ANDREW C.

PORTER AND JERE BROPHY

Synthesis of Research
on Good Teaching:
Insights from the Work of the
Institute for Research on Teaching
The emerging knowledge base will make the profession
multifaceted rather than simplified and will challenge
educators to organize schools and teacher roles so as to
achieve optimal student learning.

R
ecent years have witnessed from scientists was enlisted in school nicians to be programmed. Now edu
greatly increased appreciation improvement efforts, the scientists cational reform leaders state that the
of the centrality of good teach tended to be subject matter specialists key to success lies in creating a profes
ing to the effectiveness of schooling but not researchers studying teaching. sion equal to the task—a profession of
and of the role of research on teaching Their efforts featured attempts to de well-educated teachers prepared to as
in developing a knowledge base to velop "teacher proof" curriculums. sume new powers and responsibilities
inform the teaching profession. This Those approaches did not meet with to redesign schools for the future
article draws on findings from the past much success, and gradually the rec (Carnegie Forum on Education and
decade of research on teaching, and in ognition grew that achieving genuine the Economy 1986). Today educa
particular on findings developed at the improvements in educational quality tional practitioners are looking less for
Institute for Research on Teaching would require working through teach prescriptions and more for principles
(IRT), to present a model of what good ers rather than trying to work around that will increase their effectiveness as
teaching is, a better understanding of them. semi-autonomous professionals who
why it is difficult, and some hypothe Since the early 1970s there has been negotiate and mediate among com
ses about how it can be increased a surge of activity in research on teach plex and sometimes contradictory task
ing. The work has featured sophisti demands as they pursue goals of ex
The Emerging Prominence of cated methods of interviewing and ob cellence and equity. In the words of
Research on Teaching serving teachers, development of rich Michigan teacher Linda Alford (1983),
In the 1960s and early 1970s, scholars descriptions of classroom processes, Research lets us see how others
and policymakers concerned about and, frequently, information about teach.... We can see the effects of their
educational equity and improvement linkages between classroom processes behavior, test our decisions against
did not see much need for research on and student outcomes. Much of it was theirs, match our strategies against theirs,
teaching or for upgrading the quality predicated on a deceptively simple and gain insights into ourselves and our
of the teaching profession. For exam thesis: Effective school learning re teaching.
ple, reports by Coteman and his col quires good teaching, and good teach These views of teaching and re
leagues (1966) and byjencks and his ing requires professionals who exer search are very different from earlier
colleagues (1972) were interpreted as cise judgments in constructing the ed views that cast teachers as technicians
indicating that neither schools nor ucation of their students. In retrospect, who deliver "teacher proof" curricu
teachers made important differences this thesis was revolutionary, repre lums. Research (Brophy and Good
in student achievement In addition, senting an ideological premise as well 1986) has shown th~i students who
President Lyndon Johnson's Great So as a scientific claim. It led to transfor receive active instruction and work
ciety programs for educational im mations in thinking about the role .of supervision from their teachers
provement were based primarily on a research in providing a data base to achieve more than those students who
production-function approach (e.g., inform educational ^provement. spend most of their time working
outcomes follow expenditures), al In 1977, teachers were viewed ei through curriculum materials on their
though this theory had already be ther as weak links in the educational own. Other research (Clark and Peter-
come suspect by 1977. When input process to be circumvented or as tech son 1986) shows ;hat much of this
74 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP
active instruction results from profes models are rational and effective for • The model represents subject
sional planning, thinking, and decision generating good instructional plan matter as an essential context for un
making by teachers. Good teachers ning and decision making. derstanding teachers' thoughts and ac
adapt instruction to the needs of the Several features of Figure 1 high tions. Early research on teacher think
students and the situation rather than light ways in which recent work has ing did not consider how teachers'
rigidly following fixed scripts. moved beyond earlier conceptions of thoughts and actions might vary in
teacher thinking and its role in instruc important ways depending on the con
Conceptual Framework tional planning and implementation: tent to be taught.
Figure 1 provides a model of good • Both the origins and the out • Teachers' routines are included
teaching that identifies factors influ comes of teacher thinking are repre along with teachers' conscious plan
encing teachers' instruction of partic sented; early research on teacher ning and interactive decision making
ular academic content, including in thinking was largely descriptive, with as determinants of instruction. Many
formation that teachers might con little attention to where it came from teacher practices occur not because
sider during preactive planning of or what its effects on students might they are consciously planned but be
instruction and actions that they might be cause routines developed through
consider during interactive teaching. • The model represents long-term prior experience are activated auto
Proceeding from left to right, the effects on students' academic learning matically in relevant situations. Orig
model portrays good teaching as a as mediated by students' immediate inally some of these routines were
tight(y coupled .rational process in reactions to instruction. Effective teach consciously developed; others were
which background and milieu factors ing not only provides students with acquired as habits through modeling
influence teachers' development of input, response opportunities, and or conditioning and have never been
professional pedagogical knowledge feedback, but also attracts their atten consciously examined.
