An Assignment On,

“Friction”
Course Name: General Science and Environment
Course Code: 110

Submit To,
Dr. Md. Aftab Ali Shaikh
Professor
Department of Chemistry
University of Dhaka

Submit By,
Wasi-Ur-Rahaman Wasik
ID: 024-216
BBA Program(26th Batch), 2019-20
Department of Management
University of Dhaka

Date of Submission,
14th January, 2021
 1. Introduction

Frictional forces are unavoidable in our daily lives. If we were not able to counteract them, they
would stop every moving object and bring to a halt every rotating shaft. About 20% of the gasoline
used in an automobile is needed to counteract friction in the engine and in the drive train. On the
other hand, if friction were totally absent, we could not get an automobile to go anywhere, and we
could not walk or ride a bicycle. We could not hold a pencil, and, if we could, it would not write.
Nails and screws would be useless, woven cloth would fall apart, and knots would untie. In this
report, there will be discussion about friction and it’s types and finally experiments and properties
of friction.

2. Friction

Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material
elements sliding against each other. Frictional resistance to the relative motion of two solid
objects is usually proportional to the force which presses the surfaces together as well as the
roughness of the surfaces.
Ffriction = μN
Where N is normal force, μ is the coefficient of friction.

Figure 1: Simulated blocks with fractal rough surfaces, exhibiting static frictional interactions.

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3. Friction Concepts

Figure 2: Friction Concepts (Shaikh)

4. Friction and Surface Roughness

Figure 3: Friction and Surface Roughness

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 5. Various Types of Friction
There are various types of friction:
(a) Dry friction: It resists relative lateral motion of two solids in contact. Dry friction is
subdivided into static friction between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction between
moving surfaces
(b) Fluid friction: It describes the friction between layers within a viscous fluid that are
moving relative to each other
(c) Lubricated friction: It is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid
surfaces.

6. Dry Friction
Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. The two regimes of
dry friction are 'static friction' between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction (sometimes
called sliding friction or dynamic friction) between moving surfaces.
Coulomb friction, named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, is an approximate model used to
calculate the force of dry friction. It is governed by the model:
Ff ≤ μFN
Where,

• Ff is the force of friction exerted by each surface on the other. It is parallel to the surface,
in a direction opposite to the net applied force.
• μ is the coefficient of friction, which is an empirical property of the contacting materials,
• FN is the normal force exerted by each surface on the other, directed perpendicular
(normal) to the surface.

7. Fluid Friction
Fluid friction occurs between fluid layers that are moving relative to each other. This internal
resistance to flow is named viscosity. In everyday terms, the viscosity of a fluid is described as
its "thickness". Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a
higher viscosity. The less viscous the fluid, the greater its ease of deformation or movement.
All real fluids (except superfluids) offer some resistance to shearing and therefore are viscous.
For teaching and explanatory purposes it is helpful to use the concept of an inviscid fluid or
an ideal fluid which offers no resistance to shearing and so is not viscous.

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 8. Lubricated friction
Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid surfaces.
Lubrication is a technique employed to reduce wear of one or both surfaces in close proximity
moving relative to each another by interposing a substance called a lubricant between the
surfaces.
In most cases the applied load is carried by pressure generated within the fluid due to the
frictional viscous resistance to motion of the lubricating fluid between the surfaces. Adequate
lubrication allows smooth continuous operation of equipment, with only mild wear, and without
excessive stresses or seizures at bearings. When lubrication breaks down, metal or other
components can rub destructively over each other, causing heat and possibly damage or failure.

9. Coefficient of friction (μ)

The coefficient of friction, often symbolized by μ, is a dimensionless scalar value which

describes the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies and the force pressing them
together. It depends on the materials used; for example, ice on steel has a low coefficient of
friction. It has range from zero to greater than one. For surfaces at rest relative to each other,
where is the coefficient of static friction. For surfaces in relative motion, where is the coefficient
of kinetic friction.

Figure 4: Coefficient of friction (μ)

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 10. Static Friction
Static friction is friction between two or more solid objects that are not moving relative to each
other. For example, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a sloped surface. Its
coefficient is denoted by μs, is usually higher than that of kinetic friction.

