RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN

EUROPE.
" New structures, that inordinately glow,
Subdued, brought back to harmony, made ripe
By many a of ihe archetype
relic
Extant for wonder every upstart church,
;

That hoped to leave eld temples in the lurch,

Corrected by the theatre forlorn
That as a mundane shell, its world late born,
Lay, and o'ershadowed it." BROWNING.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.
THE causes which led to the re-introduction, or re-birth
(Renaissance), of Classic Architecture in Europe at the beginning
of the fifteenth century, are instructive, and must be grasped in
order fully to understand so great a change.
In this section the Renaissance movement as affecting the
whole of Europe will be dealt with.

i. INFLUENCES.
i. Geographical. The Renaissance movement, arising in

Italy in the fifteenth century, spread from thence to France,

Germany, and England, and over the whole of Western Europe
over what had been the Roman empire in the West. The Eastern
empire did not come under its influence, for the Greeks in the East,
who had been the most civilized people in Europe, were now
falling before the Turks.

!h.
<

cSe
iv. Religion.
a1
-!
^ to each country.
The invention of printing, which aided the
spread of knowledge, the spirit of inquiry, and the diffusion of
freedom of thought, led, among the Teutonic races, to a desire to
break away from Romish influence. This desire was originally
fostered by Wycliffe in England (A.D. 1377), and by Martin
438 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

Luther inGermany (A.D. 1517), in which countries Reformation

Renaissance in architecture.
in religion proceeded side by side with
This renewed vigour in thought and literature was accompanied
In England, civil
by a fresh building era in northern Europe.
and domestic architecture received a special impulse from the
diffusion among laymen of the wealth and lands of the monasteries
dissolved by Henry VIII.
In Italy, on the other hand, where the Reformation took no
hold, and where comparatively few churches
had been built in
the Gothic manner during the Middle Ages, a revival of eccle-
siastical architecture took place, and in every important town
Renaissance churches were carried out on a grand scale and in
a most complete manner. The Jesuits who headed the counter-
reformation carried the style into all parts, at the same time
giving it a special character (page 496).
v. Social and Political. A new intellectual movement
manifests itself sooner in literature than in architecture, and thus
the former influences the public taste. Dante (1265-1321),
Petrarch (1304-1374), and Boccaccio (1313-1375) aided in the
spread of the newly-discovered classic literature, which caused a
revolt against mediaeval art, and the subsequent fall of Constanti-
nople in A.D. 1453 caused an influx of Greek scholars into Italy,
whose learning was an important influence in an age which was ripe
for a great intellectual change. Thus a revival of classic literature
produced a desire for the revival of Roman architecture.
Again, among the MSS. of Greek and Latin authors brought
to light about this time, was Vitruvius' book of Architecture,
written in B.C. 50, which was translated into Italian in A.D.
1521.
Erasmus (1467-1536), one of the few Greek scholars of the
period, worked hard to direct the public attention to the original
text of the NewTestament, and to the Greek classics, as a set-off
to the writings of the mediaeval philosophers, whose authority had
for so long borne an exclusive sway.
Italian architecture was naturally the first to be affected,
because the Gothic style had never taken a firm hold on the
Italians, who had at hand the ancient Roman remains, such as
the Pantheon, the Basilica of Maxentius, the Colosseum, the
remains of the great baths, and the Roman fora. In Italy,
therefore, where feudalism had never fully established itself, and
where the municipalities had developed a spirit of municipal
enterprise, practically a direct return was made to Roman
forms.
vi. Historical. At the beginning of the sixteenth century
there was a general grouping together of the smaller states into
independent kingdoms, under powerful rulers, who governed with
authority, and kept large standing armies. Three great inventions
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 439
had an important influence gunpowder, which had changed the
whole method of warfare the mariner's compass, which led to
;

the discovery of the West Indies (1492) and America, and the
foundation of colonies by European states and, lastly, printing,
;

which favoured that stirring of men's minds which caused the

reformation in religion, and the revival of learning. Copper-
plate engraving was discovered in the third quarter of the fifteenth
century.
Galileo (1564-1642) proved that the earth was not the centre
of the universe, but merely a minute planet in the solar system.

2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER.
The Renaissance of the fifteenth century in Italy, and of the
sixteenth century in other parts of Western Europe, was a break
in that orderly evolution of architecture which is based on the
nature and necessities of materials.
In place of such evolution there was the worship of style, that
is, of the past results of the nature of materials as formulated into

systems. Such results were worshipped for their own sake, and
often to a great extent applied regardless of the materials of their
execution.
The main features in the style were the Classic orders (Nos. 38,
262), viz., the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, which were often used
decoratively, as by the Romans, and at other times with their
true constructive significance. Buildings designed for more
modern wants were clothed in the classic garb of ancient Rome,
but it must not be supposed that in this development no advance
was made. It is true that Roman precedent was the basis, but
columns and pilasters, whether plain, fluted or panelled, with
entablature and details, were applied in many novel and pleasing
forms, a system in their application being gradually evolved,
and a style built up which has become the basis of all modern
styles.
Italy, the headquarters of the new movement, in the fifteenth
century possessed skilful jewellers and excellent medallists, and
it was by their help that the Renaissance commenced and
expanded. From their well-known good taste, architects con-
sulted them, and often, indeed, were their pupils, as Ghiberti,
Donatello, and Brunelleschi. Men, therefore, who were at once
painters, sculptors, architects, silversmiths, jewellers, and gold-
smiths somewhat naturally only looked at the finished results
as the goal to be aimed at, and were not troubled about the
means to such an end. The development of the schools of
painting also had their influence on architecture, and aided the
tendency which caused structures to be looked upon as works of
440 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

art, instead of being dependent mainly for their form and effect
on structural necessities. For the same reasons, the period may
be looked upon as the age of accessories, in which iron, gold and
silver work, and tombs, monuments, altars, fonts, and fountains,
were designed in great numbers, and, by the whim and fanciful-
ness of the designer, were special features of the style.
Architecture ceased to a certain extent to be subject to the
considerations of use, becoming largely independent of construc-
tive exigencies, and to a greater extent an art of free expression
in which beauty of design was sought for.
Speaking generally, there was an endeavour to reconcile the
Gothic and the Roman methods of construction, i.e., the body
and facing were one and the same thing constructively, because
the architects of the period, attracted by the mere external
appearance of ancient Roman art, but perceiving that this form
was merely an envelope, continued in the matter of construction
to a large extent to follow the traditions of the Middle Ages,
which did not separate the structure from the decoration.
Owing, therefore, to ignorance of Roman methods, the Roman
manner of forming the main walling of concrete and casing it with
marble, stone, or brick was not followed.
In the Gothic period each stone was finished, moulded, and
sculptured in the workshops before being laid a method which
produced skilful and intelligent masons and stone dressers, and
obliged the sculptor to make the decoration suit each piece of
stone. In the Renaissance period the new mouldings and carvings
could be executed with more exactitude and less expense in situ,
and thenceforward the necessity of making the jointing accord
with the various architectural features being no longer imperi-
ously felt, a want of harmony between the jointing and the
architectural features often resulted.
A building, it will be observed, was regarded rather as a picture
with pleasing combinations of lines and masses than as a struc-
ture of utility, being often designed by men trained as painters,
sculptors, or goldsmiths. Such structures often have a princely
dignity, as in many of the Roman palaces (No. 197), where the
column, pilaster, frieze, and cornice were employed as elements of
composition with special regard to the artistic result and with
considerable originality. The wide and narrow spacing of the
pilasters in the Palazzo Giraud is a novel form (No. 195).
It would be a great mistake, therefore, to state that Renaissance
architecture was solely imitative, for new and
delightful combina-
tions of features were introduced, and architecture became to a
great extent a personal art due to the fancy of individual architects,
many of whom founded schools of design, in which their principles
were followed by their pupils and followers.
In the decorative detail, also, an advance was made. In
 RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 441