and routines. These, in turn, influence tion and interest and stimulates them • Teacher knowledge is repre
the planning of instruction, which in to activate infbrmarion-processing strate sented as encompassing (1) knowl
fluences ihe nature of the instruction gies, sense-making strategies, and other edge about the content to be taught,
that actually occurs. And this instruc cognitive and metacognitive com (2) knowledge about pedagogical
tion (along with student aptitude and ponents of learning for meaningful strategies for teaching the content, and
motivation factors) influences stu understanding. (3) knowledge about the students (in
dents' immediate responses to instruc
tion and, ultimately, its long-term out
comes. There is also a self-correcting
mechanism: Good teachers reflect on
the feedback that they get on the ef Highlights of Research on Good Teaching
fects of their instruction. This reflec
tion in turn enhances their profes Good teaching is fundamental to effective schooling. From the studies of the Institute
for Research on Teaching and those of others over me last 10 years, we have a
sional knowledge and affects their fu picture of effective teachers as semi-autonomous professionals who:
ture instructional planning. • are clear about their instructional goals;
The model illustrates that teaching • are knowledgeable about their content and the strategies for teaching it;
is highly complex, containing many • communicate ID their students what is expected of them—and why;
points for possible breakdown or er • make expert use of existing instructional materials in order to devote more time
ror The best teachers negotiate their to practices that enrich and clarify the content;
way through this complexity by attend • are knowledgeable about their students, adapting instruction ID their needs and
ing to each relevant factor. Most teach anticipating misconceptions in their existing knowledge;
ers, however, are less sophisticated • teach students metacognitive strategies and give them opportunities to master
and systematic in planning and carry mem;
• address higher- as well as lower-level cognitive objectives;
ing out instruction. The sheer com
• monitor students' understanding by offering regular appropriate feedback;
plexity of the teaching task and of the • integrate their instruction with that in other subject areas;
milieu in which it is conducted—typi • accept responsibility for student outcomes;
cal classrooms—makes it necessary • are thoughtful and reflective about their practice.
for all teachers to rely on procedures, As future research developments expand our understanding, batter teacher
routines, implicit decision rules, and preparation should result. However, we can't expect lasting changes in practice if,
other simplification strategies that for example, the benefits of proposed interventions don't outweigh the costs of
make the task manageable. Teachers implementation; if teachers are asked ID add new procedures without suggestions
operate with "bounded rationality" about what to relinquish to accommodate them; and if researchers continue to view
within these simplifications (Simon teaching in small fragments instead of the complex day-to-day operation that it is.
With clarification of issues such as these, though, we can anticipate both improved
1957). Research has documented sub learning and teaching that is at once more systematic and yet still gratifying.
stantial differences in the degree to
which individual teachers' implicit
MAY 1988 75
 particular, about student background are represented as dynamic, reflecting found in schools. Many of these endur
knowledge that can be capitalized the fact that teachers can and do learn ing problems cannot be solved in any
upon and about student misconcep from experience. complete or final sense; rather, the
tions that will need to be confronted teacher can only make the best deci
during teaching). Good teaching re Insights from Recent sion that circumstances permit (Lam-
quires possession and use of all three Research on Teaching pert 1985). These dilemmas usually
of these categories of teacher knowl Since 1976, the Institute for Research require professional judgment and de
edge, not just knowledge of subject on Teaching at Michigan State Univer cision making rather than adoption of
matter. sity has conducted research on teacher some routine procedure.
• External influences on teacher planning, classroom management, stu Third, IRT research has focused on
thinking and action are included in dent socialization, and instruction the planning, thinking, and decision
recognition of the fact that some as within several subject matter areas. De- making that lead to teachers' class
pects of instruction occur in response ' spite the diversity of topics addressed, room behaviors, not just on behaviors
to external pressures rather than to the lastitute's projects shared several alone. Finally, the research was
the teacher's own ideas about what is common features worth noting. planned and conducted with participa
appropriate. First, they have focused primarily on tion by collaborating teachers (i.e., not
• Direct influences (power) and in the roles of teachers and the thoughts just faculty members and graduate stu
direct influences (persuasion) are dis and actions involved in carrying out dents). This feature helped to ensure
tinguished to explain why, for exam teaching activities and only second that the research was of interest and
ple, some teachers continue to teach arily on students, curriculums, or use to practitioners, that the assump
in a way that is consistent with a policy other topics. Thus, most of the infor tions built into research designs and
even after that policy has been termi mation developed is directly relevant procedures were valid, and that at
nated, whereas other teachers will re to those who wish to understand and each stage, from planning the research
sist compliance with a policy or will improve the practice and profession of to interpreting the obtained results,
comply with it only so long as it is in teaching. important complexities and situational
effect and backed by sanctions. Second, the research has focused on specifics were taken into account
• Personal experiences, especially enduring problems of practice—prob (Porter 1986).
