Acknowledgement

I would like to thank all those who helped in making this work a success
especially my supervisors: Dr. Atta Taha Zidan, Professor of Curricula and English
Teaching Methodology and Vice Dean of Community affairs and environmental
development, Minia Faculty of Education for his invaluable supervision efforts and
insightful comments on every detail of this work. Also I would like to thank Dr.
Nasrallah Mohamad Mahmoud, Professor of Curricula and Math Methodology, Head
of the Department of Curricula and Instruction and Ex-Dean of Qena Faculty of
Education for his encouragement and patience throughout the work. My deep
thanks and gratitude go also to Dr. Amer Bakeer Ali and Dr. Mohamad Abolyosr for
their sincere efforts and support.
Credit also goes to all the members of the jury who helped to correct the
record of this work at every step, and final special thanks go to Dr.Gaber M.
Abdallah and Mr. Rashed Marzouk, of the Psychology department, who helped in
the statistical treatment in the study.
 Dedication
This book is dedicated to my wife,
who aided me in undertaking this dissertation,
and the ones that followed.

2
 Table of Contents
Content Page

Chapter One: The problem and its Context. 5-17

Chapter Two: Theoretical Background 19-49

Chapter Three : Review of Literature 51-87

Chapter Four: Materials and Methodology 89-97

Chapter Five: Findings and Discussion 99- 112

References 113- 128

Appendices 129-319
A) Tables 131- 140
B) The training program 141-292
Frame of the program 141- 149
Teachers’ Guide 151- 186
Students’ Book 187- 291
C) The pre posttest in basic reading skills 293-301
D) The needs assessment inventory 303-307
E) The English Proficiency Examination for 309- 319
Egypt(EPEE)

3
4
 Chapter I

The Problem and Its Context

Research into reading in English as a second or a foreign language ( Lewkowicz

1988, Hayes 1988, Norris 1988, Simons 1989,Anderson 1990, Carver 1992 , Cornish
1992 , Grant 1984, Moharam 1997 ) has shown that reading is not the step by step
process of building up letters into words , relating written words to their spoken
equivalents , joining words to form sentences. On the contrary, reading is a highly
complex interaction between a reader and a text , in which the reader makes sense
of the text using both textual and non-textual clues. Reading is, in Goodman’s
words, “a psychological guessing game. It involves an interaction between thought
and language” (1967:127)
Reading is an interactive skill. In this respect, the mental processes involved are
similar to those employed while listening. In both, the students are engaged in
decoding a message rather than encoding. Both require more than just a passive
knowledge of the vocabulary and structure of the language. Reading, however,
employs the visual sense while listening utilizes the auditory sense. (Grant, 1994) On
the other hand, Nuttal (1982) believes that meaning cannot be passively absorbed.
The reader often has to work hard to get the meaning out by active “interrogation
of the text”.

Rivers (1985) and Al-Mutawa (1989) believe that reading is a skill when
developed can be most easily maintained at a big level by the students themselves
without further help from the teacher; as it involves linguistic aspects and cultural
allusions , providing them with real life situations.

The overall purpose for teaching reading is to develop in the reader the
attitudes, abilities, and skills needed for obtaining information and reacting to ideas,
developing interests and, finally, deriving pleasure by reading through
understanding. In Nuttall’s view one reason for reading is that we want to
5
understand other people’s ideas. The understanding may not be total, but the fact
that we cannot get into the writer’s mind is no excuse for not doing our best to
understand what he is trying to say. (Nuttall, 1982)

The reading process is hindered by the reader’s imperfect knowledge of the

language being read. As a result the reader is often unable to make the necessary
guesses or predictions; s/he will use the wrong clues, or make the wrong
associations. It will be therefore the function of the reading program to make
explicit the intrinsic linguistic knowledge as well as the strategies and techniques
implicit in the reading skill.

Within the English Language curriculum the basic reading comprehension program
can perform a number of roles. Williams (1984: 13) suggests four reasons for
including reading comprehension in a language course:

“ 1- so that learners can have further practice of language that they have already
met with through listening and speaking.

2-so that learners can learn how to make sense of texts, in order to extract the
information they need from them.

3-so that learners can practice language in order to re-use it in writing.

4-so that learners can find enjoyment through reading.”

