understand the geography of Africa even if one
has missed that of Europe; one can understand the history of the
nineteenth century even if one has missed that of the eighteenth; in
physics one can understand ‗heat and light‘ even if one has missed
‗sound‘. But to understand algebra without ever having really understood
arithmetic is impossibility, for much of the algebra we learn at school is
generalized arithmetic. Since many learners learn to do manipulations of
arithmetic with a very imperfect understanding of the underlying
principles, it is small wonder that mathematics remain a closed book to
them. Even those who get off to a good start may, through absence,

61
 inattention, failure to keep up with the pace of the class or other reasons,
fail to form the concepts of some particular stage. In that case, all
subsequent concepts dependent on these may never be understood, and
learners become steadily more out of their depth. In the latter case,
however, the situation ‗may not be so irremediable, if the learning
situation is one which makes back-tracking possible: for example, if the
text in use provides a genuine explanation and is not just a collection of
exercises. Success will then depend partly on the confidence of the
learners in their own powers of comprehension.

The other consequence (of the second principle) is that the contributory
concepts needed for each new stage of abstraction must be available. It is
not sufficient for them to have been learnt at some time in the past; they
must be accessible when needed. This is partly a matter, again of having
facilities available for back-tracking. Appropriate revision, planned by a
teacher, will be particularly useful for beginners, but more advanced
learners should be taking a more active part in the direction of their own
studies, and, for these, returning to take another look at earlier work will
be more effective if it is directed by a felt need rather than by an outside
instruction. To put it differently, an answer has more meaning to someone
who has first asked a question.

Skemp (1986) on Learning and teaching

In learning mathematics, although we have to create all the concepts

anew in our own minds, we are only able to do this by using the concepts
arrived at by past mathematicians. This makes the learning of
mathematics, especially in its early stages and for the average learner,
very dependent on good teaching. Now, to know mathematics is one
thing and to be able to teach it - to communicate it to those at a lower
conceptual level- is quite another; and it is the latter which is most
lacking at the moment. As a result, many people acquire at school a
lifelong dislike, even fear, of mathematics.

It is good that widespread efforts have been and are still being made to
remedy this, for example, by the introduction of new syllabi, more
attractive presentation, television series and other technologies. But the
small success of these efforts, after twenty years or more supports the
view already put forward in the introduction, namely; that these efforts
will be of little value until they are combined with greater awareness of
the mental processes involved in the learning of mathematics.

In this section, though we have been discussing the formation of

mathematical concepts, some of the examples used have been non
mathematical. The concepts of mathematics are the result of so many
abstractions, derived from abstractions, derived from abstractions, and so
on, that the psychological argument would have been in danger of being
lost in the complexity of the mathematical examples.
Each concept is embedded in a structure of other concepts. Each -
except primary concepts- is derived from other concepts and
contributes to the formation of yet other concepts, so it is part of a
hierarchy.

62
 Most of the ideas for the notes in this section were taken from:
Skemp, R. R. (1986). The Psychology of Learning Mathematics. London:
Penguin Books.
References
Broody, A. J. (2007). An Alternative Reconceptualization of Procedural
and Conceptual Knowledge Author ( s ): Arthur J . Baroody ,
Yingying Feil and Amanda R . Johnson Published by : National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics Stable URL :
http://www.jstor.org/stable/30034952. Journal for Research in
Mathematics Education, 38(2), 115–131.

Keng, K. N. & Kian, L. H. (2010). Learning Mathematical Concepts

through Authentic Learning. In Sparrow, L., Kissane, B. & Hurst,
C. (Eds.), Shaping the future of mathematics education:
Proceedings of the 33rd annual conference of the Mathematics
Education Research Group of Australasia. Fremantle: MERGA.

Lehrer, R., Kobiela, M. & Weinberg, P. J. (2012). Cultivating inquiry

about space in a middle school mathematics classroom. ZDM
Mathematics Education, 45, p. 365 – 376.

Long, C. (2005). Maths concepts in teaching: procedural and conceptual

knowledge. Pythagoras, 62, p. 59-65
Mills, S. (2016). Conceptual Understanding: A Concept Analysis. The
Qualitative Report, 21(3), 546-557. Retrieved 12 February 2019
from: https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol21/iss3/8

Skemp, R. R. (1986). The Psychology of Learning Mathematics. London:

Penguin Books.

Rittle-Johnson, B., & Schneider, M. (2014). Developing Conceptual and

Procedural Knowledge of Mathematics, 1.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199642342.013.014

Rittle-Johnson, B., Schneider, M., & Star, J. R. (2015). Not a One-Way

Street: Bidirectional Relations Between Procedural and Conceptual
Knowledge of Mathematics. Educational Psychology Review, 27(4),
587–597. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9302-x

Tevfik, I. & Ahmet, I. (2003). Conceptual and Procedural Learning in

Mathematics. Journal of the Korea Society of Mathematical
Education Series D: Research in Mathematical Education, 7(2), p.,
91.99

4.3 Misconceptions
Introduction

Sometimes we fail to distinguish between errors and misconceptions. The

reason for this confusion is that errors reveal misconceptions whilst
misconceptions could be results of internal errors. However, one may
argue that errors in conception result in misconceptions. Sometimes I feel

63
 it is like the puzzle of the egg and the chicken. We will first consider
what definitions people give for misconceptions and errors.

What are misconceptions?

The term misconception refers to an error in learner thinking

(Mills, 2016). The Encarta dictionary defines it as a mistaken idea or
view resulting from a misunderstanding of something (Encarta, 2006).
Misconceptions or naive conceptions are commonly held ideas or beliefs
that are contrary to what is formally acknowledged to be correct
(Graeber, 1993 p. 408). Misconceptions one aspect of deficient or
incorrect thinking (Allen, n.d ). A misconception is a learner‘s
conception that produces a systematic pattern of error (Smith, diSessa and
Roschelle, 1993-1994). Misconceptions are conceptual structures
constructed by learners that make sense in relation to their current
knowledge, but which are not aligned with conventional mathematical
knowledge (Nesher, 1987 in Brodie 2013; Smith, diSessa and Roschelle,
1993-1994). Misconceptions arise when learners incorrectly apply
previously learned strategies to solve new problems (Hiebert &
Carpenter, 1992 in Russel, O‘dwyer & Miranda, 2009). However, in our
everyday work of teaching we are constantly faced with errors that
learners make.