teachers' own experiences as students, lems that are inherent in the fact that Because of IRT's leadership in re
are represented as important determi teachers are charged with simulta search on teaching and the breadth
nants of how teachers think and what neously meeting the needs of 25 or 30 and scope of its research program, its
they do. students, while working within the re findings are representative of the con
• Teachers' thoughts and actioas source limits and constraints typically tributions to the knowledge base that

Rg.1. Model of I i of Their Students in Particular Content

i 76 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP
 Nevertheless, teachers' classroom were known. For example, some
practices have been shown to be influ teachers emphasize "survival and con
enced in important ways by the goals venience" goals, passing time in ways
that teachers hold for schooling and that are as pleasant as possible for
"Today educational the responsibilities that they are will them and their students. When teach
practitioners are ing to accept for themselves. ers and students strike such a
One of the fundamental challenges "bargain," which features sacrifice of
looking less for of teaching is that the number of im standards in pursuit of a comfortable
prescriptions portant goals that could be pursued environment, the result is a compro
exceeds the number that can be ac mised curriculum (Sedlak et al. 1986).
and more for complished within the time and en At the other extreme, negative con
principles that will ergy available. To cope with this di sequences can occur when teachers
increase their lemma, teachers simplify their work
environment by concentrating their ef
do not have focused goals and attempt
to accomplish too much. For example,
effectiveness ..." forts. Because most teachers have a teachers are much more easily per
great deal of autonomy in determining suaded to add new topics to their
what they do once the classroom door instruction than they are to delete
is closed, there is great variance in the topics that they have been teaching
nature and appropriateness of the (Floden et al. 1981). Although such
goals that teachers adopt, resulting in good intentions and willingness to re
important differences in teacher prac spond to emerging developments and
tices and in student accomplishments. information needs are laudable, the
Some teachers emphasize goals that net result of their decisions is a thin
would be widely questioned if they ning out of the curriculum. Gradually,

researchers on teaching have devel

oped in the last 10 years. It is not
possible to inventory in this article the OUTCOME-BASH) BXKATON (QBE):
many findings produced by the Insti esearch combined into » single,
'The best of the Effective Schools r
tute's individual research projects. In tr every student
comprehensive, and powerful model whose goal is success o
stead, we have extracted a number of Now . . . THE QBE
macro-level findings concerning the
nature of classroom teaching and what In use In more than 40 sttftt Md 7 ferae* cwntrfes.

!
!
it looks like at its best. These findings Practical help for teachers, principals, and central-office administrators implementing
are summarized below. Outcome-Based Education/Mastery Learning from an educator who has been involved in all
phases of planning and implementation.
In this series of 6 booklets, you'll find out what is possible, what is involved, and what
Orientations to Teaching to do when to create an effective outcome-based program.
With its focus on teacher planning and ORDER YOUR SET TODAY!
decision making, recent research on Mndwtog OBE-An overview.
teaching has sought to discover the The DeHimi Bmd torirakM—Alignment and integration, testing, materials
Oevetoptig the Balden "»" (DwaMnj Graoe»(—Team planning, grouping of
origins of teachers' actions as well as students, and school and parent communication
their consequences. These studies TeecMng tor Maden/—Applying the best instructional practices
(see Clark and Peterson 1986) reveal IMng Categerfc* Fundt tor QBE-Using a significant resource effectively
that teachers seldom conform to the A S-Yeer MGHen RM—An implementation plan discussing the "who." "what." "when."
totally rational model depicted in Fig "where," and "how."
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MAY 1988 77
more topics are taught for briefer pe goals and student outcomes. Teach the students themselves (Lee and Gal-
riods of time, to the point that many of ers' effectiveness in attaining their lagher 1986).
them are merely mentioned with little goals is also determined by their Given the variety and range of indi
hope for student mastery. This issue knowledge of subject matter, peda vidual differences with which teachers
surfaces frequently in educational pol gogy, and students; their classroom are asked to cope, it is not surprising
icy debates, because "mentioning management and instruction skills; to find that teachers are selective in
without really teaching" is one of the and other factors. the range of responsibilities that they
problems identified by critics of con Teachers who accept responsibility are willing to accept for themselves.
temporary school curriculums (Arm- for student outcomes are more effec Nor is this necessarily a negative find
bruster and Anderson 1984). tive than teachers who see their stu ing, because teachers may be willing
^Although all teachers ultimately dents as solely responsible for what to take on increasing responsibilities if
must set goal priorities, an important they learn and how they behave. Just they are also given effective strategies
recent finding has been that teachers as earlier research showed that it is for discharging those responsibilities.
