ASSIGNMENT

Topic:- MODULE-VI Control System

Components and Basic Control Actions
NAME:- AMIT TIWARY ROLL NO:-
BE/10155/17 BRANCH :- ECE 'A' BATCH :-
2020 SEMESTER :-6th

Control Theory
➢​•​➢
Control System Components and Basic Control
Actions: ​Sensors and encoders in control
system
• Potentiometer
• Tachometers
• Servo Motors
• Synchros
• Operational Amplifiers
Basic control actions:
• ​on-off control
• P, PI, PD and PID

Control system
components
➢​•​••
A closed loop control system
consists of :
Controller (error detector and control
elements) Controlled system Feedback
element

Control system
components
•​•••​Components of controller and feedback
element (low power items)
Sensors Differencing and amplification Control
logic implementation platform
(hardware/software based) Actuators

Sensors and
encoders
•​•
Sensors and encoders are
important components used
to monitor the performance
and for feedback in control
systems. The principle of
operation and applications of
some of the sensors and
encoders that are commonly
used in control systems
Sensors
➢​••••➢1.2.3.4.5.6.​These are low power
transducers which produce low power

output signal as a measure

​ of the
controlled and other variables A linear
relation is generally preferred but not

essential. A ​suitable, unambiguous

functional relationship is required
Output of a sensor is in electrical form:
analog or digital They are employed for a
variety of measurements:
Position, velocity, acceleration Pressure,
flow of fluids Temperature in a variety of
ranges Quantity representation of chemical
state of a reactor Neutron flux level in an
atomic reactor etc

Optical Encoder
•​••••• An
​ optical encoder is an
electromechanical device which has an
electrical output in digital form proportional to
the angular position of the input shaft. Optical
encoders enable an angular displacement to be
converted directly into a digital form. It has a
shaft mechanically coupled to an input driver
which rotates a disc rigidly fixed to it. A
succession of opaque and clear segments are
marked on the surface of the disc. Light from
infrared emitting diodes reaches the infrared
receivers through the transparent slits of the
rotating disc. An analogue signal is created.
Then electronically, the signal is amplified and
converted into digital form. This signal is then
transmitted to the data processor.
Optical Encoder is of 2 types:-
Absolute encoder
Incremental encoder

Absolute encoder
•​••••​Absolute encoders are feedback devices
that provide speed, position information by
outputting a digital word orbit in relation to
motion. Unlike incremental encoders that output
a continuous stream of ubiquitous pulses,
absolute encoders output unique words or bits
for each position.
By outputting a digital word or bit instead of a
stream of pulses, absolute rotary encoders offer
several advantages:
Higher overall resolution vs incremental
encoders Better start up performance because
of low homing (or initial position) time Accurate
motion detection along multiple axes Multiple
output protocols for better electronics
integration Better recovery from system or
power failures

Incremental Encoder
•​•• An
​ incremental encoder is a type of encoder
device that converts angular motion or position
of a shaft into an analog or digital code to
identify position or motion. Incremental
encoders are one of the most commonly used
rotary encoders. An incremental encoder can
be used in positioning and motor speed
feedback applications which includes
servo/light, industrial or heavy-duty
applications.
An incremental encoder provides excellent
speed and distance feedback and, since there
are few sensors involved, the systems are both
simple and inexpensive. An incremental
encoder is limited by only providing change
information, so the encoder requires a
reference device to calculate motion.

Potentiometer
•​••••• A
​ potentiometer is an electromechanical
transducer that converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy. The input to the device is
in the form of a mechanical displacement, either
linear or rotational. When a voltage is applied
across the fixed terminals of the potentiometer,
the output voltage, which is measured across
the variable terminal and ground, is proportional
to the input displacement, either linearly or
according to some nonlinear relation. The input
to the device is in the form of a mechanical
displacement, either linear or rotational. When a
voltage is applied across the fixed terminals of
the potentiometer, the output voltage, which is
measured across the variable terminal and
ground, is proportional to the input
displacement, either linearly or according to
some nonlinear relation.

Types of
Potentiometers
➢​➢​Rotary potentiometers
Linear potentiometers
Ten-turn rotary potentiometer (courtesy of Helipot
Division of Beckman Instruments, Inc.).