What are errors?

Errors are systematic, persistent and pervasive mistakes performed by

learners across a range of contexts (Nesher, 1987 in Brodie, 2013). An
error is considered to be a random or haphazard mistake (Russel,
O‘dwyer & Miranda, 2009). Experts believe that errors that signal deeper
misunderstandings about mathematic concepts are not haphazard but are
systematic and derive from experience with arithmetic or from learner
created theories (Russel, O‘dwyer & Miranda, 2009). These are the type
of errors that can help you unearth deep seated misconceptions.
Haphazard errors or slips can be corrected immediately.

Why teachers need to study misconceptions

By studying misconceptions I mean reading literature on misconceptions

in certain areas of school mathematics. The suggested further reading will
help you start this journey.

If we understand how learners are prone to see mathematical ideas we

may be better prepared to offer instructional experiences that help
develop accepted conceptions. To be informed so that we avoid creating
misconceptions in our teaching. To be able to clear those that already
exist once identified (Graeber, 1993). To be in a better position to
understand hindrances to learners‘ learning and in that way avoid
unnecessary frustrations. Constructivists view learning as building
knowledge from prior knowledge. In view of this, misconceptions can be
studied to establish how they might be used to construct acceptable
concepts (Smith, diSessa and Roschelle, 1993-1994). Additionally, it has
been shown that learners‘ misconceptions can also facilitate the learning
of mathematics (An & Wu, 2012).

64
Since we are first confronted with errors we need to learn how others
have identified misconceptions from errors. Another way is to be aware
of preconceptions and what the learners have been exposed to.

Sources of misconceptions
 Previous inadequate teaching (preconceptions) e.g. you cannot
subtract a bigger number from a small number. Write down other
examples of preconceptions that could be a source of error.
 Informal/innate thinking such as the use of the word ―least‖ in
everyday life. My 12 year old nephew was shocked to hear a news reader
say ―at least 5 people died.‖ He felt the person was mean; this is because
of the everyday use ―at least I had E100‖ ―at least she managed to
escape‖
 poor remembrance for instance confusing area and perimeter
 Organized strategies and rules for example when adding directed
numbers subtract the smaller number from the bigger number and the
sign of the answer is the same as that of the bigger number.

Activity
1. Copy and complete the table at the end of the module
2. Using examiner‘s reports for past examinations try to figure
out the source of the learners‘ errors and state possible
misconceptions that birth each error.

How to deal with misconceptions

The literature on misconceptions has made the following assertions:
learners have misconceptions, misconceptions originate in prior learning,
misconceptions can be stable and widespread among learners,
misconceptions can be strongly held and resistant to change,
misconceptions interfere with learning, misconceptions must be replaced,
instruction should confront misconceptions and research should identify
misconceptions (Smith, diSessa and Roschelle, 1993-1994). In this
section we consider the last but one assertion. What should we do with
misconceptions?

Note that misconceptions once rooted in the learner‘s memory are hard
(not impossible) to erase (Allen, n.d). Repeating a lesson or making it
clearer will not help learners who base their reasoning on strongly held
misconceptions. Learners tend to be emotionally and intellectually
attached to their misconceptions, partly because they have actively
constructed them and partly because some of them give ready
methodologies for solving various problems (Allen, n.d ). One way of
remediation is to work on the learners‘ conceptual framework. So we
need to find out what they believe. Establish the source of the
misconception and work from there.

Misconceptions must be demolished and teachers must help learners

rebuild accepted conceptions. Confront learners‘ misconceptions with

65
 counter examples. A better alternatively is to help them discover
counterexamples themselves. Study misconceptions to see if there are no
systematic errors that could be useful in constructing knowledge.

Whether your view of mathematics is influenced by behaviourism or

constructivism misconceptions need to be dealt with. It would seem
behaviourist would like to eradicate misconceptions while constructivists
would prefer to work from the misconception to the formal conceptions.
Below are different ways of dealing with misconceptions:

Educators should identify errors, analyse reasons for the errors, design
approaches for correction, and take action for correction (An & Wu,
2012). Analysis of learners‘ work can provide a lens for the teacher in
diagnosing learner problems, through which the teacher can view
learners‘ thinking at a deep internal level and provide timely feedback to
clarify misconceptions (An & Wu, 2012). To analyse learners work you
will need to use reflective thinking. The reflective thought process will
allow you to learn and know learners‘ thinking and therefore identify
misconceptions (An & Wu, 2012). We can deal with errors by using
examples to create cognitive conflicts.

Using examples

There are three types of examples we will consider; a good example,

counter example and pivotal example. A good example helps one see as a
particular case or instance of a more general class of objects; being aware
of what can be varied and still it belongs to the class, and within what
range of values it can be varied (Zaskis & Chernoff, 2008). A counter
example is an example that the teacher gives to show the learner that
there is fault in what they say. For example when a learner says a smaller
number cannot be divided by a bigger number a counter example could
be 1 2 is a half. When a counter example fails to create cognitive
conflict you might need to use a pivotal example. A pivotal example
would be asking if they cannot share a cake with his/her friend. Pivotal
examples help learners in achieving what is referred to as ―conceptual
change‖ (Zaskis & Chernoff, 2008). Therefore they create cognitive
conflict or resolve it.

66
Appendix 1

Example Source(s) Possible counter example

A number with more digits is always 3.789 > 3.8

bigger than one with fewer digits

When you multiply two numbers

together, the answer is always bigger
than both the original numbers

A fraction with a bigger denominator 1/3 < 1/6?

is bigger.

A fraction with a bigger denominator 5/8 < 1/2

is smaller.

Common regular shapes aren't

recognised for what they are unless
they're upright

The diagonal of a square is the same

length as the side?