need not always give up one goal in important for teachers to believe that
order to obtain the time and energy to students are capable of learning from Characteristics of Effective
pursue another. For example, one IRT instruction (Brophy and Evertson Instruction
study found that elementary teachers 1976), recent research has shown that Process-outcome research on teaching
who stressed goals concerning both it is useful for teachers to believe that, has produced a great deal of informa
academic achievement and socializa when the teaching/learning process tion about relationships between par
tion were more effective in attaining breaks down, both the teacher and the ticular classroom management or in
both sets of goals than were teachers student must assess the situation and structional behaviors and gains in stu
who placed a high priority on social make corrective adjustments. dent achievement (Brophy and Good
ization goals but a low priority on For example, in a study of teachers' 1986). Recent research on teacher
academic achievement goals (Prawat strategies for coping with students thinking and decision making has
1985). A second study of elementary who present sustained problems in complemented that work (Clark and
teachers found that those who inte personal adjustment or behavior, Peterson 1986). As the findings from
grated language arts instruction with teachers who were identified as the these and other forms of research on
instruction in other subject areas were most effective in coping with such teaching have become better inte
successful in teaching both the lan problems viewed them as something grated and more fully incorporated, it
guage arts skills and the other subject to be corrected rather than merely has become possible to extrapolate
matter content, although few teachers endured. Furthermore, although they general principles of effective instruc
taught in such integrated fashion might seek help from school adminis tion that help to make sense of and
(Schmidt et al. 1985). Research in 9th trators or mental health professionals, coordinate the findings concerning
grade general mathematics classes such teachers would build personal specific behaviors and to "package"
found that interventions that put more relationships and work with their them in ways that make them more
emphasis on students' conceptual un problem students, relying on instruc accessible to teachers.
derstanding of mathematics and less tion, socialization, cognitive strategy Attention has shifted from identify
emphasis on drilling them in compu training, and other long-term solution ing individual teaching skills as corre
tational skills resulted in improve strategies. In contrast, less effective lates of achievement gain to the devel
ments not only in conceptual under teachers would try to turn over re opment of broader and better inte
standing but also in computational sponsibility for the problem to some grated theories to explain teacher
skills (Madsen-Nason and Lanier 1986). one else (such as the principal or a effects on student outcomes. Increas
These studies also suggest that some school social worker or counselor) or ingly, these theories refer to coherent
forms of instruction are more efficient would confine their personal re teaching strategies rather than isolated
than others, and in particular, that bal sponses to attempts to control student teaching skills (Doyle 1985); they also
anced and integrated instruction is behavior through demands backed by refer to the learning of particular con
more effective than instruction that threats of punishment (Brophy and tent with meaningful understanding
tries to develop knowledge or skills in Rohrkemper 1981). rather than merely to scores on stan
isolation from one another or that em As another example, research in dardized achievement tests when de
phasizes certain objectives but slights secondary science classes showed that scribing student outcomes (Anderson
others that are equally important. low-aptitude students achieve much and Smith 1987).
In summary, differences among more if their teachers accept respon Teachers promote learning by com
teachers in the /goals they hold for sibility for seeing that all students municating to their students what is
their instruction help explain the dif learn science than they do if their expected and why. Just as teachers do,
ferences in the teachers' effective teachers attribute degree of science students behave in ways that are gen
ness. However, there is no one-to- mastery primarily to^bility and moti erally consistent with the goals that
one relationship between teache V vation factors residing solely within they set and the responsibilities that
78 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP
they accept for themselves. Unfortu pears to be equally useful in fostering solving, and other metacognitive strat
nately, many students do not view personal and social responsibility in egies for purposeful learning (Duffy et
school as a place for learning impor students (A. Anderson et al. 1985, L al. 1986, Palincsar and Brown 1984,
tant academic knowledge and skills Anderson and Prawat 1983) as it is in Raphael and Kirschner 1985).
but rather as a place they are required promoting academic achievement (L. Helping students to acquire meta
to be in order to acquire a certificate. Anderson et al. 1985, Duffy et al. 1986). cognitive strategies is not sufficient by
Some teachers are especially effec Teachers promote learning by pro itself to ensure mastery of those strat
tive at helping students understand viding their students with strategies for egies. In addition, teachers must pro
what is to be learned and why the monitoring and improving their own vide their students with opportunities
learning might be useful to them. learning efforts and with structured to practice the strategies by working
These teachers begin their lessons opportunities for independent learn individually and in groups on inde
with explicit statements about what is ing activities. Making sure that stu pendent learning assignments. There
to be learned and how it relates to dents understand what is to be learned is tension, however, between giving
what has been learned earlier or will and why can be viewed as one step students too much close supervision
be learned in the future. They moti toward preparing students to share of their work and giving them too
vate their students to learn by provid responsibility with the teacher for much latitude over what to do and
ing explanations that go beyond the their own learning. An important com how to do it. Insufficient latitude for
immediate school context. Through plementary step is to provide students independent learning will limit what
out the lesson, they monitor student with skills and procedures that give students can accomplish, whereas in
task orientation to ensure that all stu them the capacity to learn indepen sufficient structuring may lead to con
dents understand the reasons behind dently. Teachers can accomplish this fusion or even chaos instead of worth
assignments as well as how to com by explicitly modeling and instructing while learning (Navarro et al. 1986).
plete the assignments. Similarly teach their students in information process Effective teachers not onfy know the
ers' making sure that students under ing, sense making, comprehension subject matter they intend their stu
stand what is expected and why ap monitoring and correction, problem dents to leant but also know the mis-

rue Al icOTinkl. How to improve the quality

THE QUESTION: of staff development?