The role of reading comprehension within the curriculum will of course determine
not only the type of reading materials used, but also the type of learning activities
and teaching techniques that will occur in the classroom.

Basic reading comprehension is one of the basic reading skills to be acquired during
the language course. It is indeed the one in which the students will have the
greatest ability at the end of their language course – the one which can be a basis

6
for individual learning about the country and its people , the one which can serve as
a vehicle for entering into the literature of the country’s present and past
civilization , the one which will stay with them longest , and the one which many
students will have an opportunity to use.

Students seem to lack the basic reading skills necessary for reading and
comprehension. Results of the English Proficiency Examination for Egypt (EPEE) have
repeatedly shown very low scores for reading for faculties of Education. (CDELT
Documents: 1985). Typical reading scores on the cloze test on entry into the first
year were in the region of 15%. These rise to 20% for the end of first year and
beginning of the second year and to 30% for the end of the second year. Similarly,
typical results on the Reading Comprehension test on entry to the first year were in
the region of 17%. These rise to 34% for the end of the first year and the beginning
of the second year and to 47% for the end of the second year.

It is a matter of serious concern that at the end of the second year the average
student in faculties of Education cannot attain a score of 50% on fairly elementary
reading comprehension tasks. The only time any statistical valid measure has been
applied in Upper Egypt was during the Curriculum Development Project in 1978 /
1982 when an earlier form of (EPEE) known as ASUPE (Ain Shams University
Proficiency Exam) was applied. Galal (1987 :5) reports the results of the reading
subtest as follows: on the cloze test the mean was 21.8 %, and on the multiple
choice (M/C) comprehension test the mean was 16%. These results and the above
results indicate that students’ ability is low and their improvement is low as well.

Students in the Primary section in Faculties of Education face more difficulties in

English courses in general and in basic reading in particular. This is due to the lack of
qualification (two / or three years in stead of four) and the order of selection

Nowadays the Integrated English Language Program IELP II is performing some activities in the field of preservice
teacher assessment i.e. ( Minia workshop on supervisory skills and primary education , 1999 and Assuit Program on
assessing and developing the speaking skills of EFL preservice teachers ,2000)
7
(usually on the basis of students’ scores in secondary stage general certificate
examination of English). The results of a needs assesment inventory (conducted by
the researcher and validated by a jury) as well as a polit study show a very low level
in reading and a bad need for training in basic reading skills in particular.

This reading problem in turn raises even more serious questions as to how
students really cope with the numerous unsimplified English language texts
(including texts not in contemporary English) that they are required to read,
especially in literature courses. It is unfortunately well known that students often do
not read the texts, but have recourse to simplified versions, translations and
lecturers’ notes.

To the knowledge of the researcher, as yet no detailed research findings are

available about basic reading skills of students in the Primary Division in Faculties of
Education, the findings of the questionnaire and the polit study lead us to believe
the following to be the case:
1-Students do not use the structural analysis clues involved in the text.
-They do not use knowledge of prefixes, suffixes, roots to unlock the
meaning of a new word.
-They do not use knowledge of sentences patterns, word markers, or
punctuation clues to understand the meaning of new sentences and
phrases.
2-Students do not use the contextual analysis clues involved in the text.
-They do not use knowledge of synonyms, antonyms, or examples to know
the meaning of a new word.
-They do not use their linguistic sense of the sentence to unfold the
meaning of a word in context, a phrase in context, or a widespread
proverb or idiom.

8
 The Ministry of Education conducted some short-term programs for training
Primary stage teachers of English. But this is not a comprehensive solution for the
problem, a basic reading program is badly needed to develop the basic reading skills
for the prospective teachers of English of the primary stage.