metal work the bronze baptistery gates at Florence were won

in competition by the sculptor Ghiberti, in 1404, and are the
finest examples of a class of work for which these craftsmen-
architects were famous. These accessories of architecture were
erected, or added to many old buildings, both in Italy and
elsewhere.
The Renaissance architects followed the Byzantine treatment
of the Dome, but increased it in importance by lifting it boldly
from its substructure and placing it on a " drum," in which
windows were formed, thus making it a great external dominating
feature (Nos. 202, 212, 254).
Likewise, they were the first to introduce as an architectural
"motif" the wall of massive rusticated masonry with arched
openings, as in the Palazzo Riccardi, Florence (Nos. 191 and
192), the Palazzo Pesaro, Venice (No. 209), and elsewhere, in
Which buildings the wall was frankly treated as architecture, and
was in no way imitative of ancient Roman buildings.
Renaissance Vaulting. In the beginning of the fifteenth
century the Gothic principles of ribbed vaulting were abandoned,
giving place to the revival of the Classic method of solid semicir-
cular vaulting (page 117). This type of vaulting was much used
in the halls, passages, and staircases of Renaissance palaces and
churches, and was besides frequently built of wooden framing,
plastered and painted with colored decoration, often of remark-
able richness and beauty, as at the Vatican palace by
Raphael. In cases of cross-vaulting with narrow and wide
spans, it appears that the groins were now formed by means
"
of l*
ordinates in E), with elliptical soffits, groins forming
(No.
a straight on plan instead of the wavy line produced by
line
the intersection of a semicircular vault with one stilted above its
springing.
Note. Having now taken a rapid survey of the causes which
led to the revival of Classic architecture throughout Europe,
and before proceeding to consider the development in each
country, a comparison of a few of the more prominent charac-
teristics of the style with the treatment which obtained in Gothic
architecture is given.

3. EXAMPLES (refer to each country).

Although important types of church design were evolved, yet

in the main the most characteristic monuments were the
municipal buildings, palaces, country houses and elaborate
facades to town buildings. In addition, chapels, tombs, gates,
oratories and public fountains were special creations.
 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE. 1
(See page 227 for Italian Romanesque.)
(See page 404 for Italian Gothic.)

" leave your Gothic, worn-out story.

Come,

They love not fancies just betrayed,

And artful tricks of light and shade,
But pure form nakedly
displayed^.
And all things absolutely made." C LOUGH

THE Renaissance of Italy varies considerably in the chief centres

of the great revival, namely, Florence, Rome, and Venice,
and this was due to various social and political causes, which will
be enumerated shortly.

THE FLORENTINE SCHOOL.

"Florence at peace, and the calm, studious heads
Come out again, the penetrating eyes ;
As if a spell broke, all resumed, each art
You boast, more vivid that it slept awhile
'Gainst the glad heaven, o'er the white palace front
The interrupted scaffold climbs anew ;

The walls are peopled by the painter's brush,

The statue to its niche ascends to dwell." BROWNING.

i. INFLUENCES (see page 437).

i. Geographical. It must be remembered that Florence was
more than a city, being, in fact, one of the powers of Italy,
its dominions included
although only a small part of Central Italy.
The activity and influence of the Florentines caused a Pope to
declare that they were the fifth element.
ii. Geological. The quarries of Tuscany supplied large
blocks of stone and marble, which, being near the surface, were
easily obtained for building purposes, and the monumental
character and massiveness of these materials considerably
influenced the style of the architecture.
 ITALIAN (FLORENTINE) RENAISSANCE. 447
Climate. Among other causes which affected the
iii.

development of the style, the bright and sunny climate rendered

large openings for light unnecessary. The character of the
climate is well indicated by Tennyson :

In bright vignettes, and each complete

' '

Of tower or duomo, sunny-sweet,

Or palace how the city glittered
Through cypress avenues, at our feet."
iv. Religion. At this period Florence produced the great
Dominican preacher, Savonarola, whose reforming energy divided
the city, and swayed its policy. He looked to the French king
'

to a general council to reform the Church.

call In art he
tended to the Puritan theory, and although suppressed by the
Pope, his influence on the minds of his generation was not lost,
the Sistine frescoes bearing witness to his power over Michael
Angelo.
Social and Political. In Italy generally there was a
v.
wave of national enthusiasm and patriotic feeling and an
endeavour to assimilate the old Roman magnificence in art.
The Medici dynasty, so intimately connected with the rise of
Florentine art, was founded by John of Medici (died 1429), who
took the popular side against the nobles, gradually usurping
supreme authority over the State. His son Cosimo (died
1464) employed his wealth liberally in the advancement of art.
He founded the Medici Library and Platonic Academy, and was
the patron of Brunelleschi, Donatello, Michelozzo, Lippi, Masaccio,
and others. Pietro and Lorenzo Medici succeeded Cosimo, and
Florence "the Athens of the Renaissance" became the centre
of the revival in art and literature.
The artists of the period were often at the same time sculptors,
painters, and architects, and among these were Luca .della :

Robbia (1400-1482), famous for glazed reliefs in terra-cotta,

some of which are in the Victoria and Albert Museum Lorenzo ;

Ghiberti (1378-1455), the sculptor of the bronze gates to the

Baptistery, reproductions also being in the same Museum;
Donatello (1386-1466); Mino da Fiesole (A.D. 1431-1484), and
Benedetto da Majano (A.D. 1442-1497), famous for his bas-reliefs
and statues at Florence and elsewhere. As showing the com-
mercial prosperity of Florence, it is worthy of note that the
golden florin was first coined in that city in 1252, and soon became
the general standard of value in Europe.
As rival parties in the city were engaged in constant hostilities,
safety and defence were primary motives in building, the palaces
being in reality semi -fortresses.
vi. Historical. Florence commenced to grow in importance
on the removal of the inhabitants of Fiesole to the banks of the
Arno in 1125.
448 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

The grouping together of the independent commonwealths of

Italy a
is feature of this period, and, as in ancient Greece, one
city bore rule over another.
Pisa became subject to Florence in
1406, and the latter gradually became the chief power in
Italy, and also in the fourteenth century the artistic capital.
During this period the nobles were at constant feuds with each
other, being divided into the hostile camps of Guelphs and
Ghibellines (pp. 230, 259), the former being generally successful.
Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) took part in these conflicts, but
eventually the wealthy family of the Medici became the ruling
power in the State (see above). In 1494 Charles VIII. of France
occupied Florence, during his brief invasion of Italy, which arose
from his claims on the kingdom of Naples. The short-lived
republic of Savonarola (see above) followed, but the Medici,
in spite of successive banishments, were finally reinstated by
the Emperor Charles V., who, acting on behalf of the- Ghibel-
lines, took the town in 1530. During a siege of eleven months,
Michael Angelo acted as the engineer of the republic. The
suppression of political liberty followed, especially under Cosimo I.
(1537-1564), who, however, greatly extended the Florentine
dominions, Siena being ceded to him in 1557 by the Emperor.
His successors, the Grand Dukes of Florence, followed, until in
1737, the House of Medici becoming extinct, the Duchy passed
into the hands of Austria. In 1801, as the Republic, and
afterwards as the Kingdom of Etruria, it enjoyed political freedom
with the exception of the years 1807-1814, during which time it
was incorporated with France, but in 1860 it was united to the
Kingdom of Italy.