Rotary potentiometers
Rotary
potentiometers
•​•
Rotary potentiometers are available
commercially in single- revolution or multi
resolution form, with limited or unlimited
rotational motion. The potentiometers are
commonly made with wire wound or conductive
plastic resistance material.

Linear potentiometers
Linear motion potentiometer with built-in operational
amplifier (courtesy of Waters Manufacturing, Inc.).

Linear
potentiometers
•​•
a linear potentiometer
contains a built-in operational
amplifier. For precision
control, the conductive plastic
potentiometer is preferable,
because it has infinite
resolution, long rotational life,
good output smoothness, and
low static noise.
Non-wire wound
potentiometer
•​•••• Carbon
​ composition:
coated film, molded ​the

Conductive ​form of a plastic:

​

cavity (coated resistance

​ ​with

element is in carbon ​the unit

resin ​is hermetically mixture)

​
in ​sealed a
​ plastic base and ​is
Ceramic ​a hybrid

potentiometer: ​ceramic and

metal; resistance
​ ​immune
material to humidity
Servo Motors
•​•​Servo Motors are used in feedback control
systems. Servo Motors have low rotor inertia
and high speed off response. The Servomotors
are also known as control motors. The Servo
Motors which are used in a feedback control
system should have a linear relationship
between electrical control signal and rotor
speed, torque speed characteristic should be
linear, the response of the servo motor should
be fast and inertia should be low.
Servo Motors are of two types:
DC servomotors AC servomotors

AC servomotors ​•••• These

​
motors have two parts namely stator and rotor
.AC servomotors are two phase induction
motors. The stator has two distributed windings.
These windings are displaced from each other
by 90​0 ​electrical.one winding is called main
winding or reference winding. The reference
winding is excited by variable control voltage of
the same frequency as the reference winding
but having a phase displacement of 90​0
electrical. The variable control voltage for
control winding is obtained from the servo
amplifier.The direction of rotation off the rotor
can be reversed by reversing the phase
difference between control voltage and
reference voltage. Rotor can be a squirrel cage,
a drag cup or solid iron and the rotor diameter
is small to have low inertia . Excitation current
in the stator windings should have a phase
displacement of 90​0 ​. Normally, a fixed voltage
from a constant voltage source is applied to one
of the phases called the reference phase.
The other phase called the control phase is
energized by a voltage of variable magnitude
and polarity from a servo amplifier

AC servomotors ​•••
To achieve linear torque-speed characteristics,
the rotor resistance is made high so that X/R
ratio is small In a two phase servomotor,
polarity of the control voltage determines the
direction of rotation Torque T(t) and the angular
speed θ(t) of the rotor are functions of control
voltage vc(t)

AC servomotors
•​•••​Advantages:
Depending on the precision required,
you might not need a separate position
sensing feedback. Very rugged, low
maintenance. Might not need a
separate mechanical brake using
plugging. Should be lower initial cost.
Applications
• X-Y recorders
• Disc drives
• Tape drives
• Printers
DC servomotors
DC servomotors are separately excited or permanent
magnet d.c. servomotors. The armature of d.c.
servomotor has a large resistance, therefore torque
speed characteristic is linear. The torque speed
characteristics shows below
The DC servomotors can be controlled from
armature side or from field. In field controlled DC
servomotors the ratio of L/R is large i.e. The time
constant for field circuit is large, Due to function of
field controlled DC servomotor. The speed of he
motor can be controlled by adjusting the voltage
applied to the armture.in armature controlled DC
servomotor the time constant is small and hence the
response is fast. The efficiency is better than the field
controlled motor.