In Eskey’s words (1983:4) “ it is a skill, not content, that a reading class should
teach”. Once the learner-reader has acquired this skill (or set of skills) s/he will be
able to apply it to any text. What is needed, therefore, is “ an approach that will help
the students read the passage before them, and at the same time enable them to
read with improved facility the text, which may be completely different or
unrelated.” (Pett, 1982 :17 )

The fundamental objectives of reading may be met by a program that: (Badrawy

,1992 :17)

1-develops in each reader skills in

a.Recognizing many words at sight
b.Gaining the meaning of unknown words or expressions quickly
by using one or a combination of the following :
analysis of structure
phonics
configuration of the graphic symbol
contextual analysis
the dictionary
c. Comprehending and interpreting the meaning of words , phrases,
and sentences


The most recent of these is the one entitled Teletutor developed and presented by the center for Adult and
Continuing Education in the American University in Cairo CACE and the center for curriculum and Instructional
Materials in the Ministry of Education CCIMD, 1999/2000
9
 d .Reading silently at speeds appropriate to the content and purpose
e .Reading orally with fluency, suitable speed ,expression , correct
pronunciation, and attention to enunciation
f. Evaluating the content of what is read

g. Using books efficiently: locating information, using the library, etc.

2-provides many opportunities for rich and varied experiences through reading;
3-develops a lasting interest in reading; and
4-fosters the resourceful and creative use of reading to meet particular needs and
interests.

The suggested basic reading program is to be based on the skills required at each
level of the basic reading process. The materials read are to be at a level to
challenge but not to frustrate the learner-reader, to be tailored to the student’s
interests, and to be plentiful. The skills taught are to be both linguistic and cultural,
the linguistic covering the areas of syntax and vocabulary; the cultural, the areas of
concepts and rhetorical organization.

The main purpose of the suggested program for Primary Stage prospective
teachers includes:

1-to train students to use the appropriate structural analysis skills to handle to the
task at hand.

2-to train students to use the skills of contextual analysis to clarify the meaning of
new words or phrases in their reading texts.

Within this framework, the best learning environment is one in which “ both
teacher and students work together. With minimal teaching intervention, students
are encouraged to use their own developing skills to solve their reading problems.”
(Clark and Silberstein 1987: 137)

10
Problem of the study

Context of the problem:

The ability to read is recognized as one of the most important skills that a person
can acquire . Reading is a tool of the acquisitive mind; it is the vehicle for obtaining
ideas that cannot be transmitted verbally. Basic reading skills are very important for
learning to read. “It is a mistake to think of reading as a subject, rather it is an
introduction to critical and creative reading and an extension of knowledge.”
(Moharam, 1997: 12)

As a teacher trainer of primary stage student teachers, the researcher noticed that
student teachers of English lack the basic reading skills, particularly the decoding
skills. They do not use structural devices, nor contextual devices in their readings.
They seek to convey all the information of the text without making use of the
necessary basic skills for this process. So, the researcher tries to investigate the
effectiveness of a suggested program in reading for developing basic skills needed
for these students.

Questions of the Study

The study attempted to answer these three questions:

1.Are there any statistically significant mean differences between the

achievement of the subjects of the study in the pre test and that in the posttest of
basic reading skills?

2.Are there any statistically significant mean differences between the

achievement of the male subjects of the study and that of the female subjects in
the posttest of basic reading skills?

11
 3.Is there any statistically significant correlation coefficient value between the
achievement of the subjects of the study in the proficiency test and that in the
posttest of basic reading skills?

Purpose of the Study

The study aimed at:

1.Measuring the effect of a suggested reading program on developing primary stage

prospective teachers’ basic reading skills.

2.Measuring the difference, if any, between female and male subjects’ achievement
in the test of basic reading skills.

3.Measuring the correlation, if any, between the language proficiency level of the
subjects and their achievement level in the test of basic reading skills.

Hypotheses of the study

1- There are no statistically significant mean differences between the subjects’

achievement on the pre-test and that on the post-test.

2- There are no statistically significant mean differences between the male subjects’
achievement and the female subjects’ achievement on the post-test.

3- There is no statistically significant correlation between the achievement of the

subjects on the proficiency test and on the posttest of basic reading.

Significance of the study

For Primary Stage prrospective teachers of English, this study is of special

importance for the following considerations:

12
1. The study Provides primary stage prospective teachers of English with practical
guidelines for their present and future study.

2. The program utilized could facilitate the readings tasks in English for the
students ,such as (literature, linguistics, education, in a way that enhances
their study skills

3. The study helps Primary stage prospective teachers of English establish the
right reading habits , most essential of which are the basic reading skills ,in
order to teach threm appropriately to their future students.

4. It is also hoped that this program will be a step in the development of training
courses for teaching other reading skills to English majors in the facultires of
Education..

