Chapter-4

TRANSDUCERS
and
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
 Current, Voltage, and Resistance
Voltage: the charge (electron) “pusher.” Voltage causes current to flow/move.
Voltage sources:
 Battery
 Generator
 Outlets
Symbol for voltage = V
Unit for voltage = Volts (V)
Alessandro Volta (1745 – 1827) Voltage at Home
• Power utilities use large generators to provide the
• Italian physicist 120V that is delivered to your home outlets.
• known especially for the invention of the
electrochemical cell, aka the battery in 1800. • When you plug in something to the outlet (lamp,
blow dryer, TV, etc) the voltage is applied across the
circuit, allowing the charge to flow (electric current).
 Current
• Current: flow of charge (electrons) within a conductor or
how fast charge is moving.
• Charge will only flow if there is a voltage source (potential
difference).
• Symbol for Current = I
• Unit for Current = Amps (A)
André Ampère (1775 – 1836)
• French physicist and mathematician.
• One of the main discoverers of electromagnetism.
• SI unit of measurement of electric current, the
ampere, is named after him.
Current in Amps Effect on a person
0.001 Amps Can be felt
0.005 Amps Painful
0.010 Amps Involuntary muscle
spasms
0.015 Amps Loss of muscle control
0.070 Amps If through heart, serious injury,
likely fatal if it lasts more than
1 second
 Resistance
• Resistance: opposes the push from the voltage source. Resistance affects the
speed of the current.
Symbol for Resistance = R
Unit for Resistance = Ohms (Ώ)

Georg Ohm (1789 – 1854)

• German physicist
• Ohm determined that there is
a direct proportionality
between the voltage applied
across a conductor and the
electric current.
• This relationship is known as
Ohm's law.
• If the voltage in a circuit increases, the current will increase.
• If the voltage in a circuit decreases, the current will
decrease.
• This is a direct/proportional relationship.

Resistance and Current

• If the resistance in a circuit increases, the current will decrease.

• If the resistance in a circuit decreases, the current will increase.
• This is an inversely proportional relationship.
• State the relationship between current, voltage, and
resistance.
• German physicist George Ohm had the law named after him,
because of his extensive research.
• Voltage is equal to the current multiplied by the resistance.

Voltage, Current, measured

measured in in Amps, A
Volts, V

V=IR Resistance,
measured in Ohms,
Ω
 Measuring Voltage and Current

• d’Arsenval analog meter movement

8
 Analog Ammeter
• Use a d’Arsenval meter movement with a
parallel resistor (shunt).
• The parallel resistor diverts some of the
current away from the meter movement.

• Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in the milliampere or 9

microampere range, are designated as milliammeters or microammeters.
 Analog Voltmeter

• Use a d’Arsenval meter movement in series

with a resistor (multiplier).
• The resistor limits the voltage drop across the
meter movement.

10
 DISPLACEMENT MEASUREMENT
• Linear displacement may be measured by the following
transducers:
1. Resistive potentiometers 2. Strain gauges

3. Variable inductance transducers 4. Linear variable differential transducers (LVDT)

5. Capacitive transducers 6. Piezoelectric transducers

7. Hall effect transducers 8. Electronic transducers

9. Ionization transducers 10. Digital transducers

11. Acoustic transducers

• Assignment 2 : Clearly explain the working principles with neat

sketch of the above transducer types
 FLUID VELOCITY AND FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT
• In almost of the flow situation of engineering importance
measurements of fluid velocity, flow rate and flow quantity with
varying degree of accuracy are a fundamental necessity.
• Flow of material in a process or system can be measured by a
variety of methods of depending upon the material and its
condition, the type of flow, the volume, the pressure and
temperature range, the accuracy and the control required.
• The flowing medium may be liquid, a gas and a granular solid. The
flow may be a laminar or turbulent, steady – state or transient; in
flow measurement.
Flow measurement methods/devices:

The flow measurement devices are classified as follows:

1. Rate meters
2. Quantity meters
1. Rate meters: They measure either the volumetric flow rate directly or use
meters that measure velocity and the volume flow rate can then be calculated with
the help of cross-section.

(i) Inferential type: Inferential methods imply that the flow is not directly
measured but is inferred from the measurement of other quantities (e.g. pressure,
temperature etc.)

