HISTORIA DE LA EVOLUCIÓN DE LA DIDÁCTICA DE LAS LENGUAS EXTRANJERAS: DE LOS

MÉTODOS DE GRAMÁTICA TRADUCCIÓN A LOS ENFOQUES ACTUALES

13.HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIDACTICS OF FOREIGN

LANGUAGES: FROM THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION TO CURRENT
APPROACHES
0. INTRODUCTION
1. FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING BEFORE FERDINAND DE SAUSSARE AND
JAMES WATSON
1.1. THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD
1.2. THE ALTERNATIVE TO THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD
1.2.1. THE NATURAL METHOD
1.2.2. THE DIRECT METHOD
1.2.3. THE BERLITZ TECHNIQUE
1.2.4. THE ORAL METHOD
2. THE INFLUENCE OF STRUCTURALISM AND BEHAVIOURISM ON FOREGIN
LANGUAGE TEACHING
2.1. A.S.T.P.
2.2. THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD
2.3. SITUATIONAL LANGUAGE TEACHING
3. THE INFLUENCE OF GENERATIVISM AND COGNITIVISM: THE HUMANISTIC
APPROACH
3.1. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
3.2. OTHER HUMANISTIC METHODS
3.2.1. SUGGESTOPEDIA
3.2.2. THE SILENT WAY
3.2.3. COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING
3.2.4. TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
3.2.5. NATURAL APPROACH
3.2.6. TASK-BASED APPROACH
4. NEW TENDENCIES IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING
4.1. CLIL
4.2. COOPERATIVE LEARNING
4.3. LEARNER CENTEREDNESS
5. CONCLUSION
HISTORIA DE LA EVOLUCIÓN DE LA DIDÁCTICA DE LAS LENGUAS EXTRANJERAS: DE LOS
MÉTODOS DE GRAMÁTICA TRADUCCIÓN A LOS ENFOQUES ACTUALES

1. INTRODUCTION
Along this theme we are going to see the evolution of the methodology of F.L.T., from
the foundation of the Grammar- Translation method to today’s approaches.
As we shall observe, the influence of the main methods in the past can be seen in
today’s ones. We are going to study today’s main approach: the communicative approach.
The Council of Europe incorporated the communicative approach into a set of
specifications for a First Level Communicative Syllabus called Threshold Level English
(the English that people need to be able to communicate). These specifications have had a
strong influence on the design of communicative or functional language programmes and
textbooks in Europe. Spain has not been an exception, and Communicative Language
teaching has become one of the pillars of English methodology in the current educational
law. (ESPECIFICAR)
2. FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING BEFORE FERDINAND DE SAUSSARE
AND JAMES WATSON
2.1. THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD
The grammar-translation method was based on the study of written texts, focusing
on their grammar and vocabulary. It mains procedures consisted in memorising lists of
words and their translations into the mother tongue, learning a grammatical rule and
applying it deductively, etc.
Its original aim, both in Greece or Middle Ages, was the study of classical literature
and its language, and thus we can understand their focusing on literary texts with
teaching purposes.
The problem for this method, then and today is that it is not the most indicated
method for many learners those who are not so interested in formal aspects of language,
and those others not so gifted for academic intellectual study. The main deficiency of
this method was the lack of attention paid to the communicative aspects of language, in
general, and to oral language, in particular, which are most important in today’s
approach and objectives of F.L.T.
2.2. THE ALTERNATIVE TO THE GRAMMAR-TRANSALTION METHOD
2.2.1. THE NATURAL METHODS
The Natural method was a teaching revolution in the second half of the 19 th
century, as it was based on a completely different conception of language and, as its
name indicates, on a naturalistic model of language learning. It tried to put the
learner in a situation as similar as possible to that of a baby acquiring his mother
tongue. Its objective was that learners were able to use language functionally to
communicate with foreign speakers.
According to Chomsky’s terminology, we might say that they intended to teach
HISTORIA DE LA EVOLUCIÓN DE LA DIDÁCTICA DE LAS LENGUAS EXTRANJERAS: DE LOS
MÉTODOS DE GRAMÁTICA TRADUCCIÓN A LOS ENFOQUES ACTUALES

competence through performance.