To multiply by 10, just add a zero 2.6 × 10 = 2.60

Proportion  Three red sweets and two

blue what proportion is blue? 2/3
 There were four times as
many learners (l) as teachers (t) in
the hall. Write an equation for the
number of learners in the hall. 4l
=t

67
Perimeter and area sometimes seen to
be the same

Any interval on a scale equals 1 unit Misreading scales

Those resulting from cancelling 2/3 × 3/2 = 0

(ab + c)/b = a + c

Magnitudes for negative numbers -6 > -3

Addition of fraction 5/6 + ¾ = 8/10

In rounding off 0 is insignificant

68
 Further Reading

De Bock, D., Van Dooren, W., Janssens, D. & Verschaffel, L. (2002).

Improper Use of Linear Reasoning: An In-Depth Study of the Nature
and the Irresistibility of Secondary School Students‘ Errors.
Educational Studies in Mathematics 50 p. 311-334.

Lin, P. & Li, Y. (2009). Searching for good mathematics instruction at

primary school level valued in Taiwan. ZDM Mathematics Education
41 p. 363-378.

Russel, M., O‘dwyer, L. M. & Miranda, H. (2009). Diagnosing Students‘

misconceptions in algebra: Results from an experimental pilot study.
Behavior Research Methods 41 (2) p. 414-424

Tirosh, D. & Graeber, A. O. (1989). Preservice Elementary Teachers'

Explicit Beliefs about Multiplication and Division. Educational
Studies in Mathematics, 20, (1) p. 79-96.

Zazkis, R & Chernoff, E. J., (2008). What makes a counterexample

exemplary? Educational Studies in Mathematics 68 p. 195-208.

References

Abouzaid, K. (n.d). Math Misconceptions. Retrieved 8 September 2010

from: www.wiziq.com/tutorial/10882-MATH-misconception

Allen, G. (n.d.). Learner thinking. Retrieved 8 September 2010 from:

http://www.math.tamu.edu/~snite/MisMath.pdf

An, S. & Wu, Z. (2012). Enhancing Mathematics Teachers‘ Knowledge

of Students‘ Thinking From Assessing and Analyzing Misconceptions
in Homework. International Journal of Science and Mathematics
Education 10

Brodie, K. (2013). Learning about learner errors in professional learning

communities. Educational Studies in Mathematics 84 (1).

Graeber, A. O. (1993). Misconceptions about multiplication and division.

Arithmetic teacher, 408-410

Mills, S. (2016). Conceptual Understanding: A Concept Analysis. The

Qualitative Report, 21(3), 546-557. Retrieved 12 February 2019 from:
https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol21/iss3/8

Russel, M., O‘dwyer, L. M. & Miranda, H. (2009). Diagnosing Students‘

misconceptions in algebra: Results from an experimental pilot study.
Behavior Research Methods 41 (2) p. 414-424

Smith, J. P., diSessa, A. A. and Roschelle, J. (1993-1994).

Misconceptions reconceived: A constructivist analysis of knowledge
in transition. The journal of learning sciences, 3(2), 115-163.

69
 UK department of education (n.d). Common misconceptions- exploring
fractions. Retrieved 8 September 2010 from:
http://nationalstrategies.standards.dcsf.gov.uk/node/87495

Zazkis, R & Chernoff, E. J., (2008). What makes a counterexample

exemplary? Educational Studies in Mathematics 68 p. 195-208.

4.4 Motivation
MOTIVATION
I am sure you have been puzzled by the lack of motivation in some
learners. The areas of mathematics and science in particular seem to
deter many learners during adolescence (Frenzel et. al, 2010). In
this section we will learn what motivation is, how it develops and how it
can be lost. The first section of this work is highly dependent on an article
by Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, (2006). The second part is adapted
from Adie (1987).
Emotions, the most direct connection to motivation, are revealed
positively by: joy, relief or interest or negatively by anger, sadness
or frustration (Hannula, 2006 in Ngcobo, 2011). So according to
him interest is a motivational attribute (Ngcobo, 2011). Since
interest is a motivational trait we will treat interest as an aspect of
motivation. Contemporary approaches define interest as a
motivational variable that refers to an individual‘s engagement with
particular classes of objects and activities (Frenzel et. al, 2010).
They further discuss three important characteristics of interest that
have been identified: First, it has both a state and an attribute
character; second, interest is generally seen as being content-
specific and thirdly, the construct of interest is conceptually very
close to those of values and enjoyment.
Motivation is a state within a learner in the same way that hunger is a
feeling within a person (Adie, 1987). She continues and says, no one can
make a person hungry, but one can arrange conditions (the sight and
smell of KFC, or not permitting a person to have food) which will
increase the probability of that person becoming hungry. This means we
should ensure that the learning environment makes learners zealous about
mathematics.

Types of Motivation
Traditionally when motivation was studied emphasis was on
extrinsic or intrinsic motivation. Initial conceptualizations viewed
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as being invariantly opposed
(Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006). They say intrinsic motivation
was considered self-determined, whereas extrinsic motivation was
thought to reflect a lack of self-determination. However, later
research has indicated that extrinsic motivation does not necessarily
undermine intrinsic motivation and that it may even enhance it,

70
implying that extrinsic motivation is not invariantly controlled
(Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006).
Intrinsic motivation
The concept of intrinsic motivation emerged in the 1950s in
opposition to the behavioural theories that were dominant at the
time (Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006). They say intrinsically
motivated behaviours were defined as those that are not energized
by physiological drives or their derivatives and for which the
reward is the satisfaction associated with the activity itself. They
conclude that intrinsic motivation represents engagement in an
activity for its own sake. Yahaya, Yahaya, Ramli, Hashim, and
Zakariya, (2010) give two examples of an intrinsically motivated
learner: one that will work on a mathematics equation because it is
enjoyable Or an intrinsically motivated learner will work on a
solution to a problem because the challenge of finding a solution
provides a sense of pleasure to him/her. They further state that
intrinsic motivation does not mean that a person will not seek
rewards; it just means that such external rewards are not enough to
keep a person motivated. An intrinsically motivated learner, for
example, may want to get a good grade on an assignment, but if the
assignment does not interest that learner, the possibility of a good
grade is not enough to maintain that learner's motivation to put any
effort into the assignment (Yahaya, Yahaya, Ramli, Hashim, &
Zakariya, 2010).
Within self-determination theory (SDT), intrinsic motivation is
seen as the motivational instance of the initiative taking, growth-
oriented nature of human beings (Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci,
2006). They allude that intrinsically motivated activity is the
natural basis for learning and development. Additionally they state
that a need for competence inspires intrinsic motivation, that people
engage in many activities in order to experience a sense of effect
and competence. The basis of intrinsic motivation is a sense of
personal causation as this gives individuals a pleasant experience of
ownership since they perceive themselves as initiators of their
behaviour (Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006).