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THE TOPICS:
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Adult Learners, etc.) workshops are available. Oxford, OH 45056

MAY 1988 79
conceptions their students bring to the conceptions still intact (Eaton et al, remedy this problem, not only by in
classroom that will interfere with their 1984). fusing relevant content into teacher
learning of that subject matter. It can This is but one example from a education programs but also by intro
not be taken for granted that teachers much larger literature on what is be ducing structural changes in such pro
understand the content they are ex coming known as "conceptual change grams to ensure that knowledge about
pected to teach. Even at the elemen teaching" (Anderson and Smith 1987-). subject matter, pedagogy, and students
tary level, some teachers have a much Conceptual change teaching strategies is developed in an integrated and ap
better grasp of the concepts, skills, and are based on the premise that teaching plication-oriented fashion.
applications their students are sup does not involve infusing knowledge Published instructional materials
posed to learn than other teachers do. into a vacuum but instead involves usually contribute to instructional
Even greater differences among teach inducing change in an existing body of quality. Partly as an unfortunate back
ers exist in their ability to enrich in knowledge and beliefs. Traditional in lash to attempts to create teacher-
struction by drawing on subject matter structional strategies have emphasized proof curriculums, many teacher edu
knowledge that goes beyond the im the facilitative role of relevant preex cators view published curriculum ma
mediate goals for student learning. isting knowledge and beliefs in pro terials as sterile. They socialize new
Research has begun to document ways viding anchoring points and starting teachers to believe that good teachers
in which command of subject matter places for extending students' knowl are not textbook followers. Instead,
influences teachers' expectations for edge. Conceptual change teaching ac they urge prospective teachers to be
what students can and should learn, as knowledges these advantages to the lieve that they should break new
well as the effectiveness of the teach extent that relevant preexisting stu ground in their instruction, either de
ers' pedagogical strategies (Anderson dent beliefs are accurate, but it cafls veloping their own instructional mate
and Smith 1987, Flower and Hayes attention to the fact that sometimes rials or expecting students to learn
1980, Hollon and Anderson 1986). such beliefs constitute misconceptions without the support of published cur
In addition to command of the sub that need to be confronted and riculums. The idealism underlying
ject matter they teach and of pedagog changed rather than readiness factors such teacher education may be praise
ical strategies for teaching it, teachers to be reinforced and built upon. Con worthy, but the advice given is imprac
need to know how to adapt their in ceptual change teaching strategies are tical and counterproductive. Teachers
struction to students' preexisting especially applicable to instruction in are not trained to develop their own
knowledge and beliefs about the sub science, where student misconcep materials, and the constraints of the
ject matter. This means not only "be tions abound, although they are some typical teaching assignment do not
ginning where the students are" and times needed in teaching other subject provide the time needed to develop
building bridges linking the content to matter. good instructional materials in any
be learned to the students' existing Despite recent interest in improving case (Ball and Feiman-Nemser 1986).
knowledge, but also drawing out and schooling and reforming teacher edu Clearly, published instructional ma
confronting any misconceptions they cation, scant attention has been paid to terials have their faults. The literary
may have about the topic that may the need to develop in teachers a and pedagogical value of passages in
distort their learning. For example, working knowledge of subject matter, reading texts on which students spend
most elementary students believe that pedagogy, and students that is inte large quantities of time has been ques
plants get their food from the soil—an grated and accessible. Teacher educa tioned (R. Anderson et al. 1985, Lein-
idea that squares with commonsense tion courses provide general knowl hardt and Smith 1985, Shulman 1986).
language and understanding but con edge about pedagogy and child de So has the tendency of mathematics
flicts directly with the scientific expla velopment but seldom provide texts to cover large numbers of topics
nation that plants manufacture their integrated and specific information briefly (Freeman et al. 1983). How
own food via the process of photosyn about teaching particular content to ever, the implied assumption that
thesis. Instruction proceeds much particular types of students. Arts, sci teachers can do better working on
more effectively if teachers confront ences, and humanities courses teach their own with scarce time and mea
this misconception directly, summa advanced knowledge in the various ger financial resources is even more
rizing and contrasting the key differ disciplines but do not address issues questionable. If teachers carefully
ences between the commonsense no of curriculum and instruction in the select instructional materials to fit the
tion of food and the scientific concept subject matter in elementary and sec curriculum goals and the characteris
of food. Unless teachers confront stu ondary classrooms. While much re tics of their students and then make
dent misconceptions directly and con mains to be learned about effective extensive use of these materials, they
trast them sharply with the more pre instruction in particular academic con will be able to devote most of their
cise and accurate scientific concep tent, more is already known than is time and energy to practices that en
tions to be taught, students may not being taught systematically to teachers. rich the content through reinter-
recognize the differences and may Thus, an important goal of teacher pretation and expansion and that clar
emerge from the unit with their mis education reform efforts should be to ify the content through presentation,
80 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP
recitation, discussion, and evaluation appear to result from subject matter
activities. area differences in the preservice
course requirements Imposed on
teachers, inservice education opportu
Subject Matter Contrasts
Recently, research on teaching has "Teachers simplify nities available, pressures from curric
moved from general issues of class their work ulum guides and testing programs,
room organization and management,
timeon-task, and general styles of environment by and degree of support and structuring
provided in the published curriculum
teaching toward more specific issues concentrating materials.