Delimitations of the study

The main skills treated in the present study are the skills of structural analysis and
contextual analysis. These skills have been chosen because students in the primary
Division in faculties of Education showed a very low level in basic reading skills.
Results from a questionnaire for TEFL experts, and a pilot study emphasized the bad
need for training these students on these skills.

Procedures of the study

Tools:
1. A needs assessment inventory to determine the skills and sub skills of structural
analysis and contextual analysis.
2. A frame for the program of teaching basic reading skills.
3. The teaching program.

4. A pre-post test on basic reading skills.

13
5. EPEE (English Proficiency Examination for Egypt) for determining the subjects’
language profeciency before the experiement.
Steps:
1. Review of literature.
2. Designing the needs assessment inventory.

3. Choosing the sample from the second year primary stage English Majors in Qena
Faculty of Education, South Valley University.
4. Determining the members of the experimental group on the following variables:
a) Language proficiency b) age c) years of studying English
5. Designing the frame of the program.
6. Establishing the appropriacy and validity of the frame of the program by a jury of
TEFL experts.
7. Designing the teaching program.
8. Establishing the appropriacy and validity of the reading program by the
jury.
9. Administering the pre-test.
10. Training the experimental group, using the suggested basic reading
program.
11. Administering the post-test.
12. Analyzing students’ scores on the tests statistically using
T-test.
13. Reporting and discussion of results.
14. Conclusions, recommendations, and suggestions for further research.

14
 Definition of terms

Program:

Abolyosr (1996: 9) defines a program as “ a series of instructional activities which

take place over a period of time”.

The researcher defines the program as a series of educational objectives ,

content areas, instructional activities, and evaluation tools ,that aim at imparting
certain skills on a certain group of students.

Reading:

There is much controversy among scientists on the definition of reading ;Lapp and
Flood (1978 :6 ) see that all definitions of reading fall in two categories; first there
are those who view reading primarily as a decoding process ,a breaking of a visual
code . In a second view, reading for meaning is emphasized from the very earliest
stages of instruction, in this view, reading as a comprehension process is stressed.
Mckeown (1975: 15 ) confirms that “reading consists basically in deciphering a
code.”

The definition adopted in the present study is Lapp and Flood’s definition (1978:
90); “Reading is the process of perceiving, interpreting, and evaluating printed
material. It is one of the four major tools of communication; listening, speaking,
reading, and writing. It is usually silent ,and it is receptive in nature . Reading
requires the development of meaningful vocabulary and a multiplicity of skills. The
reader must be able to perceive and recognize written symbols, and must be able to
associate concepts with written symbols. He must be able to understand both
concrete and abstract ideas as they are presented in written form. “

15
Basic Reading Skills:

The basic reading skills presented in this study are mainly word identification skills:
structural analysis and contextual analysis.

Structural Analysis:

While Ives et al (1989 :254) see structural analysis as an “ ambiguous term that
some writers use to mean the identification of some pronunciation units and some
meaning units in words” , they prefer to call it “ word structure clues and define it as
“Those correspondences between orthographic units and units of meaning and
sound or pronunciation that enable readers to infer what written words are by
identifying their meaning and/or pronunciation component. Word structure clues
include morphemic clues and phonic clues.”

On the other hand Helman et al (1998: 193 )define it as “ the investigation of

unknown words for known meaningful parts , such as root words , compound words
, contractions, prefixes and suffixes , plurals, past tense endings ,and comparison
endings .”

Anthony ( 1984:59 )defines it as “ the approach to word attack that is based on

recognition of compounds made up of smaller words.” The present study adopts
Helman’s definition.

Contextual analysis:

Anthony (1984: 55) sees it as “ a method of word attack which is the most
common means of determining word meaning, it is one in which students need
guidance if they are to develop real proficiency.”

Ives et al (1989:248) define it as “ the words and syntactic structures that

surround a word or other language unit and that affect its meaning. Contextual clues

16
refer to semantic and syntactic information that readers may use for identifying
written words.” Graves et al (1998:335) refer to contextual analysis as “the words ,
phrases, and sentences that surround an unknown word and provide clues to its
meaning.”

The present study adopts Graves et al’s definition.