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 Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation refers to motivation that comes from outside
rewards, such as money or grades (Yahaya, Yahaya, Ramli,
Hashim, & Zakariya, 2010). Extrinsically motivated behaviour is
defined as engaging in an activity to obtain an outcome that is
separable from the activity itself (Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci,
2006). They say extrinsically motivated behaviours are
characterized by a means to an end structure and are instrumental
for some separable consequences. Extrinsic motivation results from
external regulation, introjected regulation and identified regulation.
In external regulation, the least autonomous form of extrinsic
motivation, the behaviour is prompted by external incidents, such
as rewards, punishments, and deadlines, and the incidents or
reasons for performing (Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006). They
give an example of externally regulated individuals; learners who
study primarily because they know their parents will reward them
for doing so. Additionally they say rewards have a controlling power
that could undermine learners‘ sense of autonomy. Extrinsic rewards
and other external factors such as deadlines, close watch, testing,
and controlling language all undermine individuals‘ natural interest
and subsequent persistence at an activity thus hindering their need
for autonomy (Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006).
Introjection (an unconscious psychic process by which a person
incorporates into his or her own psychic apparatus the
characteristics of another person or object), regulation of the
behaviour has been partially internalized, and hence is within the
person, but the person has not accepted it as his or her own
therefore, the activity is experienced as being pressured or forced
(Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006). They say in introjected
regulation, people engage in an activity to comply with internal
pressure, which is based either in the pursuit of self- glorification
and self-worth or in the avoidance of feelings of guilt and shame.
Introjected regulation is also represented by an external perceived
locus of causality and is often combined with external regulation to
form a controlled motivation composite (Vansteenkiste, Lens &
Deci, 2006). A learner who studies before going to play soccer
because he or she would feel guilty if he or she did not would be
displaying introjected regulation (Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci,
2006).
Identification refers to the process of identifying with the value of
an activity and thus accepting regulation of the activity as one‘s
own (Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006). When people are able to
foresee the personal relevance of an activity for themselves, they
are likely to identify with its importance, so they will engage in the
activity willingly (Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006).
Identification represents a fuller form of internalization that is
characterized by an internal perceived locus of causality
(Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006). Although still extrinsic in

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nature, identified regulation is relatively volitional and in this sense
approximates intrinsic motivation, so these two types of motivation
are sometimes combined into a composite of autonomous
motivation (Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Deci, 2006). A learner who
studies statistics because he or she has accepted the importance of
statistics for his or her self-selected goal of doing empirical
psychology will be regulating his or her study behaviour through
identification (Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006).
Development of interest
Interest, a contributing factor to motivation, develops from a
universal curiosity and boundless energy to explore and learn new
skills in childhood (Frenzel et. al, 2010). They allude that family
and classroom contexts contribute to development of interest since
in our everyday contexts value transmission may work via direct
verbal information or by behavioural modelling (when values are
conveyed by the behaviour of significant others and then adopted
by the learners). When parents show interest and enthusiasm for a
particular subject or domain, they provide a support system at
home that should be reinforcement of a child‘s own value of the
subject thus, since parents are powerful role models for their
children, learners are most likely to value what is valued by their
parents (Frenzel et. al, 2010).
Teachers do make a difference to motivate learners in learning even
though teachers are not as powerful as parents because parents are
the first teacher to a baby (Yahaya, Yahaya, Ramli, Hashim, &
Zakariya, 2010). They say since teachers can make school life
appealing or miserable by creating a pleasant or unbearable
learning environment learners will continue in their learning and
even search more knowledge under the leading of enthusiastic
teachers.
Enthusiastic teachers care about what they teach therefore they
always look for new topics to discuss with learners as to attract
attentions from the learners (Yahaya, Yahaya, Ramli, Hashim, &
Zakariya, 2010). These enthusiastic teachers communicate to their
learners such that learners understand that the knowledge gained is
important for further studies and job applications.
Teaching in a language that learners comprehend is a motivational
factor in learning because learners are more willing to learn when
they can understand the content better (Yahaya, Yahaya, Ramli,
Hashim, & Zakariya, 2010).

You cannot motivate a learner, but you can arrange conditions that will
increase the probability of the motivation to learn becoming stronger
(Adie, 1987).

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 Adie 1987’s seven factors of motivation
1. Success or achievement
One of the most powerful motivators is a sense of achievement or
success. This should occur not only at the end of a learning session but at
regular intervals during the session. How many of us continue to do
things that we fail at every time? If we continually fail at a task, we are
sure to give up after a while….we need regular doses of success to oil,
the learning wheel and make learning run smoothly. However,
succeeding at something that you can do without effort ceases to be
motivational ...it simply becomes boring. A good teacher tries to adjust
the level of difficulty so that the learner will have to exert some effort to
attain success. This means that there is some degree of challenge present.

The main method we use to build in success is in planning the learning

sequence carefully so that learners will be able to progress from what
they know now to the new work, with plenty of assistance in the way of
explanation, demonstration, rehearsal and practice, and coaching. Other
motivational factors also build in successes.