2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER.
The massive blocks of rusticated masonry in the lower stories
(No. 192) of the Florentine palaces give to these buildings that
character of solidity and ruggedness for which they are remark-
able. The palaces were all built round interior courts, possibly
derived from the arcaded cloister of the mediaeval monastery, the
walls resting on columnar arcades (No. 191). The general
absence of pilasters, as decorative features, is specially noticeable
in the design of the palaces, which are therefore called
"astylar."
The sparing use of carved detail, and in fact of features of any
kind, gives a marked character of simplicity to the style. The
effect of these palaces is
grand considerably aided by the massive
cornice which crowns the structure, being proportioned to the
whole height of the building, as in the Riccardi Palace 191
(No. D).
The columnar arcade a special feature, as in the Ospedale degli
is
Innocenti and the Loggia S. Paolo, and mural monuments and
altars are exceedingly rich with
sculpture and decoration.
 ITALIAN (FLORENTINE) KE&AISSANCE.

The types of doors and windows may be divided into three

groups :

(0.) The arcade type, usual in the heavily rusticated examples,

consists of a round a'rch, in the centre of which is a circular
column supporting a simple piece of tracery (Nos. 191 and 194 D) ;

as at the Strozzi, Pitti, and Riccardi Palaces.

(b.) The architrave type is that in which mouldings inclose the
window, and consoles on either side support a horizontal of
pediment cornice, as in the courtyard of the Pandolfini Palace'
and in the Palazzo Riccardi (No. 192).
(c.) The order type is that in which the opening is framed with
a pilaster or column on each side supporting an entablature
above, this being the final development, as employed in the'
Pandolfini Palace, ascribed to Raphael, and also shown in
,No. 194 F,

3. EXAMPLES.
Note. Having reached the period when the personality of the
architect has increased in importance, the chief works of
Brunelleschi, Alberti, and others, as being the leaders of the
Florentine school, will be briefly enumerated.

BRUNELLESCHI (A.D. 1377-1446),

a Florentine by birth, studied the features and construction of

the Pantheon and other examples of Roman architecture, which
henceforth exerted a considerable influence over his works, his
main object being to complete the unfinished dome over the
Cathedral of Florence.
The Dome of Florence Cathedral (A.D. 1420-1434) (Nos.
176 and 181) was Brunelleschi's principal work, his design being
accepted in competition. It is said that it was constructed without
any centering, with voussoirs having horizontal joints. It covers
an octagonal apartment 138 feet 6 inches in diameter, and is
raised upon an octagonal drum in which are circular windows
lighting the interior. The dome constructed of inner
itself is
and outer shells, and pointed in form, being constructed on a
is
Gothic principle with eight main ribs and sixteen intermediate
ribs.
S. Lorenzo, Florence (A.D. 1425) (No. 193 D), and S. Spirito,
Florence (No. 193), are both examples of churches on the basilican
plan, the latter having aisles formed round the transepts and choir,
and a flat wooden ceiling to nave, and is probably the earliest
F.A. G G
FLORENTINE RENAISSANCE EXAMPLES. I.

T
 ITALIAN (FLORENTINE) RENAISSANCE.

192. PALAZZO RICCARDI, FLORENCE.

G G 2
L
FLORENTINE RENAISSANCE EXAMPLES.
HW

193,
 ITALIAN (FLORENTINE) RENAISSANCE. 453
instance where isolated fragments of entablature are placed on
each column with the arches springing from these.
The Pazzi Chapel, Florence (in S. Croce) (A.D. 1420)
(No. 193 A, B, c), is a refined example of his smaller works,
consisting of a dome over a square compartment, which is entered
through an open colonnade of six columns supporting a decorated
vault and forming the front fa9ade.
The Riccardi Palace (1430) (Nos. 191 and 192) and the
Pitti Palace (1440), in both of which he appears to have been
associated with Michellozzo (1397-1473), are examples of the
massive rusticated buildings with heavy crowning cornice for
which the Florentine style is noted.

ALBERTI (1404-1472)

was a scholar deeply interested in classical literature, and his works

exhibit more decorative treatment and are less massive than
those of Brunelleschi. He wrote a work on architecture, " De
Re ^Edificatoria," which largely influenced men's minds in favour
of the revived Roman style.
The Ruccellai Palace, Florence (A.D. 1451-1455) is known as
the first Renaissance buildingwhich superimposed pilasters
in
were used, and shows a lighter and more refined character,
although dignity was lost compared with the Pitti Palace, by the
reduction in size of the great crowning cornice.
S. Francesco, Rimini (A.D. 1447-1455), a thirteenth century
Gothic church, was remodelled in the revived style, but the fa$ade
was never completed.
S. Maria Novella, Florence (A.D. 1470), was one of the
firstchurches in which consoles were placed in the facade over
the side aisles to connect them with the nave.
S. Andrea, Mantua (A.D. 1472-1512) (No. 193), is particularly
notable and important as the type of many modern Renaissance
churches, and consists of a single nave with transepts, the
interior ornamented with a single order on pedestals supporting a
barrel vault. Chapels, alternating with entrance vestibules, take
the place of the customary aisles on each side of the nave. Over
the intersection of the nave with the transept is a dome, in the
drum or lower portion of w hich are windows lighting the interior.
r

The chancel is apsidal, lighted by three windows, which cause the

entablature to be mitred round the pilasters of the order which
carry the lunetted half dome of the apse.
The perfection of the proportions makes the interior of this
church one of the grandest in the style, and the front is reminiscent
of a Roman triumphal archway.
 FLORENTINE RENAISSANCE ORNAMENT.

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MEDICI CHAPEL
Smn CROCE.

WINPW IN mm, BUI. JTROZZI. .

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 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE

THE ROMAN SCHOOL.

" See the waste of all-devouring years
\vild !

How Rome her own sad sepulchre appears !