(ii) Absolute or positive displacement type: These meters basically capture and
release a fixed volume of fluid by some type of pumping action. They normally
count the number of cycles that occur and indicate or register an integrated flow
volume.
2. Quantity meters: These meters may be designed for the measurement of either
weight or volume. They may be absolute or displacement type. These are generally
cited as positive meters.

Rotameter:
A rotameter is a constant-pressure drop, variable area flow meter.
 Advantages:

• Simpler in operation.
• Handling and installation easy
• Wide variety of corrosive fluids can be handled.
• Possibility of convenient and visible flow
Limitations: comparisons by mounting several rotameters side
by side
 Mounted vertically, limited to small pipe sizes • Easily equipped with data transmission, indicating
and capacities and recording devices.
 Less accurate, compared to venturimeter and
orificemeter.
 Glass tubes subject to breakage.
 Turbine Meter
• A turbine type flow meter operates on the principle that when a turbine wheel is placed
in a pipe containing a flowing fluid, its rotary speed depends on the flow rate of fluid.
• The speed of turbine varies linearly with flow rate, if the bearing friction is reduced and
the losses are kept to a minimum.

• The turbine flow meter consists of freely rotating wheel (or propeller) with multiple
blades.
• The rotor (supported by ball or sleeve bearings) is located centrally in the pipe along
which flow occurs.
• The flowing fluid impinging on the turbine blades imparts a force on the blade surfaces
and sets the rotor in motion with an angular speed proportional to the fluid velocity.
• The rotor speed is measured with a mechanical counter or with an electromagnetic
pick up and associated counter.
• The electromagnetic pick up would be a small permanent magnet
mounted at the tip of one of the rotor blades with a coil being
placed just outside the tube.
• As the magnet moves past the coil, an e.m.f. is induced. Faster the
fluid flow the greater the counter per second. Each pulse
represents a definite flow quantity and the total number of pulse
may be taken as an indication of total flow.
Advantages: Disadvantages:

1. Good dynamic response 1. Relatively high cost

2. Easy to install and maintain 2. Errors may be caused by excessive frictional
3. Low pressure drop, good temperature and torques
pressure ratings 3. Errors arise on account of wear and corrosion
4. Good accuracy and excellent repeatability of bearing and this calls for special design of
5. Wide range commencing from 0.5 lpm to bearings.
15000 lpm for liquids and 3 lpm to 500000 lpm
for air.
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT:
 The temperature measuring instruments are based on changes in a broad range
of physical properties, among which are the following:

1. Change in physical dimensions: 4. Changes in emitted thermal

• Liquid – in – glass thermometers radiations:
• Bimetallic elements • Thermal and photon sensors
2. Changes in gas pressure or vapour • Total-radiation pyrometers
pressure: • Optical and two – colour pyrometers
• Constant – volume gas thermometers • Infrared pyrometers
• Pressure thermometers (gas, vapour 5. Changes in chemical phase:
and liquid filled) • Fusible indicators
3. Change in electrical properties: • Liquid crystals
Resistance thermometers (RTD, PRT) • Temperature – reference (fixed
• Thermistors points) cells.
• Thermocouples
• Semiconductor – junction sensors
 Bimetallic Thermometers
• The physical phenomenon employed in a bimetallic
temperature sensor is the differential thermal expansion of
two metals.
• Figure bellow shows the construction and response of a
bimetallic sensor to an input signal. The sensor is constructed
by bonding two strips of different metals, A and B.
• The resulting bimetallic strip may be in a variety of shapes,
depending on the particular application. Consider the simple
linear construction shown in Figure bellow.
• At the assembly temperature,T1, the bimetallic strip is
straight; however, for temperatures other thanT1the strip has a
curvature. The physical basis for the relationship between the
radius of curvature and temperature is given as
18
 19
Expansion thermometry using bimetallic materials: strip, spiral, and helix forms.
• The bimetallic thermometers are Advantages:
• Simple and robust
made with metals which have • Relatively less costly
widely different thermal expansion • Can withstand, in general, about 50% over range
coefficients. • Their accuracy range from 0.5% for laboratory
• Invar (an alloy of nickel and iron) is type to 2% for process type instruments
the most commonly used low Disadvantages:
• Temperatures indicated are not correct
expansion material. Its thermal • Not suitable for use at temperature above 400C
expansion coefficient remains for continuous duty or above 550C for
stable over a wide temperature intermittent duty.
range. Applications:
• Nickel – iron alloys with chromium • The bimetallic elements find wide applications in
simple thermometers in which deflection of the
and manganese added are often element is made to open or close electrical
used for thermal expansion contacts in the electrical heat supply to control a
materials. gas flow.
• In order to protect the bimetallic • As switching devices used in domestic ovens,
thermometers against wear and electric irons, car winkler lamps and the
refrigerators.
corrosion, they are usually • Used as compensator for ambient temperature
mounted in wells. change in the filled system thermometers,
aneroid barometers and in some watches as
balance wheel compensators.
 Optical Pyrometers
• An optical pyrometer works on the principle that Uses:
matters glow above 480C and the colour of visible  The optical pyrometer is widely used for accurate
radiation is proportional to the temperature of the measurement of temperature of
glowing matters. • Furnaces
• The amount of light radiated from the glowing matter • Molten metals
(solid or liquid) is measured and employed to • Other heated material
determine the temperature  This pyrometer has been accepted as the
Operation: standard means for determining temperatures
 The optical pyrometer is sighted at the hot body and on the International Temperature Scale.
focused
 In the beginning filament will appear dark as
compared to the background which is bright (being
hot)
 By varying the resistance (R) in the filament circuit
more and more current is fed into it, till filament
becomes equally bright as the background and hence
disappears.
 The current flowing in the filament at this stage is
measured with the help of an ammeter which is
calibrated directly in terms of temperature.
 If the filament current is further increased, the
filament appears brighter as compared to the
background which then looks dark.
 An optical pyrometer can measure temperature
ranging from 700 to 4000C.
 Advantages
• Excellent accuracy within 5C for the operating range 700 - 3000c
• No direct contact is necessary with the object whose temperature is to the measured.
• Thus this type of pyrometer can be used in situations where the measuring target is
remote and inaccessible such as furnace interiors, molten metal’s etc.
• Measurement is independent of the distance between the target and measuring
instrument.
• The skill in operating the thermometer can be acquired readily.

Disadvantages
 The lower measuring temperature is limited to 700C (The eye is insensitive to
wavelength characteristics below this temperature)
 Owing to the manual mull-balance operation of this pyrometer it is not suitable for
continuous reading or automatic control applications.
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT:
The pressure measurement 3. Instrument for measuring low
instruments can be categorized as vacuum and ultra high vacuum (760
follows: torr to 10-9 torr and beyond: 1 torr =
1. Instruments for measuring low 1 mm of Hg):
pressures (below 1 mm of Hg):  Mcleod
 Manometers  Thermal conductivity
 Low pressure gauges  Ionization gauges
2. Instruments for medium and high 4. Instruments for measuring very
pressures (between 1 mm of Hg to high pressures (1000 atmospheres
1000 atmospheres): and above):
 Bourdon tube  Bourdon tube
 Diaphragm gauges  Diaphragm gauges
 Bellow pressure gauge  Electrical resistance pressure
 Dead – weight pressure gauge gauges
5. Instruments for measuring varying
pressure:
 Engine indicator
 Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)
• A U-tube manometer consists of a glass (i) For positive pressure
Let A be the point at which pressure is to be measured
tube bend in U-shape one end of which X-X is the datum line as shown in figure (a).
is connected to a point at which Let
pressure is to be measured and other h1 = Height of the light liquid in the left limb above
end remains open to the atmosphere the datum line
as shown in figure. h2 = Height of the heavy liquid in the right limb above
the datum line
h = Pressure in pipe, expressed in terms of head
S1 = Specific gravity of the light liquid
S2 = Specific gravity of the heavy liquid
 The pressure in the left limb and right limb and
datum X-X are equal (as the pressure at two points
at the same level in a continuous homogeneous
liquid are equal).
 Pressure head above X-X in the left limb = h + h1S1
 Pressure head above X-X in the right limb = h2S2
 Equating these two pressure, we get
h + h 1 S 1 = h2 S 2
h = h 2 S 2 – h1 S 1

(ii) For negative pressure:

Refer the figure (b), Pressure head above X-X in the left limb = h + h1S1 + h2S2
Pressure head above X-X in the right limb = 0 and Equating these two pressures, we get
h + h 1 S1 + h 2 S2 = 0
(Or) h = - (h1S1 + h2S2).
2. Bellow gauges/elements: Advantages:
 The flexibility of bellows is directly  Simple and rugged construction
 Useful for measurement of low and medium
proportional to:
pressures
 The number of convolutions  Can be used for measurement of absolute,
 The square of outside diameter of gauge and differential pressure
the bellows (inversely proportional Disadvantages:
to the cube of wall thickness)  Need spring for accurate characterization
 Greater hysteresis and zero drift problems
 Young’s modulus of elasticity of
 Unsuitable for transient measurement due to
material. longer relative motion and mass
3. Diaphragm gauge: Advantages:
• This type of gauge employs a metallic disc or • Minimum hysteresis and no permanent zero
diaphragm instead of a bent tube. This disc or shift.
diaphragm is used for actuating the indicating • Can withstand high overpressures
device. • Can maintain good linearity over a wide range
• Figure shows; when pressure is applied on the lower • Gauge are available for absolute and
side of the diaphragm it is deflected upward. This differential-pressure measurements
movement of the diaphragm is transmitted to a rack • Relatively small size and moderate cost.
and pinion. The latter is attached to the spindle of
needle moving on a graduated dial. The dial can Disadvantages:
again be graduated in a suitable scale. • Difficult to repair
• Needs protection from shock and vibration
4. Thermocouple vacuum gauge:
 A thermocouple vacuum gauge operates on the
principle that at low pressure the thermal
conductivity of a gas is a function of pressure.
 Figure shows basic elements of a thermocouple
vacuum gauge. It consists of a heater element
(heated to a temperature of 50 to 400C by a
known constant current) having a thermocouple is
contact with its centre.
 The heater element and thermocouple are enclosed
in a glass or metal envelope which is sealed into the
vacuum system. Advantages:
 The heater elements are supplied with a constant 1. Inexpensive and rugged construction
electric energy and its temperature (which is a 2. No departure from linearity in the range 0.02
function of the heat loss and hence thermal to 1 mm of Hg.
conductivity or pressure of the surrounding gas) is 3. Convenient and continuous reading
measured by a thermocouple. 4. Possibility of remote reading from the system.
 The voltage measuring instrument can be directly 5. Possibility of process control with meter relay.
calibrated to read the pressure of the gas. Disadvantages:
 The thermocouple gauges of one type or another 1. Required electric power
are available to measure pressure in the range 10-4 2. Narrow reading range
to 1 torr. 3. Need for individual and frequent calibration for
different gases.
5. Recent trends – smart pressure transmitters:
• The microprocessors are now being  The transmitter senses all the three
used in transmitter also; as a parameters, ‘differential pressure’, ‘static
pressure’ and temperature effects and it
consequence of the availability of
computes a highly repeatable and accurate
computing power the transmitters pressure measurement.
have become more intelligent.
• The output in case of smart
Advantages of digital transmitters:
transmitters is 4 – 20 mA on 2 – wire
but with added capability of digital The major advantages of digital (so called ‘smart’)
communication from a hand-held transmitters over their conventional analog
counterparts are:
interface connected anywhere on 4 –  Increased range-ability (400:1 against 6:1 of
20 mA signal, the remote adjustment analog transmitters)
of the transmitter data base and  Higher accuracy
 Self-diagnostic facilities
acquisition diagnostic information to  Almost no drift with time
minimize loop downtime is possible.  Reduced cabling cost due to the use of a field
• It has high range-ability and much bus cuts.
better performance.
TORQUE MEASUREMENT • Gravity balance method
• Transmitting energy by rotation it necessary to
• This method is illustrated in figure; A mass ‘m’ is
apply a turning force. In case of a shaft it the moved along an arm until the value of the torque
force is applied tangentially and in the plane of exerted by the mass balances the unknown
transverse cross-section, the torque or twisting torque.
moment may be calculated by multiplying the
force with the radius of the shaft. Torque (T) = F x r
Where,
• The measurement of torque is carried out F = mg; Force exerted by the mass.
because of the reasons: (i) It is of considerable
interest for its own sake (knowing the
• This method utilizes the movement of a constant
magnitude); (ii) It is required to obtain load mass, m, over a variable distance. Alternatively,
information necessary for stress and deflection magnitude of the mass may be varied, keeping
analysis; (iii) It is often associated with the radius (r) constant.
determination of mechanical power.
• In both of the above cases, the arm must be kept
Torque Measurement Methods: horizontal so that arm distance is perpendicular
It can be measured by the following methods: to the line of action of force. Since the shaft is
supported at the bearing, there may be a friction
• Gravity balance method
torque (due to the force acting on the bearing)
• Mechanical torsion meter
leading to error in the measurement of torque.
• Optical torsion meter
• Electrical torsion meter • This error may be eliminated by arranging to
• Strain-gauge torsion meter apply equal and opposite force.
 Working: When the shaft is under torsion, gauges 1
and 4 will elongate as a result of the tensile
component of a pure shear stress on one diagonal
axis, while 2 and 3 will contract due to compressive
component on the other diagonal axis. The tensile and
compressive principal strains can be measured and
hence shaft torque calculated.