2.2.2. THE DIRECT METHOD
It is the most widely known of the natural methods.
Lessons begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the
target language. Material is first presented orally with actions or pictures. The other
tongue is never used, so there is no translation. The preferred type of exercise is a
series of questions in the target language based on the dialogue and grammar is
taught inductively.
2.2.3. THE BERLITZ TECHNIQUE
At the end of the 19 th century there was a growing interest in learning foreign
languages. Maximiliam Berlitz founded a school with his made in Rhode Island in
1878. It was immensely successful and by 1914 it had around 200 schools in
Europe and America and there are still some schools using his method.
Berlitz left the teaching in charge of young native teachers who did not speak
the learners’ mother tongue, in order to avoid the possibility of using it within the
classroom. The basic technique consisted in the use of questions and answers, using
dialogues. Grammar was learned inductively, though some explanations were given
when the course was quite advanced. Though the pre-eminency was given to oral
language, reading and writing were also worked in class.
2.2.4. THE ORAL METHOD
H.H. Palmer, one of the advocates of the Direct method, complained that the
procedures used to work on meaning were confusing, and on some occasions, less
efficient than simple translation. He argued that sts needed too much time to learn
the vocabulary through context, and so they resorted to translation, so why not
using translation as a teaching tool?
According to these ideas, Palmer developed the Oral method, also known as the
Compromise method, keeping the main characteristics of the Direct method, but
avoiding its extremes. The basic reason to defend it was that a st of a f.l. would
never be at the same learning situation as a child acquiring his mother tongue, so he
would tend to use his linguistic habits and knowledge gained with it, giving place to
the phenomena of linguistic transference and interference.
3. THE INFLUENCE OF STRUCTURALISM AND BEHAVIOURISM ON F.L.T.
As we saw in theme 6, the concept and methodology of f.l.t. evolve deeply due to the
influence of the recent development of linguistics.
Structuralism changed the concept of language itself. Saussure conceived language as
an organisation of concepts, different in every language. He dedicated his study to how
language is structured. Leopold Bloomfield’s work was decisive for the development of
HISTORIA DE LA EVOLUCIÓN DE LA DIDÁCTICA DE LAS LENGUAS EXTRANJERAS: DE LOS
MÉTODOS DE GRAMÁTICA TRADUCCIÓN A LOS ENFOQUES ACTUALES

different structuralist foreign language teaching methods that gave place to other methods,
such as the Audio-lingual, as we are going to see below.
The main problem that structuralist methods presented was that learners were able to
use language within the classroom, in situation with controlled language, but they were not
able to communicate in ordinary life situations. Another criticism addresses their methods,
as drilling is a tiring and boring practice, which does not contribute to the sts’ motivation.
3.1. A.S.T.P.
With World War Two, the U.S. Army needed to teach foreign languages with the
purpose of preparing its personnel to develop tasks in the occupied places (Europe,
Japan…) They asked for the help of linguists to design a new learning method, as
traditions ones were too slow.
Bloomfield was one of the principle linguists responsible for the Army Specialized
Trainning Programme, designed according to the structuralist conception of language.
The method basically consisted of a combination of Berlitz’s technique,
incorporating some mechanical aids and some theorical innovations. It was an intensive
method: in a very short time- span (6-8 weeks), the learners acquired an extraordinary
fluency, with an excellent language proficiency level and accent. But this was a failure
when the same concept was applied to ‘civil’ sts, as they did not receive the same
amount of hours of class, the teachers were not so qualified, the groups were usually
bigger, etc. And what is more important, these sts lacked the soldiers’ strong
motivation.
3.2. THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD
As we have explained, after the war, new and different teaching methods were
developed. The Audio-lingual method is an example of these attemps.
New material is presented in the form of dialogue. Based on the principle that
language learning is habit formation, the method fosters dependence on mimicry,
memorization of set phrases and over-learning. Structural patterns are taught using
repetitive drills. Little or no grammatical explanation are provided: grammar is taught
inductively and the skills are sequenced: listening, speaking, reading and writing are
developed in order.
According t the behaviourist princoples, there was a strong emphasis on error
prevention, and the sts’ mistakes were immediately corrected when they occurred.
3.3. SITUATIONAL LANGUAGE TEACHING
S.L.T. received the influence of Systematic Grammar, through the works of the
British linguists J.R. Firth and of his follower Hallyday.
Firth made special emphasis on the unity of language and social activity. He
developed three major categories in which language events can be described: the verbal
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MÉTODOS DE GRAMÁTICA TRADUCCIÓN A LOS ENFOQUES ACTUALES