17
18
 Chapter II
Theoretical Background of the Study

Word identification skills are among the basic reading skills readers of
English, or any language, need to learn. In the present study word identification
skills have been divided into structural analysis and contextual analysis skills.
Although they are interrelated, they are divided here for study purposes. In the
actual experience of reading, a reader makes use of all the available clues whether
contextual or structural. However in the teaching process, it is advisable that we
begin from the part to the whole, from the simple to the difficult, and form the
concrete to the abstract. Many teaching aids have been designed for teaching basic
reading and word identification skills through the use of simple readers or
educational videos (for example Learning to Read 1996, & Clues to Good Reading
1993).

Structural analysis includes morphemic clues and syntactic clues, whereas

contextual analysis includes explicit clues and implicit clues. (Flood and Lapp 1978,
Graves et al 1998, Helman et al 1981,1998, Grellet 1983 and Ives et al 1989). For
each kind of these subskills this chapter will focus on the nature of the clue, the
various forms included in one skill, how they work, what each clue depends on, the
advantages and the limitations of the clues.

Structural Analysis Clues

A cue is a prompt. It is something that is said that prompts someone, the next person, to say something. An
example would be: "How are you?" This is the cue. The response would be either of the next responses: "Fine, thank
you" "Not too well, thanks for asking" . A clue is used in both literature and grammar. In literature it is like a
foreshadowing. The clue to how a story will work itself out was given somewhere previous in the story. Grammatically,
a clue would be when one doesn't know what a word means (and doesn't want to look it up in a dictionary), the words
around that word are clues to what the word could mean or even what part of speech the word is. Example: "Could you
give me the shnarkle, I'm so hungry." Well, obviously, shnarkle is a food and also you will know it is a noun. (
ElKholy, 2001)

19
Morphemic Clues:

The term morpheme is somewhat difficult to define. Different linguists define

it differently. In general, it refers to the minimal spoken or written unit of meaning.
In reading, morphemic analysis refers to finding, isolating and identifying such units
(Hajjaj and Khrama, 1988)

Morphemes should not be confused with syllables. A morpheme is a unit in

the grammatical and lexical system of language; it always represents meaning. A
syllable does not represent meaning; it is a unit of pronunciation. (Ives et al, 1989:
93) Finding morphemes in words involves segmenting words into fragments and
determining whether meaning can be assigned to them.

Kinds of Morphemic Clues:

The effective use of morphemic clues for word identification depends on

readers’ familiarity with specific morpheme units. These include roots, prefixes,
suffixes, and inflections. (Helman et al 1998: 218, Flood 1987: 152)

Roots:

The root of a word is that –part of the word which is neither prefix nor suffix
and which conveys the major portion of the word’s meaning (Ives et al, 1989:107).
Roots are also word parts to which prefixes, suffixes, or both can be added.
(Meagher, L., & Thomas, G., 1984:89) A third definition of Root is that they are basic
words which have been carried over into English. (Brownstone et al, 1999:269)

The term Root is used here because it is the term usually used in materials
related to reading instruction, linguists, on the other hand, commonly use the term
base. A root in English may be free or bound. Free roots are variously called word
roots, morphemes or bases. They are always whole recognizable English words-the
smallest English words to which affixes may be attached. Examples include pay in
20
repay, comfort in comfortable and elephant in elephants. Bound roots are root units
that cannot occur alone in English, but must be attached to other morphemes. They
are variously called word roots, foreign word roots, parts, or particles. (Ives et al
1989: 109) Most of the English bound roots have been borrowed from other
languages especially Latin, Greek and Old French. Some examples are {fer}in transfer
(Latin) ,{chron} in chronology (Greek) and {cour}in courage (French).

Prefixes 1:

Prefixes are bound morphemes since they are not independent units. They
can occur only before roots and usually serves to modify the lexical meanings of
those roots. Prefixes usually occur singly, but sometimes there are two of them in
sequence at the beginning of a word. Each prefix also forms a separate syllable in
the word. Ives et al (1989) notice that most prefixes are not separated from the
roots to which they are attached, but a few are sometimes separated by hyphens.
This occurs when the lack of a hyphen would result in a sequence of letters that
might be misleading as in the word co-worker (vs. the unhyphenated form
coworker).