2. Strain – gauge torsion meter:

• Figure shows a general configuration of a strain
gauge bridge circuit widely employed for torque
measurement from a rotating shaft.

Construction: Four bonded – wire strain gauges are

mounted on a 45 helix with the axis of rotation; and
are placed in pairs diametrically opposite. When the
gauges are accurately placed and have matched
characteristics, the systems is temperature
compensated and insensitive to bending and thrust
or pull effects. Any change in the gauge circuit then
results only from torsional deflection.
Strain gauge torsion-meter
Advantages: This arrangement has the following • In such cases a flexible coupling is introduced in the
advantages: shaft. The coupling incorporates one or more elastic
members (elastic member may be a different shaft
• Fully temperature compensated or a commercial torque meter) to which the gauge
• Gives the maximum sensitivity for a given torque may be attached. The elastic members are so
• Provides automatic compensation for bending and designed that they produce sufficiently large
axial loads. deflection even under light load conditions. This
Limitation: large deflection produces large strains resulting in
• The main limitation/difficulty associated with the large output of the strain gauge bridge.
use of this arrangement is the connection of the ROTATIONAL SPEED MEASUREMENT:
bridge to its power source and display 1. Photoelectric Tachometer:
arrangement. Slip rings are used for this purpose. • It consists of an opaque disc mounted on the shaft
whose speed is to be measured. The disc has a
• These are conducting rings attached to the shaft, number of equivalent holes around the periphery.
but insulated from it, with one of the slip rings On one side of the disc there is a source of light (L)
connected to each of the bridge terminals. Slip while on the other side there is a light sensor (may
rings are mercury filled and transmit the signal to be a photosensitive device or photo-tube) in line
a stationary member where it is amplified and with it (light-source).
displayed or recorded. • On the rotation of the disc, holes and opaque
portions of the disc come alternate in between the
• Good results from the strain gauge method are light source and the light sensor. When a hole
available only when the shaft experiences comes in between the two, light passes through the
sufficient strain to produce a measurable output holes and falls on the light sensor, with the result
signal. In case the torque is small the gauge bridge that an output pulse is generated. But when the
will not give adequate output signal for opaque portion of the disc comes in between, the
measurement. light from the source is blocked and hence there is
no pulse output.
 • Thus whenever a hole comes in line with the
light source and sensor, a pulse is generated.
These pulses are counted/measured through an
electric counter.
The number of pulses generated depends upon the
following factors:
 The number of holes in the disc
 The shaft speed
 Since the numbers of holes are fixed, therefore,
the number of pulses generated depends on the
speed of the shaft only. The electronic counter
may therefore be calibrated in terms of speed
(r.p.m)