With nodding arches, broken temples spread." POPE.

i. INFLUENCES (see page 437).

i.Geographical. The unique character of Rome as an
influencewas its prestige as the capital of an empire that had
crumbled away, and whose architecture was now being revived.
The ruins and new buildings are important as forming models for
the whole of Europe.
ii. Geological. The remains of old Rome, such as the
Colosseum, Pantheon, and colonnades, formed the quarry from
which much of the material for the Renaissance buildings was
extracted.
Hi. Climate. (See pages 112, 404.)
iv. Religion. The return of the popes from Avignon to Rome
in A.D. 1376 helped to restore her to her former position of import-
ance and prosperity. From the time of the Council of Constance,
1415, the popes took a more prominent position as Italian princes,
and during the fifteenth century they greatly extended their
temporal dominions in Italy. Some hoped that Italian unity would
be effected under the papal sway, and Caesar Borgia, ncphc\ to
Alexander VI., proposed to effect this by absorbing the Italian
states as one would eat an artichoke leaf by leaf. Julius II.
besieged Bologna in person, as sacred and secular capacities were
often combined in the same pope. The Jesuits, founded in the
later Renaissance period, existed to counteract the Reformation,
by rendering the papal influence universal (see below).
v. Social and Political. In Rome a central government
existed, in consequence of which party spirit was checked, and
fortified palaces were not necessary as in Florence. Rome was
the home of the old classic traditions, which naturally exerted
great influence in any new development.
During the fifteenth century the popes were temporal princes,
and great patrons of art and learning. Splendid new palaces and
churches were erected, and the decoration of old ones carried on
by successive painters of whom Peruzzi, Raphael, Michael Angelo,
and others were eminent. A school was created for artists and
workmen, who afterwards spread abroad the style of the Renais-
sance in other parts of Italy and beyond.
vi. Historical. During the absence of the popes at Avignon,
the factions of the barons continued unchecked, except during the
brief rule of Rienzi's republican state in 1347. The return of the
popes took place in 1376 under Gregory XI. The scandal of rival
 ITALIAN (ROMAN) RENAISSANCE. 457

popes at Rome and Avignon was terminated in 1415 by the

Council of Constance, after which Rome rapidly gained in wealth
and prestige. Julius II., a warlike and ambitious pope, extended
the temporal power, and founded the new cathedral of S. Peter
and the Vatican.
Rome was, for the last and seventh time, taken and plundered
on the 6th May, 1527, by the Emperor Charles V.
Spanish influence became powerful, and was not always exerted
for good, but it was replaced by that of France, which was strong
under Louis XIV. The growth of the power of Austria was next
felt throughout the Peninsula, until the rise of national
feeling
which, though checked in 1848, led in 1870 to Rome becoming
the capital of New Italy. This remarkable revolution was effected
without Rome ceasing to be the headquarters of the papacy.

2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER.
The Classic orders were largely used in the facades and court-
yards (Nos. 195, 196 and 200), and a general attempt at correctness
and conformity to the ideas of ancient Roman architecture pre-
vailed. The size and simplicity of the palaces of Rome produce
an effect of dignity (No. 197).
The principle which animated architects in the later school was
that of unity, which they endeavoured to attain by making a
whole building appear to be of a single story thus two or more
;

stories were included by an order of pilasters, which was some-

times crowned by an attic, but never by another superimposed
order. Arcuation was only sparingly introduced, except in the
form of tiers of arcades, in imitation of the Colosseum.

EXAMPLES.
3.

BRAMANTE (1444-1514),
the first Roman architect of note, was born in the year that
Brunelleschi died, educated as a painter under Andrea Mantegna,
and was probably a pupil of Alberti. He was a Florentine by
birth, but studied at Rome, practising first in the city of Milan,
and in the ducal dominions.
S. Maria della Grazie, Milan (A.D. 1492), an abbey church
of the fifteenth century, to which Bramante added the choir,
transepts and dome, is essentially transitional in style with
Gothic feeling, but is most successful and suitable in detail for
the terra cotta with which it was constructed.
The Cancellaria Palace (A.D. 1495-1505) (No. 196) and the
Giraud Palace (1503) (No. 195) are examples of Bramante's later
works, in which a more pronounced classical tendency is seen.
O
o
N
N
ROMAN RENAISSANCE EXAMPLES. I.
 ITALIAN (ROMAN) RENAISSANCE. 461

The Cortile of S. Damaso, the Cortile delle Loggie, and

the Greater and Lesser Belvedere Courts in the Vatican
well-known examples of his secular work.
(A.D. 1503), are
The Tempietto in S. Pietro in Montorio (1502) is a perfect
gem of architecture, the internal diameter being only 15 feet
(No. 199 A, B, c), founded in design on the small Roman circular
temples.
S. Maria della Pace, Rome, erected in 1484, had its later
cloister court of arcades supporting columns constructed in 1504
by Bramante.
Bramante's works of the middle period especially exhibit great
refinement in mouldings, carving, and detail thus he uses flat
;

pilaste'rs, and circular-headed openings, framed by square lines

(Nos. 196 A and 206 D). His " Ultima Maniera " is seen in the
bold and grand designs for the Courts of Law (never finished) near
"
the Tiber, and in his " projects for S. Peter (No. 203 D).
An article on "The School of Bramante," by Baron von
Geymiiller, which appeared in the R.I.B.A. Transactions, 1891,
is interesting, as tending to show the influence which Bramante,
who may be called the " continuator " of the style of Alberti,
exerted on the development of the Renaissance in 'Rome and in
every European country.

BRAMANTE'S PUPILS AND FOLLOWERS.

Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1536) was the architect of several
Rome, and few architects of the school were
buildings at so well
trained, and able to execute works so finished in detail, whether
of plan, section, or elevation.
The Massimi Palace, Rome (A.D. 1536) (No. 196 c, D), an example
full of refinement and beauty, both in design and detail, is especially

interesting in the way the convexfagade has been treated.

The Villa Faniesina, Rome (A.D. 1506), is a two-storied structure
(each story comprising an order) with boldly projecting wings,
central arched loggia and rich crowning frieze. The latter was
ornamented with cupids holding festoons, and contained windows,
a system afterwards made use of by Sansovino in the Library of
S. Mark (No. 210). The remarkable frescoes of this building
were executed by Peruzzi and Raphael.
Dorchester House, Park Lane, London, by Vulliamy, was
founded on this design.
S. Maria della Consolazione, Todi (1508-1604) (No. 199), by Cola
da Caprarola, is ascribed to his influence, but is overladen with
pilasters.
Ant. da Sangallo the younger (A.D. 1485-1546) erected the
Farnese Palace, Rome (Nos. 197 and 198). This is the grandest
of all the examples of the school, and is executed in brick walling
ROMAN RENAISSANCE EXAMPLES. II.

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 ITALIAN (ROMAN) RENAISSANCE. 463
with travertine dressings from the Colosseum. Columns or
pilasters areused only in a special way to form frames -to the
windows, each of the stories being well marked horizontally by
projecting string courses. The grand crowning cornice, which was
a special feature in the original design (No. 198 B) was added later
by Michael Angelo. The internal open court (" cortile ") is in the
style of the Colosseum, and a reduced cast of a portion of it may
be seen in the Italian Renaissance Court at the Crystal Palace,
and the "motif" was followed for the Reform Club, London.
Raphael (A.D. 1483-1520) was the nephew and pupil of
Bramante, but authorities differ as to his exact responsibility
for the designs ascribed to him.
At Rome, he was engaged on S. Peter, but did little. He
designed the facade of S. Lorenzo in Miranda, and also the
Villa Madama (A.D. 1516), the stucco decorations being by Giulio
Romano.
The Pandolfini Palace, Florence, erected in 1530 (ten years after
his death), is one of his most famous designs, the "motif" being
afterwards followed for the Travellers' Club, London.
The excavation of the Baths of Titus gave Raphael an oppor-
tunity of studying the interior decoration of ancient Roman
buildings, and the use of hard stucco with painted decorations
was one of the things he learned from these remains. The
surface of the vaulting was found to be painted with studies from
the vegetable kingdom, with figures of men and animals, and
with such objects as vessels and shields, all blended together in
fanciful schemes, rendered pleasing by bright coloring.
The designs for the decoration of the Vatican Loggie, w hich he
r

carried out, were based on these Roman examples.