2. Feedback
This is closely tied into success for unless we get feedback, we have
difficulty knowing ―how we are going‖. Imagine trying to shoot a ―bull‘s
eye‖..., we fire off 10 rounds but get no feedback whatsoever about
whether we even hit the target... .how long would we continue to fire ?
Learners need feedback that is genuine, specific and as immediate as
possible. The best time for this type of feedback is while the person is
learning and not at the end of the learning task. Learners can be asked to
evaluate their own progress and give themselves feedback if criteria are
established as guidelines. Good feedback tells us the degree of success
we are attaining and this is highly motivational

3. Meaning
Meaning is one of the most powerful motivators. We will work long
hours at a task, as long as it has meaning for us. Without meaning, why
are we wasting the time?

Good teachers ensure that the meaning or relevance of the work to the
learner is clear right from the start. It is important that the meaning is
from the learners‘ point-of-view and not merely from the teacher‘s. When
you go fishing, what do you put on the hook? What you like or what the
fish likes?

One of our essential planning tasks ‗is to gather data about the learners
and use this to connect the new work to their experiences (past or present)
or future needs. Once we have established this important connection,
learning will progress quickly and with enthusiasm. Without meaning,
learners will simply ―go through the motions‖, disrupt or leave!!

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4. Active involvement
We all like to feel actively involved in our own learning...experimenting,
discussing, developing, thinking, presenting, exploring ideas, testing,
applying, reflecting, analysing etc. etc. To sit for hours while the leader
talks on and on is not motivational. Learners often have many life
experiences that can be used within the session if asked to contribute.

If our preferred learning style is incorporated into the session on a regular

basis we feel actively involved providing of course that the work has
meaning and we are feeling some sense of success in mastering the ideas,
skills etc. Planning in regular cycles of auditory, visual and kinesthetic
activities can improve motivation to learn well as aiding understanding
and therefore, success.

5. Tension
This is meant in a positive way. That is tension that motivates the learners
but does not incapacitate them. Setting tension levels can be done through
a number of techniques.

TIME is the most used tension raiser. If we know we have limited time,
we tend to work harder to achieve the task within the time limits. Below
are examples of time limits:

―In 3 minutes we will collect the reports.‖ ―You have 10 minutes to

prepare your presentations.‖

―By lunchtime, everyone will have completed the first two sections‘.‘.
And so on.

STANDARDS are often linked with time. By stating a standard at the

start of learning, it sets expectations that will influence the motivation of
the learners, as long as those expectations are realistic. Examples:

―In this session, each person will be completing a one-page report.‖

―1d like you to finish 5 examples in the next 10 minutes‖

―This group has almost finished; how much longer for the other groups? ―

―That‘s an excellent report, Nonhlanhla, you have kept it concise yet

informative.‖

VISIBILITY can be used to increase tension and motivation to perform a

task well. Asking learners to present a report to the group increases
visibility and positive tension as long as the learners have the skills and
information to do it.

―Let‘s get a comment from this table?‖

―Jessica, will you write that on the board?‖

―Mbuso, can you suggest a possible solution.‖

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 SPACE or proximity can also increase tension and help learners stay on-
task. Moving close to a learner may help to focus attention back to the
task at hand and prevent distractions.

All of the above actions can be carried out in an easy manner with a
pleasant tone of voice. They can be planned into the learning session to
purposefully raise tension levels at times when you suspect energy may
be low e.g. about halfway through the session.

6. Variety
Variety can also be a useful motivator. We all get bored and de-motivated
if things are always done in the same way. Try to vary the presentation,
materials, groupings, ways of reporting, movement in the room,
introductions and conclusions, where you stand, how you speak, who
speaks etc. etc. You don‘t have to get gimmicky to include variety.

7. The learning climate

The learning climate has a profound effect on the motivation of learners.
If we are in a learning situation characterized by cooperation,
encouragement and respect we will tend to be motivated to learn; if we
are in an environment of rejection, sarcasm and conflict, we will tend to
avoid learning, as anxiety and other feelings interfere.

Often as teachers, we create that atmosphere because of our confidence

and enthusiasm (or lack thereof) for the topic. Confidence and
competence with the subject matter and the process is essential to the
teachers own self-esteem when working with the learners.

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OVERALL

As planners of learning we must incorporate as many motivational factors

as we can that will lead to intrinsic motivation. Sometimes however, we
may help learners to become involved initially by using extrinsic
motivation. This often occurs when people are learning a new skill where
success does not come easily. Promising learners a reward for completing
a task is an extrinsic reward, but it may help the learner persevere with
the task long enough to develop some skills which then feed his/her
intrinsic motivation. He/she is starting to enjoy the skill and feeling some
small sense of achievement or success with it. Measurement and
constructions are good examples.

There is no doubt that intrinsic motivation is more powerful and long-

lasting, and good planners assist the development of this intrinsic
motivation by considering all the factors above and consciously planning
for these in learning sessions

References

Adie, H. (1987) Planning for Effective Learning. Southern African

Education Program.

Frenzel, A. C., Goetz, T., Pekrun, R. & Watt, H.M. G. (2010).

Development of Mathematics Interest in Adolescence:
Influences of Gender, Family, and School Context.
Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20(2), 507–537
Ngcobo, M. (2011). Contexts Preferred for use in Mathematics by
ESwatini High Performing Public Schools’ Junior
Secondary Learners. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis,
Bellville: University of the Western Cape
Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W. & Deci, E. L. (2006). Intrinsic Versus
Extrinsic Goal Contents in Self-Determination Theory:
Another Look at the Quality of Academic Motivation.
Educational Psychologist, 41(1), 19–31
Yahaya, N., Yahaya, A., Ramli, J., Hashim, S. & Zakariya, Z.
(2010). The Effects of Extrinsic Motivational Factors in
Learning among Students in Secondary School in Negeri
Sembilan. International Journal of Psychological Studies,
2(1), 128-136

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4.5 Unit summary
You were taught about the two kinds of knowledge: procedural and
conceptual knowledge. You learnt about ideas that impact on concept
development such as; contrast, none examples, noise, naming, definitions
and contributory concepts. In addition you learnt about misconceptions
Summary and errors- how they come about and how to deal with them. Lastly you
learnt about extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. You learnt how extrinsic
motivation develops and how it can contribute to the development of
intrinsic motivation.