Advantage:
• It is a digital instrument
• Accurate
• No contact/ no friction

Disadvantage: It is required to replace the light

source periodically and if the grating period is small
then errors might creep in the output.
• Output voltage proportional to the speed of the shaft
FLUE – GAS COMPOSITION AND RADIATION  Consists of a water-jacketed measuring burette,
MEASUREMENT: connected in series to a set of three absorption
bulbs, each through a stop-cock.
 The other end is provided with a three-way stop-
1. ORSAT APPARATUS:
cock, the free end of which is further connected to a
U-tube packed with glass wool (for avoiding the
Introduction:
incoming of any smoke particles, etc.)
 The graduated burette is surrounded by a water-
• To have proper control on combustion process, an
jacket to keep the temperature of the gas constant
idea about complete or in complete combustion of
during the experiment.
fuel is made by the analysis of flue gas. Thus,
 The lower end of the burette is connected to a
water reservoir by means of a long rubber tubing.
(i) If the gases contain considerable amount of carbon
 The absorption bulbs are usually filled with glass
monoxide, it indicates that incomplete combustion is
tubes, so that the surface area of contact between
occurring (i.e. considerable wastage of fuel is taking
the gas and the solution is increased.
flue).
 The absorption bulbs have solutions for the
absorption of CO2, O2 and CO respectively.
 Also indicates the short supply of oxygen for
 First bulb has ‘potassium hydroxide’ solution (250g
combustion
KOH in 500mL of boiled distilled water), and it
absorbs only CO2.
(ii) If the flue gases contain a considerable amount of
 Second bulb has a solution of ‘alkaline pyrogallic
oxygen, it indicates the oxygen supply is in excess,
acid’ (25g pyrogallic acid+200g KOH in 500 mL of
though the combustion may be complete.
distilled water) and it can absorb CO2 and O2.
 Third bulb contains ‘ammonical cuprous chloride’
 The analysis of flue gases made with the help of
(100g cuprous chloride + 125 mL liquor
ORSAT’S APPARATUS.
ammonia+375 mL of water) and it can absorb CO2,
O2 and CO.
• Hence, it is necessary that the flue gas is passed first through potassium
hydroxide bulb, where CO2 is absorbed, then through alkaline pyrogallic acid
bulb, when only O2 will be absorbed ( because CO2 has already been removed)
and finally through ammonical cuprous chloride bulb, where only CO will be
absorbed.
Working:  For adjusting final volume, the three-way stop-cock is
STEP 1: opened to atmosphere and the reservoir is carefully
 The whole apparatus is thoroughly cleaned, raised, till the level of water in it is the same as in the
stoppers greased and then tested for air-tightness. burette, which stands at 100 mL mark. The three-way
stop-cock is then closed.
 The absorption bulbs are filled with their respective
solutions to level just below their rubber STEP 2:
connections. The stopper of the absorption bulb, containing caustic
 Their stop-cocks are then closed. The jacket and potash solution, is opened and all the gas is forced into
levelling reservoir are filled with water. this bulb by raising the water reservoir. The gas is again
 The three-way stop-cock is opened to the sent to the burette.
atmosphere and reservoir is raised, till the burette is This process is repeated several times to ensure
completely filled with water and air is excluded from complete absorption of CO2 [by KOH solution].
the burette. The unabsorbed gas is finally taken back to the burette,
 The three-way stop-cock is now connected to the till the level of solution in the CO2 absorption bulb
flue gas supply and the reservoir is lowered to draw stands at the constant mark and then, its stop-cock is
closed.
in the gas, to be analyzed, in the burette.
The levels of water in the burette and reservoir are
 The sample gas mixed with some air is present in
equalized and the volume of residual gas is noted.
the apparatus. So the three-way stop-cock is The decrease in volume-gives the volume of CO2 in 100
opened to the atmosphere, and the gas expelled mL of the flue gas sample.
out by raising the reservoir.
 This process of sucking and exhausting of gas is STEP 3:
repeated 3-4 times, so as to expel the air from the  The volumes of O2 and CO are similarly determined
capillary connecting tubes, etc. by passing the remaining gas through alkaline
 Finally, gas is sucked in the burette and the volume pyrogallic acid bulb and ammonical cuprous
of the flue gas is adjusted to 100 mL at atmospheric chloride bulb respectively.
pressure.  The gas remaining in burette after absorption of
CO , O and CO is taken as nitrogen.
Precautions: 2. GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY:
 The reagents in the absorption bulb 1, 2 and 3 are
brought to the etched mark levels one-by-one by  In gas chromatography (GC), the sample is
operating the reservoir bottle and the valve of each vaporized and injected onto the head of a
bulb. Then their respective valves are closed. chromatographic column. Elution is brought
 All the air in the reservoir bottle is expelled to about by the flow of an inert gaseous mobile
atmosphere by lifting the reservoir bottle and phase.
opening the three-way to atmosphere.  The mobile phase does not interact with
 The three-way is then connected to the flue gas molecule of the analyst; its only function is to
supply and the reservoir bottle is brought down, transport the analyst through the column.
until the level in the burette becomes zero (i.e., 100  Gas-liquid chromatography is based upon the
mL of gas is taken in the burette). The gas in the partition of the analyst between a gaseous
burette is expelled to the atmosphere to remove mobile phase and a liquid phase immobilized on
any air left in the joints, tubes, etc. This procedure is the surface of an inert solid.
repeated 2-3 times to ensure a right sample of the
gas taken for analysis.
 It is quite necessary to follow the order of absorbing
gases: CO2 first, O2 second and CO last. This is
because the absorbent used for O2 (i.e., alkaline
pyrogallic acid) can absorb only some CO2 and the
percentage CO2 left would be less; while the
percentage of O2 thus-detected would be more. The
absorbent used for CO2, however, does not absorb
O2 or CO2.
 The % CO in the flue gas is very small and this
should be measured quite carefully.
INSTRUMENTS FOR GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY:
Carrier Gas-Supply:
 Carrier gases, which must be chemically inert, include
helium, nitrogen, and hydrogen. Associated with the gas