DC servomotors
Advantages:- The DC servo motor is
divided into a brushless and brushless

motor. The brush motor has low cost,

simple structure, large starting torque, wide

speed range and easy control. The

brushless motor is small in size, light in

weight, large in output, fast in response,

high in speed, small in inertia, smooth in

rotation and stable in torque.
Disadvantages: Maintenance is required,
but maintenance is inconvenient

(replacement of carbon brushes),

electromagnetic interference will occur, and

has strict with the environment

Tachometers
•​••••➢➢ Tachometers
​ are electromechanical
devices that convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy. An electromechanical device
producing an output voltage proportional to its
shaft speed is called a tachometer/
tachogenerator This is used as an analogue
speed indicator or velocity feedback device. In
control systems, most of the tachometers used
are of the dc variety; that is, the output voltage
is a dc signal. Two types:
DC tachogenerator AC tachogenerator

DC tachogenerator
DC tachogenerator
•​•••• The
​ DC tachometer works on the principle
that when the closed conductor moves in the
magnetic field, EMF induces in the conductor. The
magnitude of the induces emf depends on the flux
link with the conductor and the speed of the shaft.
The armature of the DC generator revolves
between the constant field of the permanent
magnet. The rotation induces the emf in the coil.
The magnitude of the induced emf is proportional
to the shaft speed. The commutator converts the
alternating current of the armature coil to the
direct current with the help of the brushes. The
moving coil voltmeter measures the induced emf.
The polarity of the induces voltage determines the
direction of motion of the shaft. The resistance is
connected in series with the voltmeter for
controlling the heavy current of the armature. The
emf induces in the dc tachometer generator is
given as
Where, E – generated voltage Φ – flux per poles
in Weber P- number of poles N – speed in
revolution per minutes Z – the number of the
conductor in armature windings. a – number of the
parallel path in the armature windings.

DC tachogenerator
Advantages
• Generated voltage has no

undesirable phase shift or ​wave

shape
• No temperature compensation
required
• No zero speed error
• Linear characteristics
Disadvantages:
• Wear & tear of brushes
• Commutator sparking produces

noise in generated ​voltage

• Output voltage requires low pass
filter
• Driving torque is required
AC tachogenerator
AC tachogenerator
•​••
The DC tachometer generator uses the
commutator and brushes which have many
disadvantages. The AC tachometer generator
designs for reducing the problems. The AC
tachometer has stationary armature and
rotating magnetic field. Thus, the commutator
and brushes are absent in AC tachometer
generator. The rotating magnetic field induces
the EMF in the stationary coil of the stator. The
amplitude and frequency of the induced emf are
equivalent to the speed of the shaft. Thus,
either amplitude or frequency is used for
measuring the angular velocity. The circuit is
used for measuring the speed of the rotor by
considering the amplitude of the induced
voltage. The induces voltages are rectified and
then passes to the capacitor filter for
smoothening the ripples of rectified voltages.

AC tachogenerator
•​•••••​Advantages The drag cup
Tachogenerator generates the

ripple free output voltage. The

​
cost of the generator is also very
less. Brushless operation Less
noise Disadvantage
The nonlinear relationship

obtains between the ​output

voltage and input speed when

the rotor rotates at high speed. A

​
demodulator is required
Incremental Encoder
•​•••• Incremental
​ encoders are frequently
found in modern control systems for
converting linear or rotary displacement
into digitally coded or pulse .signals. The
encoders that output a digital signal are
known as absolute encoders. In the
simplest terms, absolute encoders provide
as output a distinct digital code indicative of
each particular least significant increment
of resolution. Incremental encoders, on the
other hand, provide a pulse for each
increment of resolution but do not make
distinctions between the increments. the
incremental encoder's simplicity in
construction, low cost, ease of application,
and versatility have made it by far one of
the most popular encoders in control
systems. Incremental encoders are
available in rotary and linear forms.

Rotary Incremental
Encoder
Rotary incremental encoder Figure 4-59 Linear
incremental encoder (courtesy of DISC Instruments,
Inc.).

Rotary Incremental
Encoder
•​•
A typical rotary incremental encoder has four basic
parts: a light source, a rotary disk, a stationary
ma.sk, and a sensor The disk has alternate opaque
and transparent sectors. Any pair of these sectors
represents an incremental period. The mask is used
to pass or block a beam of light between the light
source and the photosensor located behind the
mask.

Linear Incremental
Encoder
Linear incremental encoder (courtesy of DISC
Instruments, Inc.).

Linear Incremental
Encoder
A linear incremental encoder has two digital
output signals, A and B, which issue quadrature
square waves. Depending on its internal
mechanism, an encoder may derive A and B
directly from sensors which are fundamentally
digital in nature, or it may interpolate its internal,
analogue sine/cosine signals. In the latter case,
the interpolation process effectively sub-divides
the scale period and thereby achieves higher
measurement resolution.