4.6 Assignment
Do all activities in this unit

Assignment

78
4.7 Appendices
MOTIVATION and LESSON PLANNING CHECK LIST

Consider either a lesson you intend teaching.

1. How have you built in Level of Concern?

 Time?
 Visibility?
 Standards?

2. How have you built in maximum Success for each learner?

3. Where will learners get clear Knowledge of Results?

4. Has the rationale given a good reason for learning this information?
 What learner examples could build in MEANING?

5. List the auditory, visual and kinesthetic experiences you have

incorporated.

Auditory Visual Kinesthetic

6. Have you included anything Different?

7. Does your Lesson Plan build in Basic Needs (Intrinsic Motivation) or

EXTRINSIC factors? List examples:

If you have built in all of these you are planning a GREAT LESSON!!

CONGRATULATIONS!!

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 5. Theories of Learning

Unit 5

5. Theories of Learning

5.1 Introduction
An individual teacher may hold very firm views on a particular issue in
mathematical education, but must at the same time accept that very
different, even completely contrary, views may be held by a colleague
in the same school….In accepting a particular viewpoint, or in taking
sides on a particular issue, it could be said that a teacher has accepted a
theoretical position…It appears that the job of teaching cannot be done
without accepting theoretical views,…In this sense it appears that we do
need theories as a basis even for day-to-day decision-making in the
classroom (Orton, 2004, p. 1).

Your knowledge and understanding of key learning theories can be

beneficial to you by providing you sound support for the selection of
specific instructional strategies, promoting the clarification of important
learning objectives, and enabling the implementation of evaluation
strategies that are well matched to curricular goals (Torre, Daley,
Sebastian, and Elnicki, 2006). There are a number of theories of learning.
You might have studied some of them. In this course we do not go into
detail on the learning theories but we view them briefly in an attempt to
show how they apply to mathematics education. The one theory we will
study in some detail is Realistic Mathematics Education (RME). The first
section is a summary of behaviourism, cognitivism, humanism, and
constructivism. Believers in these theories are called behaviourists,
cognitivists, humanists and constructivists.

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 Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 identify learning theories that mostly influence your approach to

teaching and learning.

 identify an appropriate learning theory for teaching different skills and

content.
Outcomes
 use your knowledge of concept development together with the
theories to prepare lessons.

 create learning environments conducive to self-directed learning.

 create a concept map for a given topic

5.2 Overview of Theories of Learning

This section describes several key learning theories and provides concrete
examples of how specific educational methodologies are linked to these
learning approaches. The strength of understanding a learning theory
from multiple perspectives is that it provides educators with different
teaching strategies that can be retrieved from their educational ―tool
boxes,‖ depending on the specific learning outcomes that are desired
(Torre, Daley, Sebastian, and Elnicki, 2006).

5.3 Behaviourism
Behaviourism places great importance on separate and individualistic
learning, including compliance to established one-way methods and a
preference for pure and abstract mathematics (Handal, 2003). The
behaviourist learning orientation is particularly useful for the
development of competencies and for demonstrating technical or
psychomotor skills (Torre, Daley, Sebastian, and Elnicki, 2006). This
learning theory, they say, is most advantageous when a change in
behaviour is the desired outcome of an educational action). Behaviourist
practices are said to emphasise transmission of knowledge and stress the
pedagogical value of formulas, procedures and drill, and products rather
than processes (Handal, 2003). They further associate teacher centred
methods of instruction with a behaviourist.

Learning Theory

In behaviourism your role as a teacher is seen as that of manipulating the

environment for learners to elicit specific responses (Torre, Daley,
Sebastian, and Elnicki, 2006). The learner is conditioned to respond
based on a stimulus (Hung, 2001). The locus of learning in the

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Unit 5 5. Theories of Learning

behaviourist approach originates from one of its founders, Skinner. He

argued that since it is not possible to prove the inner processes with any
available scientific procedures, researchers should concentrate instead on
‗cause-and-effect relationships‘ that could be established by observation
(Hung, 2001). Behaviourism is rooted in three basic assumptions:
observable behaviour (response) is the focus of learning, environment
(stimuli) shapes behaviour, and reinforcement (feedback) is central to the
learning process (Torre, Daley, Sebastian, and Elnicki, 2006).
Implications for Mathematics Education

You can use the behaviourist approach in the development and evaluation
of practical skills such as the use of mathematical instruments and in
demonstrations on how to perform certain calculations. In the area of
practical skills instruction, you demonstrate specific desired behaviours,
learners observe the exact manner or technique in which a practical skill
or behaviour should be performed. You need to prepare some scoring
rubric to evaluate performance and provide reinforcement. For example
you might be interested in teaching learners how to use the quadratic
formula to solve equations. In this case you will do some examples that
learners could follow in solving different quadratic equations. Below is
shown how objectives are stated in behaviourism.
A Typical Behaviourist-based Behavioural Objective

Behavioural Objectives Should Include:

Performance or behaviour (what the learner will be able to do, what

behaviour will be performed);

Condition(s) (which are necessary for the performance or under which

the performance must be performed);

Criteria What measures or criteria define unacceptable performance).

For example: Given a ruler and a set square (condition), learners will
draw line parallel to a drawn line passing through a given point
(performance), with at least 95% accuracy (criteria).

Adapted from Torre, Daley, Sebastian, and Elnicki (2006).

5.4 Cognitivism
The locus of learning in the cognitivist orientation is the learners‘
insightful thinking and use of their internal environment and cognitive
structures (Torre, Daley, Sebastian, and Elnicki, 2006). The learner are
given opportunity to reach concepts through their own cognitive
processes and by developing their own insights based on their own
personal knowledge (Bigge & Shermis, 1999). This enables success in
the grasping of the concepts.