concerning the effective teaching of
particular academic content (e.g., how
their efforts." Good Teaching as Thoughtful
to teach students to read strategically Practice
and monitor their efforts through me- Research on teacher thinking and de
tacognitive awareness when reading cision making has added important
for meaning and comprehension, how information to our understanding of
to decide what mathematics knowl the principles and practices that col
edge and skills to teach, how to con lectively constitute effective instruc
front and correct student misconcep dents to read, and teachers typically tion. Drawing on the preceding sec
tions when teaching science, and how follow these guidelines closely (Duffy tions and filling in gaps from other
to increase the amount and improve et al. 1987, Shannon 1987). In mathe sources, it is possible to develop an
the quality of writing instruction in matics, teachers tend to view texts as image of the good teacher as a
elementary schools). To date, there resources to be added to or (more thoughtful practitioner who operates
has been practically no research de often) deleted from, as appropriate. with considerable autonomy yet pur
signed to apply a common conceptual Math texts are usually silent on how posefully works toward a set of goals
and measurement framework in order instruction is to proceed, serving pri that are simultaneously differentiated
to identify similarities and differences marily as sources of content (Freeman and integrated.
in instruction in different subject mat et al. 1983, Schwille et al. 1983). In Effective teachers are clear about
ter areas, although extrapolation from science, teachers normally follow the what they intend to accomplish
the findings of studies done within text closely, although the teacher's edi through their instruction, and they
single subject matter areas does sug tion usually does not have much to say keep these goals in mind both in
gest some commonalities as well as about how instruction should proceed designing the instruction and in com
some ways in which teaching is (Roth et al. 1987). Published materials municating its purposes to the stu
unique to particular subject areas. We for the teaching of writing are largely dents. They make certain that their
have been discussing the commonali unavailable as yet (Florio-Ruane 1983, students understand and are satisfied
ties; we now turn to the differences. Florio-Ruane and Dunn 1985). by the reasons given for why they
Studies of elementary school teach There also appear to be important should learn what they are asked to
ers indicate that they spend much differences in the level of subject mat learn.
more time (30 to 45 percent of their ter knowledge and related pedagogi Effective instruction provides stu
total instruction time) teaching read cal knowledge that teachers have in dents with metacognitive strategies to
ing than any other subject (Schmidt different content areas, at least at the use in regulating and enhancing their
and Buchmann 1983). Mathematics is a elementary level. Elementary teachers learning. It also provides them with
distant second; still, there is a regularly tend to be most knowledgeable about structured opportunities to exercise
scheduled period for mathematics reading, variable in their knowledge and practice independent learning
each day, typically ranging from 30 about and interest in mathematics and strategies.
minutes to an hour (Schwille et al. writing (Clark and Florio-Ruane 1983), Effective teachers create learning sit
1986). In contrast, science is rarely and typically weak in knowledge about uations in which their students are
taught every day in elementary school science (Anderson and Smith 1987). expected not just to learn facts and
classrooms (Anderson and Smith Secondary teachers usually possess solve given problems but to organize
1987), and writing, is generally not strong subject matter knowledge if information in new ways and formu
taught at a regularly scheduled time they are teaching the subject that they late problems for themselves Such
(Florio and Clark et al. 1984, Florio- majored in but may have very spotty learning situations include creative
Ruane and Dunn 1987). knowledge otherwise. writing opportunities in language arts,
There are also differences in use of In summary, research on teaching problem-formulation activities in math
textbooks and curriculum materials. has begun to reveal important differ ematics, and independent projects in
In reading, instructional materials usu ences in the ways that different subject science, social studies, and literature.
ally specify both the content and the matter areas are taught, especially in Such learning situations are intrin
methods to be used for teaching stu- elementary schools. These differences sically more demanding for both
MAY 1988 81
teachers and students than expository However, the same research that with their students, all too often they
instruction followed by drill-and- has documented the principles de revert to their previous practices
practice exercises, but they must be scribed earlier as elements of effective (Porter 1986).