Synchros
1.​2.
The Synchro is a type of transducer which
transforms the angular position of the shaft into
an electric signal. It is used as an error
detector, encoder and as a rotary position
sensor. The error occurs in the system because
of the misalignment of the shaft. The transmitter
and the control transformer are the two main
parts of the synchro.
Control Type Synchros System The controls
synchros is used for error detection in positional
control systems. Their systems consist two units.
They are
Synchro Transmitter Synchro receiver The synchro
always works with these two parts

Synchro Transmitter
• Their construction is similar to the three phase alternator. The
stator of the synchros is made of steel for reducing the iron losses.
The stator is slotted for housing the three phase windings. The axis
of the stator winding is kept 120o apart from each other.

Synchro Transmitter
A single phase a.c. voltage is applied to the
rotor through slip rings.Let applied a.c. voltage
to the rotor is
Where E​r –​ r.ms.value of rotor voltage ω​0 –
​
carrier frequency Due to this applied voltage a
magnetizing current will flow in rotor coil. This
magnetizing current produces sinusoidally
varying flux and distributed in the air
gap.Becaause of Transformer action voltages
get induced in all stator coil which is
proportional to cosine of angle between stator
aand roto coil axes.
Now, consider the rotor of synchro transmitter is
at an angle θ,then voltaages in each stator coil
w.r.t. neutral are
Synchro Transmitter
When θ=0,the maximum induced
voltage will be E​an and
​ E​cb will
​ be zero.
This position of the rotor is defined as
electrical zero of he transmitter and is
used as the reference for indicating the
angualr position of the rotor. Thus, the
input to the synchro transmitter is the
angular position of the rotor shaft and
the output are the three single phase
voltages which are the function of the
shaft position.

Synchro as an Error
Detector
Synchro Control
Transformer
Principle of operation of synchro control transformer is
same as that of synchro transmitter. Rotor of synchro
control transformer is cylindrical type. synchro control
transformer I m electrochemical device. The combination of
synchro transmitter and synchro control transformer is used
as an error detector. The unction of error detector is to
convert the difference of two shaft positions into an
electrical signal.
The output of synchro transmitter is connected to the stator
winding of the synchro control transformer =.therefore the
same current will flow in the stator windings of synchro
control transformer but in opposite direction. The voltage
across the rotor terminals of control transformer is ​Where

Φ= angular displacement between the two rotor. When the

wo rotor are aat an angle 90​0 ​,the voltage

​ induced in control
transformer is zero. This position is known as electrical zero
position control transformer.
Let the transmitter rotate through an angle ‘θ’ in the
direction indicated aand let control transformer rotor rotates
in the same direction through an angle ‘α ‘ .Then
Put the value of Φ in the equation, we get
From above it is clear that when two rotor shafts are not in
alingnment, the rotor voltage of control transformer of
approximately a sine function of the difference between the
two shafts angles. For small angular displacement between
two rotor position

Operational
Amplifiers,
•​•••
Operational amplifiers, or simply op-amps, offer a
convenient way to build, implement, or realize
continuous-data or s-domain transfer functions. In
control systems, op-amps are often used to
implement the controllers or compensators that
evolve from the control system design process, so in
this section we illustrate common op-amp
configurations. An in-depth presentation of op-amps
is beyond the scope of this text. For those interested,
many texts are available that are devoted to all
aspects of op-amp circuit design and applications.
Our primary goal here is to show how to implement
first-order transfer functions with op-amps while
keeping in mind that higher-order transfer functions
are also important. In fact, simple high-order transfer
functions can be implemented by connecting
first-order op-amp configurations together.