Figure 5: Static friction

11. Kinetic friction

Kinetic friction occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other. Its coefficient is
denoted by μk.

Figure 6:Kinetic friction

The friction force between two surfaces after sliding begins is the product of the coefficient of
kinetic friction and the normal force: Fk = μkFn.

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 12. Energy of Friction
According to the law of conservation of energy, no energy is destroyed due to friction, though it
may be lost to the system of concern. Energy is transformed from other forms into thermal
energy. A sliding hockey puck comes to rest because friction converts its kinetic energy into heat
which raises the thermal energy of the puck and the ice surface. Since heat quickly dissipates,
many early philosophers, including Aristotle, wrongly concluded that moving objects lose
energy without a driving force.
When an object is pushed along a surface along a path C, the energy converted to heat is given
by a line integral, in accordance with the definition of work

Where,
Ffric is the friction force,

Fn is the vector obtained by multiplying the magnitude of the normal force by a unit
vector pointing against the object's motion,

μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction, which is inside the integral because it may vary
from

x location to location (e.g. if the material changes along the path), is the position of the
object.
Energy lost to a system as a result of friction is a classic example of
thermodynamic irreversibility.

12.1 Work of friction

In the reference frame of the interface between two surfaces, static friction does no work,
because there is never displacement between the surfaces. In the same reference frame, kinetic
friction is always in the direction opposite the motion, and does negative work. However, friction
can do positive work in certain frames of reference. One can see this by placing a heavy box on a
rug, then pulling on the rug quickly. In this case, the box slides backwards relative to the rug, but
moves forward relative to the frame of reference in which the floor is stationary. Thus, the
kinetic friction between the box and rug accelerates the box in the same direction that the box
moves, doing positive work.
The work done by friction can translate into deformation, wear, and heat that can affect the
contact surface properties (even the coefficient of friction between the surfaces). This can be

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beneficial as in polishing. The work of friction is used to mix and join materials such as in the
process of friction welding. Excessive erosion or wear of mating sliding surfaces occurs when
work due to frictional forces rise to unacceptable levels. Harder corrosion particles caught
between mating surfaces in relative motion (fretting) exacerbates wear of frictional forces. As
surfaces are worn by work due to friction, fit and surface finish of an object may degrade until it
no longer functions properly. For example, bearing seizure or failure may result from excessive
wear due to work of friction.

12.2 Friction plot

Figure 7: Friction plot

13. Applications
Friction is an important factor in many engineering disciplines.

13.1 Transportation
i. Automobile brakes inherently rely on friction, slowing a vehicle by converting its
kinetic energy into heat. Incidentally, dispersing this large amount of heat safely is
one technical challenge in designing brake systems. Disk brakes rely on friction
between a disc and brake pads that are squeezed transversely against the rotating disc.
In drum brakes, brake shoes or pads are pressed outwards against a rotating cylinder
(brake drum) to create friction. Since braking discs can be more efficiently cooled
than drums, disc brakes have better stopping performance.
ii. Rail adhesion refers to the grip wheels of a train have on the rails.
iii. Road slipperiness is an important design and safety factor for automobiles:

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 -Split friction is a particularly dangerous condition arising due to varying friction
on either side of a car.
-Road texture affects the interaction of tyres and the driving surface.

13.2 Measurement

• A tribometer is an instrument that measures friction on a surface.

• A profilograph is a device used to measure pavement surface roughness.

13.3 Household usage

• Friction is used to heat and ignite matchsticks (friction between the head of a matchstick and
the rubbing surface of the match box).
• Sticky pads are used to prevent object from slipping off smooth surfaces by effectively
increasing the friction coefficient between the surface and the object.