The use of prefixes for word identification purposes can probably best be
taught when the root parts of word are recognized as individual English words. It is
more difficult to use prefixes to identify words borrowed from other languages
which were taken into English with prefixes already attached. In such words the
roots are not clearly distinguishable as morphemes. However recognition of the
prefix can be helpful in interpreting the words, although their identification may not
be complete. Examples of such words are translate and combine. In these cases, the
prefix (trans) { indicating cross} and (com) {indicating with or together }give readers
a partial understanding of the words in which they appear.

For a complete list of some commonly used prefixes in English, refer to the students’ book, appendix (B)
21
 John (1997) suggests that the most effective way to completely identify words
through their prefixes is to combine the meanings of the prefixes with the meanings
of the roots. This is best accomplished when roots are recognized as whole
meaningful English words. A good teaching strategy is to present pairs of words, one
with the prefix attached, and the other without the prefix, in order to illustrate the
meaning function of the prefix. Examples are pay/repay, like/unlike, and worker/ co-
worker.(p.16)

3-Suffixes 2:

Suffixes are morphemes usually consisting of one, but in some instances, two
syllables, that are added to the ends of roots. They are also called derivational
suffixes to differentiate them from inflectional endings or inflectional suffixes. Like
prefixes, they are bound morpheme units since they cannot exist independently.

Suffixes affect the meanings of the roots to which they are affixed. Although
other aspects of meaning are involved as well, a primary function of derivational
suffixes is to indicate part of speech or syntactic function. “English has four sets of
such suffixes, one for each of the four major parts of speech; nouns, verbs,
adjectives and adverbs.”(Ives et al, 1989:110)

Many suffixes influence lexical meaning, whether or not they affect syntax.
For example the word care may be converted to careless or careful which are both
adjectives but whose suffixes give them very different lexical meanings.They seem
to develop meaning progressively. For example, from the basic root act (a noun or a
verb) is made the word active ( an adjective ) .From active are made the words
activity, activism ( both nouns ) and activate ( a verb).

For a complete list of some commonly used suffixes in English, refer to the students’ book, appendix (B)
22
Syntactic Clues

This is a word identification technique that relies on connected verbal text

and uses the clues available from the syntax of the language. Syntactic clues are
concerned with the relation rather than the referential aspects of language, that is ,
with how words are related to each other in sentences.

While syntactic clues can indicate the kinds of words that fit at a given point in
a sentence, there are semantic constraints that help determine what those words
can be. For example, in the sentence, “ the pretty _____ sang a beautiful song,”
syntactic clues indicate the presence of a noun. But just any noun is not semantically
acceptable. Nouns like sky, dress, butterfly, and stone would not make sense in the
light of other words in the sentence. Even man doesn’t fit comfortably in that slot
since men are not usually described as being pretty.( Kristen 1998, 2)

Kinds of Syntactic clues :

The several kinds of syntactic clues are described below:

Sentence Patterns and Forms:

Every language has a limited number of common patterns by which the

elements of the language may be arranged meaningfully. Readers can use this
information for the identification of words. They can anticipate what kinds of words
they can expect in certain positions in sentences if the sentence patterns are
familiar to them. They can also use the same information to verify words identified
through other techniques.
Statement Sentence Patterns : ( Hajjaj and Khrama, 1989 : 98)

S be Adv John is there \ in the garden..

23
S be C John is kind . (adj)
John is a doctor ( n)
SLVC John looks sad.
S In V The boy laughs.
S Trv O1 The boy reads a lesson.
S Trv O1 Adj The boy puts the book in the desk.
S Trv O1 C They made him a leader.
S Trv O2 O1 She gave him a present .
There be S Adv There is a man at the door.
It be Adj That …. It is important that you come on time.

Where S means Subject Inv means Intransitive verb

Tr means Transitive verb L V means linking verb
C means Complement Adj means Adjective
Adv means Adverb O means Objective
O1 means Direct Objective O2 means Indirect Objective

Question Sentence Patterns:

Auxiliary / Subject/ Main Verb….Is Rita going home?

Interrogative Word /Auxiliary /Subject/Main Verb….Why is Rita
going home?
Interrogative Word as Subject /Auxiliary/Main Verb …Who is going
home?
Interrogative Word as Direct Object /Auxiliary/Subject Main Verb…
Whom did you see?