Basic control
actionss
Types of basic control actions
• On – Off control (two position
control)
• Proportional control
(P-control)
• Integral control (I-control)
• Derivative control (D-control)
• Proportional-Integral control
(PI-control)
• Proportional-Derivative
control (PD-control)
•
Proportional-Integral-Derivativ

e control (PID- ​control)

On-Off control
The On Off Controller or two position controller is the
simplest, cheapest and the most used controllers. It
is used in domestic heating systems, refrigeration,
water tanks, etc. When the measured variable is
below the set point, the controller is ON and the
output signal has maximum value. When the
measured variable is above the set point, the
controller is OFF and output is zero.
Due to its simplicity, widely used in domestic and
industrial control system. Temp control in domestic
heating system, automatic electric iron etc When the
temp. is below the thermostat set point, heating is
switched on and when the temp. is above the set
point, heating is switched off

On-Off control
•​•••••
Control action:
• The o/p signal from the controller m(t), based on the
actuating error signal e(t), may be either at a maximum or
minimum value
• m(t) = m1(t) for e(t) > 0 = m2(t) for e(t) > 0
• ​Non-linear control actio

On-Off control
Neutral zone (Hysteresis)
• In practice, a differential gap is kept when the
controller o/p changes from one state to another
• This is done to avoid chattering effect and
corresponding wearing off of components
Applications
• Air-conditioning/room heating system
• Refrigerator temperature control system 5​• Liquid

bath temp. control

• Liquid-level control in tanks

Proportional control
Action
In a controller with proportional control action, there
is a continuous linear relation between the output of
the controller m (manipulated variable) and actuating
error=r signal e(deviation) Output signal m(t) is
proportional to error signal e(t). Mathematically,
m(t) = Kp e(t) ; Kp is the proportional gain constant
Taking Laplace transform: M(s) = Kp E(s)

Proportional control
Action
Proportional control Action:
Consider a liquid level control system.In this
system the float lever is directly connected to
the control valve. When the kevel of the liquid
rises, the sensitivity is proportional gain or
proportional sensitivity is proportional band and
is defined as the change in level controller is an
amplifier with adjustable gain.

Proportional control
Action
Advantages:
• Increases the loop gain
• Improves steady state
accuracy, disturbance signal
rejection Disadvantages:
• If gain is very large, system
may be oscillatory/unstable
• Steady state error does not
become zero
Integral control
Action
In a controller with integral control action, the
output o the controller I change at a rate which
is proportional to the actuating error signal e(t)
Mathematically,
Where K​i is
​ constant

Integral control
Action
Integral control
Action
Advantages:
• Eliminates steady state error in a type
zero system Disadvantages:
• In a type-1 system, I-controller leads
to instability
• Transient response is inferior
• There may be integral saturation
effect

Derivative control
Action
In controller with derivative control action the
output of the controller dependds on the rate of
change of actuating error signal e(t),
Mathematically,
Where K​d is
​ known ass the derivative gain
contnt Laplace transform of this equation is:

Derivative control Action

From the equation nit is clear that when
the error is zero or constant, the output
of the controller will be zero, Therefore
this type of controller cannot be used
alone. For this type o controller cannot
be used alone. For this type of
controller the gain should be very small.
The derivative control action also
known as rate control
Effect of derivative control

Derivative control
Action
Advantages:
• Feed forward control
• For a type zero system, damping

ratio increased, and ​O/s , settling

time reduced
• Fast reaction to any change in the
system
• Anticipates error and initiates an

early corrective ​action and stabilizes

the system
• Effective during transient period
Disadvantages:
• Steady state error is not
recognized
• Can not be used independently
• Very sensitive to noise signal
The proportional derivative controller produces an
output, which is the combination of the outputs of
proportional and derivative controllers.

Proportional-derivativ
e control
Proportional-derivativ
e control
Effects of PD-controller
• Damping factor improves and maximum overshoot
decreases
• Rise and settling time reduce
• Bandwidth increases
Proportional-Integral
control
In integral control action the actuating
signal consists of proportional error
signal with integral of the error signal.
The block diagram of integral control is
shown.
Effects of PI-controller
• Improving in damping and reduction in
overshoot
• Bandwidth increases
• Noise is filtered out
• Steady state error is zero

Proportional-Integral
control
Proportional-Integral-der
ivative control
The proportional integral
derivative controller produces an
output, which is the combination
of the outputs of proportional,
integral and derivative controllers.
The block diagram of the unity negative feedback
closed loop control system along with the
proportional integral derivative controller is shown in
the following figure.
Effects of PID-controller
Advantages of all three controllers are available

Proportional-Integral-der
 ivative control
​ an​k
Th
you!!​