14. Basic Problems

P1: A mass is resting on a flat surface which has a normal force of 98 N, with a coefficient of
static friction of 0.35. What force would it take to move the object?
Solution:
We know that,
Fs = µs x N
Here,
N = 98 N and µs = 0.35
Then,
Fs = 98 N x 0.35 = 34.3 N
P2: A 15 kg piece of wood is placed on top of another piece of wood. There is 35 N of static
friction measured between them. Determine the coefficient of static friction between the two
pieces of wood.
Solution:
We know that,
Fs = µs x N,
Here,

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N = 15 kg x 9.81 m/s2 = 147.15 N,
Fs = 35N, µs = 35/147.15 = 0.24

15. Experiments

Here we deal with the frictional forces that exist between dry solid surfaces, either stationary
relative to each other or moving across each other at slow speeds. Consider three simple thought
experiments:

i. Send a book sliding across a long horizontal counter. As expected, the book slows and
then stops. This means the book must have an acceleration parallel to the counter surface,
in the direction opposite the book’s velocity. From Newton’s second law, then, a force
must act on the book parallel to the counter surface, in the direction opposite its velocity.
That force is a frictional force.
ii. Push horizontally on the book to make it travel at constant velocity along the counter.
Can the force from you be the only horizontal force on the book?
No, because then the book would accelerate. From Newton’s second law, there must be a
second force, directed opposite your force but with the same magnitude, so that the two
forces balance. That second force is a frictional force, directed parallel to the counter.
iii. Push horizontally on a heavy crate. The crate does not move. From Newton’s second law,
a second force must also be acting on the crate to counteract your force. Moreover, this
second force must be directed opposite your force and have the same magnitude as your
force, so that the two forces balance. That second force is a frictional force. Push even
harder. The crate still does not move. Apparently the frictional force can change in
magnitude so that the two forces still balance. Now push with all your strength. The crate
begins to slide. Evidently, there is a maximum magnitude of the frictional force. When
you exceed that maximum magnitude, the crate slides.

Two Types of Friction. Figure 8 shows a similar situation. In Fig. 8a, a block rests on a tabletop,
with the gravitational force balanced by a normal force .
In Fig. 8b, you exert a force on the block, attempting to pull it to the left. In response, a
frictional force is directed to the right, exactly balancing your force. The force is called the
static frictional force. The block does not move.

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Figure 8

Figure 9

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Here,
(a) The forces on a stationary block. (b–d) An external force , applied to the block, is
balanced by a static frictional force . As F is increased, also increases, until fs
reaches a certain maximum value.
(b) Once reaches its maximum value, the block “breaks away,” accelerating suddenly in
the direction of . (f ) If the block is now to move with constant velocity, F must be
reduced from the maximum value it had just before the block broke away. (g) Some
experimental results for the sequence (a) through (f ).

Figures 8c and 8d show that as you increase the magnitude of your applied force, the magnitude
of the static frictional force also increases and the block remains at rest. When the applied force
reaches a certain magnitude, however, the block “breaks away” from its intimate contact with the
tabletop and accelerates leftward (Fig. 9e).The frictional force that then opposes the motion is
called the kinetic frictional force .

Usually, the magnitude of the kinetic frictional force, which acts when there is motion, is less
than the maximum magnitude of the static frictional force, which acts when there is no motion.
Thus, if you wish the block to move across the surface with a constant speed, you must usually
decrease the magnitude of the applied force once the block begins to move, as in Fig. 9f. As an
example, Fig. 9g shows the results of an experiment in which the force on a block was slowly
increased until breakaway occurred. Note the reduced force needed to keep the block moving at
constant speed after breakaway.

Microscopic View. A frictional force is, in essence, the vector sum of many forces acting
between the surface atoms of one body and those of another body. If two highly polished and
carefully cleaned metal surfaces are brought together in a very good vacuum (to keep them
clean), they cannot be made to slide over each other. Because the surfaces are so smooth, many
atoms of one surface contact many atoms of the other surface, and the surfaces cold-weld
together instantly, forming a single piece of metal. If a machinist’s specially polished gage
blocks are brought together in air, there is less atom-to-atom contact, but the blocks stick firmly
to each other and can be separated only by means of a wrenching motion.
Usually, however, this much atom-to-atom contact is not possible. Even a highly polished metal
surface is far from being flat on the atomic scale. Moreover, the surfaces of everyday objects
have layers of oxides and other contaminants that reduce cold-welding.