included along with these more fa instruction has made it clear that few There are many possible reasons
miliar learning situations if instruc teachers follow all of these practices why interventions seldom achieve sta
tion is to address higher-level cogni all of the time. Yet most teachers be ble, permanent changes in teaching
tive objectives in addition to lower- lieve that they are doing an effective practices. One is that the advocated
level ones. job. Certainly there are many outstand changes are not really improvements
Effective teachers continuously mo ing teachers and many others who or do not bring about benefits suffi
nitor their students' understanding of routinely do some things particularly cient to justify the efforts involved in
presentations and responses to as well. However, the generally high implementing them. But why do many
signments. They routinely provide level of satisfaction among teachers teachers drift away from worthwhile
timely and detailed feedback, but not concerning their own personal effec and cost-effective innovations? For
necessarily in the same ways for all tiveness as instructors suggests that, as some teachers, part of the explanation
students. a group, teachers may not see much may be that they teach in isolation,
Effective teachers frequently inte need for making the substantial invest free from surveillance and possible
grate their instruction across discipli ments that would be required to critical commentary by peers and
nary boundaries so that, for example, change their teaching practices in the other adults. Another part of the expla
students practice reading skills on directions outlined here. nation is that teachers must cope with
lexts that are worthwhile in their own Teachers are usually receptive to a full agenda that typically precludes
right (e.g., interesting and well- suggestions for change if those advo time for serious reflection, so that it is
written literature intended for chil cated changes make sense to them. easy for them to drift in and Out of
dren and youth, nonfiction books on Typically, interventions designed to habits and routines without being very
topics studied in social studies or change teachers' practices in particu aware that it is happening. Another
science classes) and have opportuni lar ways are successful with most factor is orientation toward a trial-and-
ties to write about some of the things teachers, at least in the short run (Stal- error, "see what works for you" view
that they are reading about Effective lings and Krasavage 1986). However, of professional decision making that is
teachers realize that what is learned after teachers have acquired the often promoted by teacher educators,
is more likely to be remembered and knowledge and skills needed-, to an orientation that causes many teach
used in the future if it serves stu change their practices in the pre ers to overemphasize personal prefer
dents' purposes beyond meeting scribed ways, and in many cases even ence and underemphasize concern
school requirements. after they have seen positive results about student outcomes when making
Finally, effective teachers are decisions about instructional practices
thoughtful about their practice: They (Buchmann 1986).
take tiint for reflection and self-evalu Another part of the explanation is
ation, monitor their instruction to that, as research identifies more and
make sure that worthwhile content is more elements of effective teaching
being taught to all students, and accept
responsibility for guiding student
"Conceptual change practice, there will be further in
creases in recommendations about ad
learning and behavior. teaching strategies ditional things for teachers to do and
How Much Can We Expect
are especially few if any recommendations for what
should be given up. The picture of
from Teachers? applicable to good teaching that emerges from re
What is already known about effective instruction in search features hard work, hard think
teaching provides useful guidance to ing, tough choices, and objective eval
teacher-education and school-im science, where uations. The energy required to teach
provement efforts, and this existing student this way is probably underestimated
knowledge base will continue to be
elaborated through future research. misconceptions by research that considers only one
segment of a teacher's professional life
This suggests considerable optimism abound." at a time. Research tends to look at
about prospects for improving the teaching in small segments, typically
quality of teaching in the schools, es concentrating only on particular les
pecially if one assumes, as we do, that sons taught within one subject matter
research on teaching is in its infancy area. More attention needs to be fo
and the existing knowledge base is but cused on larger units of instruction
a tiny fraction of what it eventually will and on what is required to teach effec
become. tively all day, every day, year after year.
82 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Similarly, more needs to be learned we can realistically begin to expect opment of a knowledge base to inform
about the costs that teachers pay in everyday instruction to conform to ra teacher education and teaching prac
adopting new approaches to teaching tional (or at least "boundedly ratio tice will make the profession more
and about how these costs might be nal") models such as the one shown in multifaceted rather than simplifying it,
ameliorated. Figure 1. Such models would depict just as the development of a medical
teachers as selecting and delivering knowledge base has increased the
The Evolution of Effective curriculums (recognizing that the con complexity of medical practice. In fact,
Teaching tent will have to be interpreted using as the relevant knowledge base devel
Research on teaching reveals that appropriate examples and otherwise ops, the major challenges facing edu
overly ambitious models depicting adapted to local student needs) and as cation as a profession will revolve
teachers as fully rational curriculum making decisions based on relevant around developing preservice and in-
designers, developers, and implemen- content and pedagogical knowledge service professional education pro
ters are inappropriate, and so are with particular objectives in mind grams that are effective in enabling
models that depict teachers either as (rather than on some less optimal practitioners to leam about and] keep
nonthinking technicians or as .artists basis). abreast of developments in the field.