Learning Theory
The cognitivist approach is characterized by the creation of meaningful
learning through which learners seek to understand the structure of

82
knowledge (Torre, Daley, Sebastian, and Elnicki, 2006). In contrast to
behaviourism, the locus of learning in the cognitivist model is on the
individual learner and on his or her thought processes rather than on the
external environment (Torre, Daley, Sebastian, and Elnicki, 2006). They
say your role as a teacher in this framework is to facilitate cognitive
processing. As such, the goal of the cognitivist approach is to develop the
learner‘s capacity and skills for more effective self-directed learning. The
cognitivist orientation facilitates the acquisition of knowledge and the
development of learning skills that are applicable in other learning
situations regardless of the topic or context.

Meaningful learning is encouraged in the cognitivists approach.

According to Orton (2004) Ausubel defined meaningful learning as a
process through which new knowledge was absorbed by connecting it to
some existing relevant of the learner‘s pre-existing knowledge structure.
He believed that people think and learn with concepts (Torre, Daley,
Sebastian, and Elnicki, 2006). He referred to the existing parts of
knowledge to which new learning were to be linked subsumers or
subsuming concepts (Orton, 2004). Orton says, if subsumers were there
the learner was ready to learn. I hope you can see that subsumers are what
we called contributory concept in concept development. To Ausubel if
the learner was not ready because of lacking subsumers advance
organisers could be used to bridge the gap (Orton, 2004). Use the
internet to find out what advance organiser are and post your findings on
our discussion forum.

Another concept most important in the cognitivist learning orientation is

reflective thinking. According to Skemp (1986), the reflective process
involves: awareness of one‘s own concepts and schemas, perceiving their
relationships and structure and manipulating these in various way. When
reflecting one returns to and replays the experience, attends to the
feelings that the experience provoked, and re-evaluates the experience
(Torre, Daley, Sebastian, and Elnicki, 2006). This process of reflection
may occur during or after the experience in question. Reflection on action
is thinking through a situation after it has happened. Reflection in action
is thinking about actions as they are performed (Torre, Daley, Sebastian,
and Elnicki, 2006).

Implications for Education

Two manifestations of the cognitivist learning theory that are directly
applicable to education include the construction of concept maps and the
development of reflective thinking (as described in the previous
paragraph).
Concept maps, cognitivist learning strategies that originate from Ausubel
though their use were advanced by Novak and Gowin (Orton, 2004). He
says they defined a concept maps as a schematic device for representing a
set of concept meanings embedded in a framework of propositions which
work to make clear to both learners and teachers the key ideas they must
focus on for any specific learning task. When the learning task is
completed a concept map provides a schematic summary of what has
been learnt (Orton, 2004). By working through the process of creating a
concept map, learners identify key issues, draw relationships between
concepts, and identify connections with linking words (Torre, Daley,
Sebastian, and Elnicki, 2006). Figure 1 on page 85 is an example of a
concept map made by a learner and Figure 2 on page 86 provides an

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Unit 5 5. Theories of Learning

example of a concept map that might assist a teacher to teach and a

learner to learn (Orton, 1987). The intent of this exercise is for learners to
connect new concepts to what they already know. Concept maps can be
used to facilitate acquisition and recall of ideas and meanings about a
topic; depict complex relationships among ideas; extract core concepts
from a textbook, journal article, plan a paper or presentation; or simply
function as an aid to brainstorming and sharing ideas with other learners.
To help learners develop reflective thinking, educators often begin by
asking them to do an activity. After the learner has had a chance to do it
(event), he or she is asked to describe how he/she did it (reflection),
summarise what was learnt from this experience, and speculate on what
could have been done differently. Reflective thinking as a cognitivist
learning strategy can be used in a wide variety of teaching environments
including lecture halls or small group sessions. An example of reflection
in action would be to ask learners to articulate the key learning points of a
particular case while one is still actively doing a problem. An example of
reflection on action would be to ask learners to describe what they did to
get the answer i.e. reflect on their processes.

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 Figure 1

(Orton, 1987 p. 28)

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Unit 5 5. Theories of Learning

Figure 2

(Orton, 1987 p. 154)

Create a concept map for a mathematics topic of your choice

86
5.5 Humanism
Learning Theory

Within the humanist framework, learning is viewed as a personal act

necessary to achieve the learner‘s potential (Torre, Daley, Sebastian, and
Elnicki, 2006). The ultimate goal of this approach is self-actualisation for
the learner (Schunk, 2004). He says Maslow identified five needs of a
person: physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs and
self-actualisation

The locus of learning within a humanist orientation relates to the needs

referred to above. The needs notion is important since it provides a
criterion for stipulating what is important to life (Ryan & Deci, 2004). In
humanism the learner‘s motivation to learn is powered by an aspiration to
become all that he or she is capable of becoming – self-actualisation
(Maslow, 1968). Humanism focuses on the individual learner, developing
his or her human virtue that is characterised by the development of
understanding, compassion, charity, courage, intelligence and eloquence
(Kaiser, 2002). All of these features culminate in the development of an
autonomous learner. The role of the teacher in this framework is to
stretch learners‘ capacities and enable expression of their talents and
propensities, thus actualising their human potentials (Ryan & Deci,
2004). Self-directed learning is one of the most important and well-
known educational principles of the humanist orientation potential (Torre,
Daley, Sebastian, and Elnicki, 2006). They say it can be seen as a
process, in which learners plan, carry out, and evaluate their own learning
experiences. By means of this approach, the learner ultimately develops
self-actualisation as a personal attribute.
Implications for Education

Learners should not just calculate in mathematics lessons, but get an

understanding of general connections among concepts (Kaiser, 2002).
Furthermore learners should not only learn things by heart but they
should be enabled by reasoning to understand how the calculation is
done, because in rote learning they would not learn how to apply a
method of calculation in different situations, (Kaiser, 2002). By this
learners should be empowered to apply what they have learned in various
situations and not only in the special taught one (Kaiser, 2002). Likewise,
against all the odds, the uniqueness of each individual learner should be
promoted and educators need to think of the ways to help them develop
this uniqueness (Lee, 2013).