Other sentence Patterns :

24
 These three also occur frequently.
Command Pattern : Verb ….. Stop !Go home !
Request Pattern : Polite Word /Verb …Please leave now .
Instruction Pattern .Auxiliary /not/ Verb…Don’t go there.

Word Order Sequences:

In addition to whole sentence pattern, various kinds of word sequences within

sentences can be used to identify word forms. Knowledge of common word
sequences enables readers to predict what kinds of words will mostly precede or
follow certain other words. Readers can look for familiar sequences as they read,
and as long as they recognize the other words in that sequence, can supply the one
they don’t know form their background knowledge. For example, word order
provides clues as to what words might appear in the following blank spaces:
The _________teacher
Ran home __________
Cute _______

The first blank requires an adjective such as strict , or knowledgeable ; the

second ,an adverb such as quickly or slowly ,and the third , a noun such as child ,
baby , or puppy. The most predictable English word order sequences include the
following:
Adjective /noun happy children
Verb/adverb walked slowly
Adverb/verb truthfully spoke
Article /noun an egg
Article /adjective /noun the handsome lad
Verb/complement had many friends
Preposition/article /noun over the hill

25
Qualifier/adjective or adverb very tall, rather well
Possessive noun /noun dog’s tail, God’s slaves

Punctuation3 and Typographic Devices:

The written forms of most languages use punctuation marks as signals to

assist readers to comprehend spoken materials . “The punctuation system of
written English however is far from complete representation of English intonation.”
(Raimes, 1994: 245) .The use of punctuation has developed from and is governed by
editorial practice.

Punctuation marks and typographic devices provide clues to some aspects of

intonation, and therefore can provide useful information in the identification of
word forms. Ives et al (1989 : 85) add that It should be noted that punctuation
marks can serve either as visual configuration clues or syntactic clues.

How structural clues work :

Morphemic clues :

English morphemes are divided into two broad classes , free and bound. The
dividing line between these two categories is not rigid, and the criteria for
division should be regarded as general principles only.( Bander 1982 : 89)

A free morpheme is one that can occur as an independent word. It can also
appear attached to other morphemes with no appreciable change in meaning.
For example water is a free morpheme meaning the liquid falling from the sky as
rain and filling oceans, rivers, lakes and ponds. Water refers to the same liquid in
words like watercress, waterfall, waterfast, and rewatering.

For a complete list of punctuation marks and their functions, refer to the students’ book appendix (B)

26
 Bound morphemes appear only attached to another morpheme, which may
itself be bound or free. Bound morphemes include prefixes, derivational suffixes,
inflectional endings, and some roots.

Another distinction to be made is between productive and nonproductive

morphemes. A productive morpheme is simply one that is freely used to make
new words. A nonproductive morpheme is one that is not so used. An example
of a productive morpheme is the prefix {anti} meaning against as in antiwar,
antilibiral, anti-Communist, antilabor , and so on. A nonproductive morpheme is
the derivational suffix {th} used to form such abstract nouns as health, wealth,
and strength. Although it comes from a very common Old English suffix , it is no
longer used in making new words. (Graves et al,1998:45)

If used in isolation , morphemic analysis is a slower , more tedious method of

word identification than are whole word techniques. It is however, a fairly reliable
technique which students can use independently. It helps readers build up their
confidence and their competence in decoding writing. This is especially true when it
is used with contextual and syntactic cues. If unfamiliar word forms are seen in the
context of unknown words ,it is often possible to infer what they are without
identifying all of their parts.

Syntactic clues:

Since syntactic clues involve rational aspects of language , they are the clues
that answer the reader’ question “ does it sound right ?” ( Ives et al,1989 : 78) If the
word identified sounds right to the readers in the context of the sentence, it
probably fits a syntactic structure that is familiar to them. If it doesn’t sound right ,
the likelihood that the reader misidentified the word by substituting one of a
different part of speech; that is , one serving a different grammatical function in the
sentence than the one represented by the written word they were trying to identify.
27
 Students who use syntactic clues are likely to substitute words of the same
part of speech when they misidentify words in reading ; those who don’t are likely
to substitute words of different parts of speech. Even when they misidentify a word
as a non-word or a non-sense word , the correct part of speech can frequently be
associated with the nonsense word so that it sounds right grammatically even
though it doesn’t make any sense in the sentence. Consider , for example the
following sentence in which the non-sense word hoho is used : “we will have a
picnic if the hoho stays fair.” Nonsense words in context may be acceptable
syntactically although they are never acceptable semantically.