Giulio Romano (A.D. 1492-1546) was a pupil of Raphael, and
was the architect of buildings at Mantua, including his master-
piece the Palazzo del Te, which is a one-story building, decorated
with the Doric order. It is quadrangular in plan, and comprises
large saloons round a central court. The recessed arcaded facade
to the garden and the painted ceilings are remarkable, and the
design is perhaps the nearest approach made on the part of a
Renaissance architect to reproduce the features of a Roman villa.

G. BAROZZI DA VIGNOLA (A.D. 1507-1573)

exercised great influence by his writings, and was the author of
" The Five Orders of Architecture."
Being taken back to France
by Francis I. (page 497), he exercised a great influence on the
development of French Renaissance architecture.
The Villa of Pope Julius, now the Etruscan Museum,
Rome (A.D. 1550) (No. 238 D, E), is one of his best known works.
The Palace of Caprarola (No. 201) is a pentagonal semi-
 ROMAN RENAISSANCE EXAMPLES, (fl.

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fortress situated on the spur of a mountain looking down into the

valley, recalling Hadrian's tomb in mass and outline, while the
internal circular court is suggestive of the Colosseum at Rome
(see the Chateau de Chambord, page 500).
S. Andrea, Rome
(A.D. 1550) (No. 199) one of his earlier and
smaller works, a simple oblong on plan having an elliptical
is

dome with pendentives.

The two small cupolas at S. Peter (No. 203 E), and the
unfinished municipal palace at Bologna, are other works.
The Gesu Church (A.D. 1568-1632) (No. 199) is one of many
designed on the lines of S. Peter, Rome.
MICHAEL ANGELO (A.D. 1474-1564),
a famous Florentine sculptor, and painter of the roof of the
Sistine Chapel in the Vatican (A.D. 1508), representing the Fall
and Redemption of Mankind, also turned his attention, late in
life, to architecture, but reckless detail mars his work. He
finished the Farnese Palace, and carried out the Dome of
S. Peter (page 471), but perhaps his best work was the recon-
struction 'of the Palaces of the Capitol (A.D. 1540-1644)
(Nos. 200 and 201), grand examples of one-order buildings.
His principal works at Florence were the Mausoleum (or
New Sacristy) (A.D. 1520) (No. 193 D), having statues of his
patrols, Lorenzo and Giuliano de Medici, and the Laurentian
Library (A.D. 1524), both at S. Lorenzo.

S. Peter, Rome (1506-1626), was the most important build-

ing erected in the period, and many architects were engaged upon
it. In plan (Nos. 203 and 213) it was a Greek cross, the later
extension of the nave and aisles toward tne east practically
bringing the whole scheme to a Latin cross. This w as probably
r

effected so as to inclose the whole of the area of the previously

existing church (No. 75 c). The nave, 80 feet wide, consists of
four bays of immense size, the central crossing is covered by the
dome, 137 feet 6 inches in diameter, and the short transepts are
terminated by semicircular a'pses, the western arm being precisely
similar. The high altar stands under the dome, within a
"
baldachino," 100 feet high, over the alleged, tomb of S. Peter.
A vestibule at the East end extends the whole width of the church,
the chancel being at the west end.
The interior (No. 204) has one gigantic order of Corinthian
pilasters, crowned with semicircular barrel vaults, 150 feet high.
The walls are faced with plaster, and colored to imitate marble,
producing a rich effect, and the dome is beautifully decorated in
mosaic.
" No single parts unequally surprise,
All comes united to th' admiring eyes." POPE.
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 ITALIAN (ROMAN) RENAISSANCE. 471
The exterior (Nos. 202, 203 and 205), roughly executed in
travertine, has an immense order of Corinthian pilasters, 108 feet
high including entablature, with an attic 39 feet high surrounding
the entire building. The view of the dome from the east except at
a distance, is nearly cut off behind the screen wall of the now
extended nave. The design owes much to the circular four-fold
colonnades added by Bernini in the seventeenth century, which
inclose one of the noblest entrance courtyards in Europe. A good
idea of the building, in its general distribution, is to be obtained
from the model at the Crystal Palace, in which, however, as in
most drawings of the church, the detail is rendered less offensive
by its smaller scale.
S. Peter was recognized as a model of which numberless
churches were erected throughout Italy.

The following a synopsis of the history of this building

is :

A.D. 1506.- Bramante, the original architect, formulated a

design in the form of a Greek cross with entrances at East
end. His design for the dome is shown in No. 203 B, D.
Foundation stone laid.
A.D. 1513. Giuliano da Sangallo (d. 1516), Raphael, and Fm
Giocondo (d. 1515), were entrusted with superintendence
of the work. Division of opinion existed as to altering
original plan to a Latin cross. Raphael's suggested ground
plan is shown in No. 203 j.
A.D. 1514. Death of Bramante.
A.D. 1520. Death of Raphael.
A.D. 1520. Baldassare Pevuzzi appointed architect, but died
1536. His suggested plan is shown in No. 203 L. The
capture and sack of Rome disorganized all artistic work.
A.D. 1536. Antonio da Sangallo the younger succeeded him
as architect (d. A.D. 1546). Proposed a picturesque design
of many orders, with a central dome (No. 203 c) and lofty
campanili. His plan is shown in No. 203 M.
A.D. 1546. Michael Angela appointed architect. He rejected
the innovations of Sangallo, restored the design to a Greek
cross, strengthened the piers of the dome, which had
shown signs of weakness, and simplified the form of the
aisles, in which process the masterly planning of the
accessories, by Raphael, which were to give scale to
the interior, disappeared. He planned and commenced
the construction of the great dome, 137 feet 6 inches
internal diameter, the drum of which he completed, and at
his death (1564) left drawings and models for the completion
of the work up to the lantern, the top of which is 405 feet
from the ground.
A.D. 1564. Vignola continued the building of the church,
CO
 ITALIAN (ROMAN) RENAISSANCE. 473

adding the cupolas on either side of the great dome. These

(Nos. 202, 203 E), excellent in themselves, are ineffective in
relation to the whole mass.
A.D. 1585-1590. Giacomo della Porta and Domenico Fontana
erected the dome from Michael Angelo's wooden model.
A.D. 1605-1612. Carlo Maderna, instructed by Paul V.,
lengthened the nave to form a Latin cross (No. 203 K),
and erected the present contemptible facade (No. 203 E).
A.D. 1612. Rainaldi appointed architect and prepared designs
for campanile, but effected nothing.
A.D. 1629-1667. Bernini erected the fourfold colonnades in-
closing the piazza, 650 feet wide, in front (Nos. 202, 203 K, E
and 205). He also erected the brazen baldachino under
the dome (No. 204) with metal taken from the portico
of the Pantheon.
" With arms wide
open to embrace
The entry of the human race." BROWNING.