who operate mostly on the basis of Although these anticipated develop At the same time, the profession will
unarticulated intuition. As contempo ments will make everyday teaching be seeking to develop methods of
rary research on teaching continues to more systematic and predictably effec organizing schools and teacher roles
fill in the developing picture of effec tive, there is no need to fear that they that will enable teachers to make use
tive professional practice, and espe will make teaching mechanistic, re of available information, with the goals
cially if improvements in teacher edu move the artistic or craft elements being to optimize student outcomes
cation result in better preparation of from it, or result in the deskilling of and make teaching manageable and
teachers to engage in such practice, teachers. On the contrary, the devel rewarding.D

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MAY 1988 83
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 pertise in Mathematics Instruction: Sub Curriculum Studies 1 7 (July/September in the American Higf> School. New York:
ject Matter Knowledge." Journal of Ed 1985): 305-320. Teachers College Press, 1986.
ucational Psychology (June 1985): Schwille, John, Andrew Porter, Gabriella Shannon, Patrick. "Commercial Reading
247-271. Belli, Robert E. Floden, Donald J. Free Materials, a Technological Ideology, and
Madsen-Nason, Ann, and Perry E. Lanier. man, Lucy B. Knappen, Therese M. Kuhs, the Deskilling of Teachers." Elementary
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172 East Lansing: Michigan State Uni of Teaching tond Policy, edited by Lee S. Knowledge Growth in Teaching." Edu
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Francine Minnick. "The Art of Becoming fbrd, Donald Freeman, Susan Irwin, and York: Wiley, 1957.
an Instructional Leader." Paper pre William Schmidt State Policy and the Stallings, Jane, and Eileen M. Krasavage.
sented at the annual meeting of the Control of Curriculum Decisions: Zones "Program Implementation and Student
American Educational Research Associa of Tolerancefor Teachers in Elementary Achievement in a Pour-Year Madeline
tion, San Francisco, April 19, 1986 School Mathematics. Research Series No. Hunter Follow-Through Project" Ele
Palincsar, Annemarie, and Ann L. Brown. 173. East Lansing: Michigan State Univer mentary School Journal 87 (November
"Reciprocal Teaching of Comprehen sity, Institute for Research on Teaching, 1986): 117-138.
sion-Fostering and Comprehension- 1986.
Monitoring Activities." Cognition and Sedlak, Michael W., Christopher W. Andrew C. Porter and Jere Brophy are
Instruction (Spring 1984): 117-175 Wheeler, Diana C. Pullin, and Philip A. Co-Directors, the Institute for Research on
Porter, Andrew C. Collaborating with Cusick. Selling Students Short: Class Teaching, Michigan State University, 318
Teachers on Research: Pioneering Efforts room Bargains and Academic Reform Erickson Hall, East Lansing. MI 4882 J.
at the Institutefor Research on Teaching,
Occasional Paper No. 105. East Lansing:
Michigan State University, Institute for
Research on Teaching, 1986.

SLAMS
Porter, Andrew C. "From Research on
Teaching to Staff Development: A Diffi
cult Step." Elementary School Journal
87 (November 1986): 159-164.
Prawat, Richard S. "Affective Versus Cogni
tive Goal Orientations in Elementary SCQUCNCCD LANOURG€ RUTS A MflTH SKILLS
Teachers." American Educational Re The SIRMS program has It uui help identify, se
search Journal 22 (Winter 1985): and suggest when
587-604. been developed for educa quence,
Raphael, Taffy E., and Becky M. Kirscr|ner. tors charged with the each skill should be in
The Effects of Instruction in Compare! responsibilty for administer troduced, developed, and
Contrast Text Structure on Sixth-Grade
Students' Reading Comprehension and ing a bask skills program in finally mastered.
Writing Products. Research Series No. language arts and/or math
161. East Lansing: Michigan State Univer
sity, Institute for Research on Teaching, ematics in grades K-6.
1985. SUMS materials may b« us*d to:
Roth, Kathleen J., Charles W. Anderson, and • check for omissions in the district's bask skis
Edward L. Smith. "Curriculum Materials,
Teacher Talk, and Student Learning: Case program;
Studies in Fifth Grade Science Teaching." • serve as an aid in textbook selection;
Journal of Curriculum Studies (Novem
ber-December 1987): 527-548. • identify critical skills that students must master before
Schmidt, William, and Margret Buchmann. moving to more advanced skills.
"Six Teachers' Beliefs and Attitudes and
Their Curricular Time Allocations." Ele SLAMS Manual $25.00 Indiana residents odd 5% sates tax
mentary School Journal 84 (May 1983): SLAMS Handbook 4.00 fldd $1 handing for orders under $5
162-172. (for administrators)
Schmidt, William, Laura Roehler, Jacque-
line Caul, Barbara Diamond, David So Phi Delta Kappa
lomon, Patricia Cianciolo, and Margret P.O. Box 789. Btoomingtoa IN 47402-0789
Buchmann. "The Uses of Curriculum (812) 339-1156
Integration in Language Arts Instruction:
A Study of Six Classrooms. " Journal of
MAY 1988 85
Copyright © 1988 by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development. All rights reserved.