and non-verbal action of the participants in the event, relevant objects and the
observable effect of the verbal action.
S.L.T. acquires an additional importance if we consider it as bridge between the
structuralist methods and the communicative approach.
4. THE INFLUENCE OF GENERATIVISM AND COGNITIVISM: THE
HUMANISTIC APPROACH
The apparition of Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structures (1957) and his other works
gave birth to Generativism, a linguistic theory that criticised the foundations of the
structuralist and behaviourist linguistic approach.
But Chomsky’s concept of competence, which referred only to linguistic aspects, was
criticised by authors such as Hallyday or Hymes. They claimed that other non-linguistic
aspects were necessary in order to explain anyone’s communicative performance,
developing in this way the concept of c.c.
4.1. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
C.L.T. must be considered more an approach than a method, as there are different
practical proposals, based on a broad range of learning theories, that can be included
here. We are going to see the most influential ones. They are based on the
implementation of activities that provide real communication within the classroom,
designed to develop meaningful tasks, through which the sts use meaningful language.
THE FUNCTIONAL-NOTIONAL APPROACH: The concept of notion
was introduced by Wilkins in this method, referring to the basic aspects that students
must learn (time, space, quantity,..)
Functions refer to the communicative objectives that the students must carry
out ( ex: asking for information, expressing emotions, possibility,..)
So the aim is: starting from the notions, we are going to organise the curriculum
through situations, (that is functions). Ex: Considering the notion of time, students have
to express temporary notions, for example present, so the functions referring to the time
could be that students are able to talk about habitual actions.
The 4 LINGUISTIC SKILLS, are considered, working on the oral language
before written, & on receptive skills before productive skills.
THE THRESHOLD LEVEL: The Threshold Level was the first attempt to set
out the situations the learners might have to deal with and what they should be able to
do by means of language in those situations - what feelings and ideas they would need
to express, or ask about, or argue. It main aim is that sts are able to use the foreign
language to fulfill general instructions.
4.2. OTHER HUMANISTIC METHODS
All the methods we are going to comment below put a specia emphasis on the
consideration of human values in teaching and learning methods and imply a change in
the teachers’ and sts’ role, as these take a decisive part in setting the objectives and
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methodology of the programming.