In Baron von Geymiiller's book, already mentioned, there is a

plan, with the portions of separate dates colored differently,
which is very interesting, and also a comparison drawn between
the fundamental principles of design which characterize each
scheme.

Compare plans (No. 213) :

S. Peter. Milan S. Paul. S. Sophia Cologne.

(No. 176). (No. 80)
Area in sq. yds. 18,000 10,000 9,35O 8,150 7A
Length in yards. 205 148 170 118 156
Pantheon Florence
(No. 54). (No. 176).
Diam. of .dome. 137 ft. 6 in. 142 ft. 6 in. 109 ft. 107 ft. 138 ft. 6 in.

Other examples in Rome are :

The Papal Palaces (A.D. 1574-1590) on the Lateran, Quirinal

and Vatican Hills, and the Chapel of Sixtus V. in S. Maria
Maggiore (A.D. 1543-1607), were by Fontana.
The portico to north transept of S. Giovanni in Laterano
(1586) isalso by Fontana.
The Facade of S. Giovanni in Laterano, by Galilei (A.D. 1734).
The Portico to S. Maria Maggiore, by Fuga (A.D. 1743). The
Palazzo Borghese (A.D. 1590), the Palazzo Barberini, by
Maderna, and the Fountain of Trevi (A.D. 1735).
Note. Characteristic Roman ornament is shown in No. 206.

4. COMPARATIVE (see page 490).

 ROMAN RENAISSANCE ORNAMENT.

206.
 ITALIAN (ROMAN) RENAISSANCE. 475

5. REFERENCE BOOKS.
"
Fontana (G.). Raccolta delle Chiese di Roma." 4 vols., folio. 1855.
Geymiiller(H.de). "The School of Bramante." R.I. B.A. Trans. 1891.
" Les
Geymuller (H. de). Projets primitifs pour la Basilique de
St. Pierre de Rome/' 2 vojs., 410 and folio. Paris and Vienna, 1875-1880.
Letarouilly (P. M.). ''Edifices de Rome Moderne." 3 vols., folio and
4to vol. of text. Paris, 1868.
"
Letarouilly. Le Vatican et la Basilique de Saint-Pierre de Rome,"
2 vols. Paris, 1882.
Maccari (E). 11 Palazzo di Caprarola. Folio. Berlin.
Palladio (A.)." 1 Quattro Libri dell' Architettura." The best English
editions are those by Leoni and Ware.
"
Percier (C.) et Fontaine (P. F. L.). Choix de plus Celebres Maisons
de Plaisance de Rome et de ses Environs." Folio. Paris, 1809.
Rossi (D. de). "Studio d' Architettura Civile della Citta di Roma."
,3 vols., folio. Roma, "1720-1721.
Scamozzi (O. B.). Fabbriche e Design! di Andrea Palladio.
:>
4 vols.,
folio. Vicenza, 1776.
Stiack (H.). u Baudenkmaeler Roms des XV.-X.IX. Jahrhunderts."
Folio. Berlin, 1891.
Suys (T. F.) et Haudebourt (L. P.)." Palais Massimia Rome/' Folio.
Paris, 1818.
Lytton (Lord)." Rienzi." )
H
Historical Novels
"
Yeats (S. L.). The Honour of Savelli." J

THE VENETIAN SCHOOL.

" Underneath
day's azure eyes,
Ocean's nursling, Venice lies,
A peopled labyrinth of walls,
Amphitrite's destined halls,
Which her hoary sire now paves
With his blue and beaming waves.
Lo the sun upsprings behind,
!

Broad, red, radiant, half-reclined

On the level, quivering line
Of the water's crystalline ;
And before that dream of light,
As within a furnace bright,
Column, tower, and dome, and spire
Shine like obelisks of fire,
Panting with inconstant motion
From the altar of dark ocean
To the sapphire-tinted sky." SHELLEY

i. INFLUENCES (see page 437).

i.Geographical. -The greatness of Venice was founded on
Oriental commerce, due to her important geographical position,
and the effect of this commercial prosperity lasted well into
Renaissance times (pages 232, 404). The history of the Venetian
state was always influenced by the proximity of the sea, and the
peculiar formation of the coast.
476 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

ii. Geological. Venice has the appearance of a floating city

founded in the sea, churches, palaces, and houses being set upon
piles in a shallow lagoon,
a structural formation having an
important influence on its art.
iii. Climate. This favours out-door life, the heat in summer
being great, though tempered by sea
breezes. Open top stories,
called belvederes, exist in many houses. The northern position
renders chimneys more prominent than in other Italian cities.
iv. Religion. Venice continued to maintain a semi-independ-
ence of the Pope, due to her political necessities in those days
of growing temporal power. Strong loyalty to the State even
among the clergy was manifested during the attempted interdict
of Paul V., the learned theologian Paolo Sarpi (1552-1623)
being the adviser of the State during this crisis (1607). The
tolerance of Venetian policy is shown by the erection of the
Greek church, an interesting example of the local Renaissance.
v. Social and Political. During the whole of the fifteenth
century, Venice was engaged in conquering the surrounding
towns, to which Venetian nobles were appointed governors.
The government of Venice was republican, and the rivalry of
the leading families led to the erection of fine and lasting monu-
ments, such as the palaces which line the Grand Canal these ;

however were not fortresses, as at Florence, but the residences

of peaceable citizens and merchant princes.
vi. Historical.In the middle of the fifteenth century (1453;
Constantinople was taken by the Turks, and the supremacy
of Venice in the East was undermined. By the discovery ot
the new route round the Cape to India by Diaz in 1486, its
commerce was diverted to the Portuguese. During the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries the Venetians were at constant war
with the Turks, and eventually in 1715 the whole of her posses-
sions, except in North Italy, were taken from her. Yet " the
arts which had meanwhile been silently developing shed a glorious
sunset over the waning glory of the mighty republic."

2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER.
The Renaissance movement had a very different effect upon
.the architecture of Venice from that which it produced upon the
architecture of Florence, owing to the
previously existing circum-
stances of the two cities. The Venetians had a beautiful type of
Gothic architecture of their own, and,
being farther from Rome,
were not so much under the influence of that
city as was Florence.
Therefore, between the periods of Gothic and fully-developed
Renaissance, there was a period of transition, the earlier buildings
 ITALIAN (VENETIAN) RENAISSANCE. 477
in the new
style having Gothic in conjunction with Renaissance
details. A
notable instance is in the pointed arches of the Renais-
sance facade in the courtyard of the Doges' Palace (No. 210 F)
(see below).
The architecture of Venice is, in general, of a lighter and
more graceful kind than that of Florence, columns and pilasters
being used freely in all designs. A special Venetian feature is
the grouping of the windows near the centre,' leaving com-
paratively solid boundaries to the facades (No. 207), which
facades are comparatively flat, and have no great projections,
in consequence of the houses being situated on the side of
canals, and having a straight frontage with the water. The
rustication of walls, as at Florence, is unusual, and a cornice
usually marks each story (No. 208), in contrast with the great
crowning Florentine cornices. Extreme depth was sometimes
^iven to the frieze, in which windows were sometimes placed
(No. 210 A, B).
The balconies (No. 209) are graceful and important features,
and give light and shade to the facade, having the same effect as
the recessing of portions of the structure.
The regularity of the disposition of a Venetian facade is
described by Browning, who talks of the
" Window with window
just mating,
Door on door exactly waiting."