When two ordinary surfaces are placed together, only the high points touch each other. (It is like
having the Alps of Switzerland turned over and placed down on the Alps of Austria.) The actual

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microscopic area of contact is much less than the apparent macroscopic contact area, perhaps by
a factor of 104. Nonetheless,

Figure 10

Figure 10: The mechanism of sliding friction.

(a) The upper surface is sliding to the right over the lower surface in this enlarged view.
(b) A detail, showing two spots where cold-welding has occurred. Force is required to break the welds and
maintain the motion.

Many contact points do cold-weld together. These welds produce static friction when an applied
force attempts to slide the surfaces relative to each other. If the applied force is great enough to
pull one surface across the other, there is first a tearing of welds (at breakaway) and then a
continuous re-forming and tearing of welds as movement occurs and chance contacts are made
(Fig. 10). The kinetic frictional force that opposes the motion is the vector sum of the forces
at those many chance contacts. If the two surfaces are pressed together harder, many more points
cold-weld. Now getting the surfaces to slide relative to each other requires a greater applied
force: The static frictional force has a greater maximum value. Once the surfaces are sliding,
there are many more points of momentary cold-welding, so the kinetic frictional force also
has a greater magnitude.
Often, the sliding motion of one surface over another is “jerky” because the two surfaces
alternately stick together and then slip. Such repetitive stick-and-slip can produce squeaking or
squealing, as when tires skid on dry pavement, fingernails scratch along a chalkboard, or a rusty
hinge is opened. It can also produce beautiful and captivating sounds, as in music when a bow is
drawn properly across a violin string.

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 16. Properties of Friction

Experiment shows that when a dry and unlubricated body presses against a surface in the same
condition and a force attempts to slide the body along the surface, the resulting frictional
force has three properties:

Property 1. If the body does not move, then the static frictional force and the component of
that is parallel to the surface balance each other. They are equal in magnitude, and is directed
opposite that component of

Property 2. The magnitude of has a maximum value fs,max that is given by

fs,max _ μsFN,

Where μs is the coefficient of static friction and is the magnitude of the normal force on the
body from the surface. If the magnitude of the component of that is parallel to the surface
exceeds fs,max, then the body begins to slide along the surface.

Property 3. If the body begins to slide along the surface, the magnitude of the frictional force
rapidly decreases to a value fk given by

fk _ μkFN,

Where μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction. Thereafter, during the sliding, a kinetic
frictional force with magnitude given by Second equation opposes the motion.

The magnitude FN of the normal force appears in properties 2 and 3 as a measure of how firmly
the body presses against the surface. If the body presses harder, then, by Newton’s third law, FN
is greater. Properties 1 and 2 are worded in terms of a single applied force , but they also hold
for the net force of several applied forces acting on the body. Both equations are not vector
equations; the direction of or is always parallel to the surface and opposed to the
attempted sliding, and the normal force is perpendicular to the surface.
The coefficients μs and μk are dimensionless and must be determined experimentally.
Their values depend on certain properties of both the body and the surface; hence, they are
usually referred to with the preposition “between,” as in “the value of μs between an egg and a
Teflon-coated skillet is 0.04, but that between rock-climbing shoes and rock is as much as

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1.2.”We assume that the value of μk does not depend on the speed at which the body slides along
the surface.

17. Conclusion
Friction is a force that resists the motion of an object or material that is in contact with another
object or material. It is often called the resistive force of friction. It can cause problems but is
also useful and necessary.

The resistance can result in static friction, where objects do not move with respect to each other.
Or, it can be kinetic or dynamic, where there is motion. The different types friction are dry, fluid,
lubricated, skin, internal and radiation friction. The cause of friction is a combination of
molecular adhesion, surface roughness, and deformation effects.

The standard friction equation includes the coefficient of friction between materials.

18. References

i. David Halliday, R. R. (n.d.). Fundamentals of Physics Extended Edition. Wiley.

ii. Shaikh, D. M. (n.d.). General Science & Environment. pptx, University of Dhaka, Department of
Chemistry.
iii. Wikipedia. (n.d.). Retrieved from wikipidea.com: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction

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