5.6 Constructivism
The central claim of constructivism is that human knowledge is
acquired through a process of active construction (Fox, 2001).
Constructivism can be described as a belief that all knowledge is

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Unit 5 5. Theories of Learning

necessarily a product of an individual‘s cognitive acts (Confrey,

1990).

Learning Theory
Learning is viewed as construction of knowledge and this knowledge
construction starts from existing knowledge (Terhart, 2003). Fox (2001)
lists the following as claims which are held to define
constructivists‘ views:
1. Learning is an active process.
2. Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or passively
absorbed.
3. Knowledge is invented not discovered.
4. All knowledge is personal and idiosyncratic.
5. All knowledge is socially constructed.
6. Learning is essentially a process of making sense of the
world.
7. Effective learning requires meaningful, open-ended,
challenging problems for the learner to solve
Implications for Education

There is no constructivist teaching model out there waiting to be

implemented but teachers can create a constructivist environment
(Pirie & Kieren, 1992). They say the environment is the result of
deliberate, active behaviours by the teacher in the full knowledge
that constructivism pertains to the actions of the learners. The most
basics skill a constructivist educator must learn is to approach a
foreign or unexpected response with a genuine interest in learning
its character, its origins, its story and its implications (Confrey,
1990). This he says should be done because the constructions of
others, especially those they hold most firmly, have integrity and
sensibility within their framework. Therefore when teaching
concepts, as a form of communication, the teacher must form an
adequate model of the learners' ways of viewing an idea and s/he
then must assist the learners in restructuring those views to be more
adequate from the learners' and from the teacher's perspective
(Confrey, 1990). He says learners should be groomed to create
powerful constructions and suggests powerful constructions are
typically characterized by:

1. A structure with a measure of internal consistency;

2. An integration across a variety of concepts;
3. A convergence among multiple forms and contexts of
representation;
4. An ability to be reflected on and described;
5. An historic continuity;
6. Ties into various symbol systems;

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 7. An agreement with experts;
8. A potential to act as a tool for further constructions;
9. A guide for future actions; and
10. An ability to be justified and defended (Confrey, 1990,
p.111).
Underlying Tenets of Belief to Adhere to As You Endeavour to
Create a Constructivists Environment (Pirie & Kieren, 1992)
1. Although you may have the intention to move learners
towards particular mathematics learning goals, you should
be well aware that such progress may not be achieved by
some of the learners and may not be achieved as expected
by others.
2. In creating an environment or providing opportunities for
learners to modify their mathematical understanding, you
will act upon the belief that there are different pathways to
similar mathematical understanding.
3. You will be aware that different people will hold different
mathematical understandings.
4. You will know that for any topic there are different levels
of understanding, but that these are never achieved
permanently.

5.7 Realistic Mathematics Education (RME)

Realistic Mathematics Education has its roots in Freudenthal‘s two
important views: mathematics must be connected to reality and
mathematics as human activity (Zulkard 1999). Learners should
therefore learn mathematics by mathematising subject matter from
real contexts and their own mathematical activity rather than from
the traditional view of presenting mathematics to them as a ready-
made system with general applicability (Barnes & Venter, 2008).
These real situations can include contextual problems or
mathematically authentic contexts for learners where they
experience the problem presented as relevant and real (Barnes &
Venter, 2008). Learners are challenged to develop their own
strategies for solving problems from the real world, and to discuss
these with other learners (Wubbels, Korthagen, & Broekman,
1997). The real problems include those that emerge from the world
of mathematics (Doorman, Drijvers, Dekker, Van den Heuvel-
Penhuizen, de Lange & Wijers, 2007)

For mathematics as a human activity Zulkard (1999) suggests

learners could be taken through a process of reinvention. This, he
explains is letting them go through processes that were used when
mathematics was invented and discussing learners informal
methods of doing mathematics. This reflects a shift from
mathematics as a readymade subject to be learnt towards
mathematics as a subject to be created (Wubbels, Korthagen, &
Broekman, 1997).

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Unit 5 5. Theories of Learning

The five characteristics of RME as outlined by Zulkard (1999)

1. phenomenological exploration or the use of contexts;

2. the use of models or bridging by vertical instruments;
3. the use of students own productions and constructions or
students contribution;
4. the interactive character of the teaching process or
interactivity; and
5. the intertwining of various learning strands.
The meaning of each of the above will become clear when we look
at the use of RME in school mathematics

Challenges to RME

The main difficulties encountered include institutional factors such

as national examinations and textbooks, and issues concerning
design and training (Doorman, Drijvers, Dekker, Van den Heuvel-
Penhuizen, de Lange & Wijers, 2007). They allude that the main
challenges is the design of good problem solving tasks that are
original, non-routine and new to the learners. They recommended
paying attention to problem solving in primary education and in
textbook series, to exploit the benefits of technology for problem
solving activities and to use the schools‘ freedom to organize
school-based examinations for types of assessment that are more
appropriate for problem solving. Another challenge could be
teachers‘ failure to reach the stage where they recognize the
principle of building on learners‘ own constructions (Wubbels,
Korthagen, & Broekman, 1997).

Suggestions for RME in secondary school mathematics

In this section you will consider how RME might apply

in our school mathematics. You will use a topic on the syllabus and
suggest problems and activities that could be used to learn this
topic.

5.8 Conclusion
In conclusion, learning theories provides educators with multiple
approaches that form the philosophical basis for curriculum design and
evaluation of learning activities. Ultimately, the artfulness of the teacher

90
 will determine which strategy and approach is best for each learner and
each situation

5.9 Unit summary

Behaviourists, cognitivists, humanists and constructivists theories of
learning were summarised in this section. Implications of each of the
theories to your teaching were viewed. In a bit of detail you were
introduced to realistic mathematics education (RME).
Summary

Assignment
Do the activities in this unit

Assignment

5.10 References
Barnes, H. & Venter, E. (2008). Mathematics as a Social Construct:
Teaching Mathematics in Context . Pythagoras, 68, 3-14

Bigge, M. L. & Shermis, S.S. (1999). Learning Theories for Teachers (6th
Ed). USA: Addison Wesley Longman Inc.

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Unit 5 5. Theories of Learning

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