In the later period perfection of details is characteristic of the

Venetian Renaissance, as, for instance, in S. Mark's Library
and the palaces by Sansovino (A.D. 1479-1570). In Longhena's
works and other late examples, the detail became large and
projected boldly, producing strong effects of light and shade,
heavy rustication being used to contrast the basement with the
upper part of the facade (No. 209).

EXAMPLES.
3.

SECULAR ARCHITECTURE.
The Court to the Doges' Palace (No. 210) was commenced
A.D. 1486, by Ant.
Rizzi, the Giant's Staircase, giving access to
the upper portions, being erected by Sansovino in A.D. 1554.
The facade of the Geological Museum in Piccadilly is founded
on the design of the lower part of the courtyard facade of this
palace.
The Library of S. Mark (A.D. 1536) was erected by San-
sovino (No. 210), but the continuation of the design, one order
higher round S. Mark's Square, was executed in 1584 by
Scamozzi. This design has been followed for the Carlton Club,
London.
VENETIAN RENAISSANCE EXAMPLES. I.

B) fc

208.
VENETIAN RENAISSANCE EXAMPLES. II.

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VENETIAN RENAISSANCE EXAMPLES. III.

s y r r y r r r i_y.

2JI.
 ITALIAN (VENETIAN) RENAISSANCE,

212. S. MARIA DELLA SALUTE, VENICE.

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 ITALIAN (VENETIAN) RENAISSANCE. 485
The Zecca, or Mint, was erected by Sansovino, 1536, and
has a peculiar treatment of column rustication.
The Vendramini Palace (A.D. 1481), by Pietro Lombardo
(Nos. 207 and 208), has to each story an order of engaged
columns the earliest example in Venice. The windows are
semicircular, with a Renaissance treatment of tracery.
The Cornaro Palace (the Army and Navy Club, London,
being a modified copy), by Sansovino (A.D. 1532) the Grimani
;

Palace, by Sanmicheli (A.D. 1549); and the Pesaro Palace

(A.D.1650-1680), by Longhena (No. 209), are later examples.
The Scuola di S. Marco (A.D. 1485-1533), the facade of which
was by Pietro Lombardo, is a rich example, held to be founded on
the facade of S. Mark, and has curious sculptured reliefs in
perspective.

ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE.
S. Maria dei Miracoli (A.D. 1480) (No. 211), by Pietro Lom-
bardo, architect, has no aisles, and the choir is raised twelve
steps above the nave, which is covered with a roof of semi-
circular form, not uncommon in Venice. This is emphasized by a
semicircular pediment on the facade, a feature which also occurs
at S. Zaccaria. The walls are faced internally and externally,
with delicately carved and different colored marbles. The sacristy
is beneath the raised choir, as shown in No. 211 c.
S. Zaccaria (A.D. 1456-1515), a transition example, and S.
Giobbe (A.D. 1451-1493), are other churches worthy of note.
S. Salvatore (A.D. 1530), by Tullib Lombardo, the plan
derived from S. Mark, with domical and barrel- vaulted bays, and
S. Giorgio dei Greci (A.D. 1538), by Sansovino (No. 211), are
other examples of the early or transition period.
S. Francesco della Vigna, by Sansovino (A.D. 1534-1562), has
a fagade (1562) by Palladio resembling S. Giorgio Maggiore.
II Redentore (A.D. 1576) and S. Giorgio Maggiore (A.D.

1560) were both by Palladio (No. 211), although the facade of

the latter was by Scamozzi (A.D. 1575). These churches are
instructive, as exhibiting the difficulties of adopting the Classic
orders to the facades of churches of the basilican plan.
S. Maria della Salute (A.D. 1632), by Longhena (Nos. 212 and
213 E), groups most beautifully with the surroundings on the Grand
Canal. In plan it consists of an octagon with chapels projecting
on each side, the central space being covered by a circular dome,
whose drum is connected to the outer walls by buttresses (No. 212)
over the aisles, their fanciful shapes contributing to the rich
effect. A secondary dome covers the chancel, which projects on
the side opposite the entrance, and a small tower also carried up,
contributes to the picturesque grouping of the exterior.
Note. Characteristic Venetian ornament is shown in No. 214.
VENETIAN RENAISSANCE ORNAMENT.
 ITALIAN (VENETIAN) RENAISSANCE.

215. THE BASILICA AT VICENZA, BY PALLADIO.

 488 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

VICENZA AND VERONA.

These are notable cities possessing many examples of Renais-
sance architecture, and are counted in the Venetian School.
Vicenza was the birthplace of Palladio (A.D. 1518-1580) and
the scene of his labours. His churches are referred to above.
He indefatigably studied, and measured, all the Roman antiquities,
as may be seen by the drawings in his book on architecture. His
designs were mostly erected in brick and stucco, the lower story
being rusticated, and the upper ones having pilasters. A second
method was to comprise two floors in the height of the order
(No. 216 G), to obtain scale in that feature, and unity and dignity
in. the whole composition. There are several examples in Vicenza
of both of these methods, as the Palazzo Barbarano (A.D. 1570)
(No. 216 H), the Palazzo Chierecati (A.D. 1560), the Palazzo Tiene
(A.D. 1556), the Palazzo Capitanio (formerly Prefitizio) (No. 216 G),
and the Palazzo Valmarana (A.D. 1556).
The Teatro Olimpico (A.D. 1580), with the stage built in
perspective, is an interesting building completed by Scamozzi.
The Basilica at Vicenza, originally erected in the mediaeval
period (about 1444), owes its importance to the double-storied
Renaissance arcades. These arcades (Nos. 215 and 216 A, B, c)
were designed by Palladio in 1549, and are his most famous
work, being built in a beautiful stone in two stories of Doric
and Ionic orders, separated by arches supported on a minor order.
This is generally known as the Palladian "motif" and was pro-
duced in this case by the necessity of making each bay correspond
with the Gothic hall, of which it forms the frontispiece.
The Villa del Capra, Vicenza (generally known as the Rotonda),
is an
example of the application of the features of Classic
architecture carried to an extreme
(Nos. 216 D, E, F and
238 B).
It is a square building, with a pillared
portico on each face
leading to a central rotunda, which appears externally as a low
dome above the tiled roof, hipped ways from the angles ol
all
themain building. The design of this buildingwas utilized by
Lord Burlington at Chiswick (page 581), and it has also been
copied elsewhere, both in England and on the Continent.
Although Palladio's designs were mainly executed in common
materials such as brick and stucco, and were often never
fully
carried out, still their
publication in books had a far-reaching
influence on European
architecture, and he wl& followed in his
methods by Inigo Jones (page
567).
Verona owes many of its most important
buildings to
Sanmicheli (A.D.
1484-1549), an architect of ability, who
was also the originator of a new
system of fortification, and
the entrance
gateways through the fortifications of Verona are
excellent instances of his
power of giving character to his works,
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216.
4QO COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE.

original treatment, in which

he gave great extension
by a bold and
to the use of rustication as a means of effect.
The Palazzi Pompeii (A.D. 1550) (No. 217 A), Bevilacqua, and
at Verona.
Canossa, are the best known examples of his style
The Palazzo del Consiglio (A.D. 1500) at Verona was erected
by Fra Giocondo, and is chiefly remarkable for the colored
" "
sgraffito work of the facade.
Note. Characteristic ornament is shown in No. 218.