supply are pressure regulators, gauges, and flow meters. In
addition, the carrier gas system often contains a molecular
sieve to remove water or other impurities.
Sample Injection System:
 Column efficiency requires that the sample be of suitable
size and be introduced as a “plug” of vapor; slow injection of
oversized samples causes band spreading and poor
resolution.
 The most common method of sample injection involves the
use of micro syringe to inject a liquid or gaseous sample Column Ovens:
through a self-sealing, silicone-rubber diaphragm or septum  Column temperature is an important
into a flash vaporizer port located at the head of the column variable that must be controlled to a few
(the sample port is ordinarily about 50oC above the boiling tenths of a degree for precise work. Thus,
point of the least volatile component of the sample). the column is ordinarily housed in a
Column Configurations: thermostated oven. The optimum column
temperature depends upon the boiling
 Two general types of columns are encountered in gas point of the sample and the degree of
chromatography, packed and open tubular, or capillary. separation required.
 Chromatographic columns vary in length from less than 2 m  Roughly, a temperature equal to or slightly
to 50 m or more. They are constructed of stainless steel, above the average boiling point of a sample
glass, fused silica, or Teflon. In order to fit into an oven for results in a reasonable elution time (2 to 30
thermostating, they are usually formed as coils having min). For samples with a broad boiling
diameters of 10 to 30 cm. range.
Detection Systems: Flame Ionization Detectors (FID):
Characteristics of the Ideal Detector: The ideal
detector for gas chromatography has the following  The flame ionization detector is the most widely
characteristics: used and generally applicable detector for gas
1. Adequate sensitivity chromatography.
2. Good stability and reproducibility.  The effluent from the column is mixed with
3. A linear response to solutes that extends over hydrogen and air and then ignited electrically.
several orders of magnitude.  Most organic compounds, when pyrolyzed at the
4. A temperature range from room temperature to temperature of a hydrogen/air flame, produce ions
at least 400oC. and electrons that can conduct electricity through
5. A short response time that is independent of flow the flame.
rate.  A potential of a few hundred volts is applied.
6. High reliability and ease of use.  The resulting current (~10-12 A) is then measured.
7. Similarity in response toward all solutes or a  The flame ionization detector exhibits a high
highly selective response toward one or more sensitivity (~10-13 g/s), large linear response range
classes of solutes. (~107), and low noise.
8. Nondestructive of sample.  A disadvantage of the flame ionization detector is
that it is destructive of sample.
STRAIN MEASURMENT: • Necessity to verify experimentally the strain in
complex physical systems (e.g. human skills and
• Strain is defined as the change in length of a line legs) where strain only be estimated approximately
segment between two points divided by the original even by the use of most rigorous analytical
length of the line segment. methods.
• For the strain measurement it is the usual practice
to make measurements over shortest possible Techniques of Strain Measurement:
gauge lengths.  The various techniques available for the
• This is owing to the fact the measurement of a measurement of mechanical strain are given
change in a finite length does not give the strain at below:
any fixed point, but rather the average value over 1. Photo – elasticity
the length. The strain at various points might be 2. Strain gauges
different depending upon the strain gradient along i. Non-electrical (good for static loads only)
the gauge length. a) Mechanical (10 micro-strain)
• A strain gauge is a device which is used to measure b) Optical (2 micro-strain)
dimensional change on the surface of a structural c) Photo-elastic (40 micro-strain)
member under test. ii. Electrical (good even under dynamic load
 The strain measurement is of significant importance conditions)
in a variety of applications due to the following • Resistance
reasons:  Metallic (0.5 micro-strain)
• To avoid the use of large factors of safety in the  Semiconductor (0.01 micro-strain)
design of aircraft and automatic control equipment • Capacitance/Inductance (Large mass and size,
due to consideration of mass/inertia. rugged in construction and retain calibration over
• Strain measurement utility as a means to determine large periods of time)
maximum stress values or in specialized transducers 3. Brittle lacquers (600 micro-strains)
to measure pressure, acceleration, force, torque etc.
Requirements of a Strain Gauge:  The most commonly used mechanical strain
A strain gauge should posses the following properties/ gauges are of Berry-type and Huggen berger
characteristics: type.
a) Cheaper, reliable and readily available  These are best suited only for use in static
b) Negligible mass and extremely small size tests
c) High speed of response, negligible time lag
d) Good response in unison with changes in surface to which Advantages:
it is fixed
e) Availability of gauges in variety of types and sizes suitable • Self-contained magnification system
for a wide range of applications • No auxiliary equipment required (as in
f) Capability to indicate static, transient and dynamic strain case of electrical strain gauges)
g) High sensitivity in the direction of measured strain but
low sensitivity in the transverse plane. Disadvantages:
h) Insensitiveness to ambient conditions (e.g., temperature,
humidity, vibration etc) • Owing to high inertia of the gauge, it is
i) Simply and easy attachment to the specimen under test. unsuitable for dynamic measurements and
j) Non-interference with the stiffness and other varying strains
characteristics of the member over which it is mounted • Slow response (due to high inertia)
• No arrangement for recording the readings
1. Mechanical Strain Gauges: automatically
 In these gauges the magnification is carried out by • Non availability of adequate surface area
mechanical means. In the initial stage an extensometer of on the test specimen and clearance above it to
single mechanical lever type having a magnification of accommodate the gauge together with its
10:1 was developed; it used to work on a long gauge mounting fixture.
length. Later on, extensometers employing compound
levers (dial gauges) having a magnification of 2000:1 were
introduced; these operated on small gauge lengths.
2. Optical Strain Gauges:

In these gauges some form of optical lever is employed to measure small displacements.
• The most commonly used gauge of this type was developed by L.B. Tuckerman. It consists of an
“extensometer” (made of steel or aluminium alloy) and an “autocollimator”. The gauge length of
extensometer is adjustable one varying from 6 to 380 mm in steps of 6 mm.
o The main advantage of this instrument is that the position of collimator need not be fixed relative to
extensometer and reading can be taken by holding the collimator in hand.
o This gauge is satisfactory only for static measurements and suffers from the drawbacks inherent in all
mechanical systems, if used for dynamic measurements. Also, it cannot be used at those places where
large strain gradients are encountered.

o An interferometer type of gauge is the true optical gauge. Its working principle is based on the fact that
interference fringes are produced when two rays of some wavelength and intensity undergo a path
difference of half wavelength of light, before combining.
 This type of gauge is generally not used due to its high sensitivity
This gauge can be used:
 To find change in thickness of photo elastic models
 To determine Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio in laboratories
3. Semiconductor or peizo resistive gauges:  Low hysteresis
The semiconductor gauges are produced in wafers  Range 1/4% of strain with accuracy of 2.3%;
from silicon or germanium crystals in which exact linearity is poor 0.75% over 1/10 full scale and
amount of special impurities such as boron, 20% over full scale.
phosphorus etc, have been added to impart certain  Brittle and unsuitable for large strain
desirable properties. The process is called doping and measurement.
the crystals are known as doped crystals. The
Uses: These gauges find their greatest usage in high
resistance of strain gauges constructed of n-type silicon
output transducers such as load cells and pressure
decreases with an increase in tensile strain; p-type
cells where circuit compensation techniques can be
gauges undergo increase in resistance as tensile strain
used to minimize the adverse effects of temperature
increases.
sensitivity and non-linearity.
 Since the breaking stress of the material rises with
the decrease in cross-sectional area, therefore,
these gauges are constructed in the thinnest
possible cross-section and as such can be bent to
much smaller radius of curvature without fracture.
The gauge is in the form of a single rectangular
element about 0.05 mm thick by 0.25 mm wide and
1.5 mm to 12 mm in length.
Characteristics of semiconductor gauges:
 Very high sensitivity (in comparison to metal
gauges)
 High gauge factor in the range of 100 to 200. By
proper doping of the silicon semiconductor crystal,
gauge factor can be varied from – 100 to 150. The
gauge factor however is generally not constant and
varies with strain and temperature
Thank you