4.2.1. SUGGESTOPEDIA: based on psychological research, Lozanov began to
develop a language learning method that focused on the limitations learners
think they have, and providing the sort of relaxed state of mind that would
facilitate the retention of material to its maximum potential. One of the
most unique characteristics of the method was the use of soft Baroque
music during the learning process (in order to facilitate the intake and
retention of huge quantities of material).
4.2.2. THE SILENT WAY: it begins by using a set of coloured rods and verbal
commands in order to avoid the use of everyday speech. It main aims are to
create simple linguistic situations that remain under the complete control of
the teacher and to pass on to learners the responsibility for the utterances of
the descriptions of the objects shown or the actions performed.
4.2.3. COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING: is a language-teaching
approach in which students work together to develop what aspects of a
language they would like to learn. It is based on the Counselling-approach
in which the teacher acts as a counsellor and a paraphraser, while the
learner is seen as a client and collaborator.
4.2.4. TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE: James Asher developed the T.P.R.. It
is a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and
action. Its basic principles are:
-understanding the spoken language before developing the skills of
speaking;
-imperatives are the main structures to transfer or communicate
information;
-the st is not forced to speak, but is allowed to spontaneously begin
to speak when s/he feels comfortable and confident in understanding and
producing the utterances.
4.2.5. NATURAL APPROACH: communicative activities are predominant,
focusing on a wide range of activities including games, role-plays,
dialogues, group work and discussions. There are 3 generic states identified
in the approach:
1. PREPRODUCTION: developing listening skills;
2. EARLY-PRODUCTION: sts struggle with the language and
make many errs which are corrected based on content and not structures;
3. EXTENDING PRODUCTION: promoting fluency through a
variety of more challenging activities.
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MÉTODOS DE GRAMÁTICA TRADUCCIÓN A LOS ENFOQUES ACTUALES

4.2.6. TASK-BASED APPROACH: it is an overall approach to language

learning that consider the tasks that learners do as ventral to the learning
process, which is seen as a set of communicative tasks that are directed
linked to curricular goals and objectives.
5. NEW TENDENCIES IN F.L.T.
To conclude with this topic, we are going to present some new tendencies in language
teaching:
5.1. CLIL
CLIL (Content Language Integrated Learning) aims to indroduce sts to new ideas
and concepts in traditional curriculum subject, using the f.l. as the medium of
communication, in other words, to enhance the sts’ learning experience by exploiting
the synergies between two subjects.
A successful CLIL lesson should combine elements of the 4 principles below:
1. CONTENT: progression in knowledge, skills and understanding
related to specific elements of a defined curriculum;
2. COMMUNICATION: using language to learn, whilst learning
to use language;
3. COGNITION: developing thinking skills which link concept
formation, understanding and language;
4. CULTURE: exposure to alternative perspectives and shared
understandings, which deepen awareness of otherness and self.

5.2. COOPERATIVE LEARNING

It is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with sts of different
levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a
subject.
The conditions under which cooperative learning is successful are the following:
1. POSITIVE INTERDEPENDENCE: each group member has a
unique contribution;
2. FACE-TO-FACE INTERACTION: pupils explain, discuss, and
connect new knowledge to the already acquired;
3. INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP ACCOUNTABILITY: it is
important to work in small groups;
4. INTERPERSONAL AND SMALL-GROUP SKILLS: social
skills like leadership, decision making or communication must
be taught;
5. GROUP PROCESSING: group members discuss how well they
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are achieving their goals and manteining effective working

relationships.
5.3. LEARNER CENTEREDNESS
To create an effective learning situation in the classroom 3 characteristics are
needed:
1. The atmosphere should facilitate the exploration of meaning.
Learners must feel safe and accepted;
2. Learners must be given frequent opportunities to confront new
information and experiences in the search for meaning;
3. New meaning should be acquired through a process of personal
discovery.
One other tendency, which will not be explained here, is language teaching online.
There are infinite possibilities to use computers in language teaching.
6. CONCLUSION
To conclude this topic, we should keep in mind the changes that F.L.T. has experienced
since its beginning and is still suffering. Through the years and based in the previous methods
and its results, different approaches and methodologies have been developed, always trying to
improve old ones, since it was considered that there was a lack of communication. And while
these theories were being created, a new goal for F.L.T. was established and it has been the
same until the date. This goal is established by the current law and it consists in communication
r, in other words, in achieving c.c. as we previously mentioned.
As teachers we must take into account the guideline offered by the Canarian
Government’s cv. However, to reach this goal we do not have to decide on just one
methodology, since we should choose the proper one after analysing our sts and the teaching
context. Furthermore, we must always be ready to change methods and techniques during the
teaching process if we consider that we are not getting the desired effects.
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MÉTODOS DE GRAMÁTICA TRADUCCIÓN A LOS ENFOQUES ACTUALES

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