4. COMPARATIVE.
THE FLORENTINE, ROMAN, AND VENETIAN SCHOOLS.
A. Plans.
Florence. The utmost
simplicity and compactness, a style of
planning adapted to rather than country buildings.
town,
Staircases inclosed by walls (Nos. 19 1, 193) were vaulted by
ascending barrel-vaults. In church work, the Roman coffered
and vaulted nave (No. 193 E), the Byzantine domical treatment
(No. 193 A), and the Basilican (No. 193 j), were all followed.
Rome. More varied planning on a grander scale (Nos. 196, 198
and 199). Staircases, circular and elliptical, with columnar
supports, are features, as those in the Barberini, Corsini, and
Braschi palaces and the Scala Regia of the Vatican. In church
work, the dome over a circular space (Roman type) (No. 199 c),
and the dome on pendentives (No. 199 G), were used.
Venice. Where an open site permitted, a broken, complex, and
picturesque disposition was adopted otherwise a straight front to
;

the canals had to be adhered to (No. 208). Staircases, placed

in a central area, surrounded with arcades, belong to this school.
In church work, the Roman barrel-vaulted type (No. 211 D), the
dome on pendentives and Basilican plan (No. 211), were used.
B. Walls.
Florence. The style of fenestration and rusticated quoins
(Nos. 191 and 192). The astylar treatment, which dispenses
with orders and makes each story complete in itself, while
subordinated as a whole by the great top cornice (No. 191)
was adopted. In pure wall treatment it is akin to Egyptian art.
Rome. The style of pilasters (No. 195). Two or more stories
are united by an order upon a graud scale
(No. 200). Windows
are disturbing elements, without which the designs would have the
unity of Greek temples.
Venice. The style of columns (Nos. 207 and 209). Stories are
defined by an order to each. Excessive separation by the
entablatures is modified, and corrected by breaking them round
the columns. In the multiplicity of parts the style allies itself
to the Roman, as in the Colosseum.
217.
218.
 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE. 493
c. Openings.
Florence. Openings are small, wide- spaced, and severe in
treatment (No. 191). The typical opening is an archway in
rusticated work, divided by a column carrying two minor arches,
forming a semi-tracery head (No. 194 D). In courtyards, arches
resting directly on columns are typical (No. 191).
Rome. Openings seem small in relation to the great order
adopted (No. 195). A square-headed opening was treated with a
framework of architrave mouldings (No. 196), and later on with
orders on a small scale, surmounted by pediments (No. 197).
Venice. Openings are large, numerous, and close set ;
the
arcade and colonnade, as in the Colosseum, were adapted to
palace facades. The treatment of a centre and two wings,
obtained by window spacing, was continued from previous periods
(Nos. 207 and 209).
D. Roofs.
Florence. Flat pitch tiled roofs are sometimes visible (No. 192).
Raking vaults to staircases, and simple cross or waggon-vaults
in halls, generally frescoed.
In churches, the low dome over the crossing was a favourite
feature (No. 193).
Rome. Roofs rarely visible (No. 197).
Vaults of a similar kind were more elaborated, treated with
coffering or stucco modelling (No. 198 H), after the style of the
then newly-discovered Baths of Titus. Domes mounted upon
a high drum and crowned with a lantern are universal in churches
(No. 199).
Venice. Roofs having balustrades preferred (No. 210 A).
Pictorial effect was attempted in the vaulting of halls and stair-
cases. Domes are grouped with towers in churches (Nos. 211
and 212).
In Milan and other North Italian cities, the low internal cupola
was often covered externally by a lofty structure in diminishing
stages, as at the Certosa, Pavia, and S. Maria della Grazie,
Milan.

E. Columns.
Florence. Early examples do not have the orders (No. 192),
though columns were used to arcades, the arches springing direct
from the capitals (No. 191).
Rome. The application of the orders on a great scale is the
" In their use, the scale of openings, and the
motif' of the style.
internal necessities of the building, were not regarded, and even
such features as balustrades were not regulated by use, but by
the system of proportion to the order employed (Nos. 195, 197-
and 200).
494 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE.

Venice. The problem of successive tiers of orders was worked

out (Nos. 207, 208 and 209) projecting columns were preferred
;

to pilasters, and entablatures were usually broken round these

projections.
F. Mouldings.
Florence. Moulding are few and simple. Those between
stories were reduced to the minimum, to give full effect to the
of which were based on
grand crowning cornice, the details
Classic examples (Nos. 191 and 194).
Rome. Close adaptation of the features of the Classic orders
marks the Roman style (Nos. 198 and 206), until Michael Angelo,
and his followers, despising the sound methods of the earlier
architects, introduced their arbitrary details.
Venice. Prominence of detail is characteristic of the late
Renaissance works in Venice entablatures have deep soffits
;

and keystones, and great projection, while spandrels have figures

in high relief (Nos. 208, 210 and 214).

G. Ornament.
The revival of fresco painting and its application to buildings
by the artists of the great schools of Italian painting had an
important decorative effect on all the schools.
Sculptured ornament to friezes carved with infant genii, scrolls,
fruit and masks, was abundantly used in the three schools.
Florence (No. 194). Decoration, such as carving and sculpture,
is collected in masses, which contrast with the plain wall surfaces,
as in the great stone shields at the angles of palaces (No. 192).
Rome (No. 206). Stands midway between Florentine and
Venetian work, having more variety than prevails in the sternness
of the former, and less exuberance than is found in the latter.
Venice (No. 214). Decoration is equally spread throughout the
facade. Every spandrel has its figure, and the high relief of
sculpture competes with the architectural detail in prominence
(No. 209).

5. REFERENCE BOOKS.
"
Venezia "(published by Ongania). Venice, 1890-1894.
Calli e Canali in
"
Cicognara (Conte F. L.). Le Fabbriche e i Monument! cospicui di
Venezia." 2 vols,, folio. Venice, 1838-1840.
Leoni (G.). "The Architecture of Andrea Palladio." London,
1715, '21, '42.
Paoletti (P.).
"
L'Architettura
e la Scultura del Rinascimento in
Venezia." 3 vols., folio.
Venice, 1893.
Ruskin (J.) "
Examples of the Architecture of Venice." Folio. 1851.
Ruskin (J.)." Stones of Venice." 3 vols., 8vo. 1851-1853.
Schmidt (O.). " Vicenza." Folio. 1898.
Crawford (F. Marion).- "Marietta.'' ) XT.
.
. . .
Hlstoncal Novels.
Oliphant( Mrs.). "Makers of Venice."/
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