Students who read for meaning and who use syntactic and contextual clues as
word identification techniques are usually aware of what doesn’t sound right and
/or doesn’t make sense. On the other hand , students who concentrate their
attention on within-word clues unrelated to sentence context ( configuration,
phonics, or morphemic clues) , often don’t go back to correct their errors even
though their reading may not make sense or sound right. They may not even realize
it when they misidentify words, since their attention is directed primarily to the
naming of words and not to the acquisition of meaning.

What Structural Analysis Clues depend on:

Morphemic clues

1. To use morphemic clues ,readers need to be aware that {1} words can consist
of more than one morpheme, {2} morphemes are meaningful parts of words,
{3} multimorphemic words can be divided into their individual morphemes,
and {4} the meaning of the whole word is derived from the sum of its
meaningful parts. They need to understand the concepts of root, prefix,
suffix, inflectional ending and contraction. Moreover they need to recognize
specific items in each of these categories. The more individual roots, prefixes,
28
 suffixes, inflectional endings and contractions that readers are familiar with,
the more effectively they are able to use morphemic clues for word
identification.

2. The effectiveness of this technique depends in part on the students’ reading

vocabularies. Because all words contain roots, either free or bound, the more
roots readers can recognize through configuration or phonic clues , for
example, the more words they can identify in their derived and inflected
forms.( Ives et al 1989 : 79)

3. Knowing certain foreign languages may be helpful in the use of morphemic

clues. Many prefixes, suffixes, and roots derive from Latin , French and
Greek. This technique may be especially useful to older students to whom
English is a second or foreign language.( Spedding 1993)

Syntactic Clues:
1.There are some conditions that depend on the readers’ knowledge of
language; these include their knowledge of how syntactic components of
language are represented in writing , and readers’ reasoning abilities. The more
they know about the components of language, such as sentence patterns, word
order ,or punctuation marks, the better prepared they are to use syntactic
clues.
2. Older students are likely to be more successful than young beginning readers
in using syntactic clues. The reason for their superiority is their more extensive
experience with both oral and written language. Older readers also have an
advantage over beginning readers because , generally, they have greater
reasoning abilities.

29
3.There are some conditions that are related to the reading materials and
readers’interaction with them ; these include the level of difficulty , the appeal
of the material and the language being used. There are various variables that
affect the level of difficulty . Syntactic complexity is one of these variables . For
example, basic sentence meaning is expressed in the subject-verb relationship .
These two components appear together at the beginning of simple sentences
such as “ the cat drank the milk.” If any word or words intervene between the
subject and the verb , understanding the sentence is usually made more
difficult. For instance ,one or more modifiers can occur between the subject and
the verb , as in the sentence “the cat, thirty and hungry drank the milk.” The
insertion of hungry and thirsty separates the subject cat from the verb drank ,
making the relationship between them less obvious. ( Martin P, 2000)

4. It should be noted that the syntax of written material is usually more difficult
to interpret than comparable syntax in speech. This is due to the fact that
speakers can provide more clues to syntax than writers can. Speakers can use
intonation , facial expression, and gestures. That is , they can use
suprasegmental and paralinguistic clues that are not available to the
readers. In writing , an equal amount of space separates words. It becomes
the task of readers to group them meaningfully.

5. Dialects variations affect the use of syntactic clues. Since syntax is one
dimension in which dialects differ , identifying word forms in standard
written English through syntactic clues may be difficult, if not impossible for
students who speak nonstandard dialects. One simply cannot anticipate or
predict what one does not know.

6. Students for whom English is a second language may also experience some
difficulty in using syntactic clues. The placement of syntactic structures in

30
 sentences often differ from one language to another. In Arabic , for example,
adjectives usually follow the nouns they modify and always agree with them
in number and gender. In English, adjectives normally precede the nouns
they modify and their forms are constant. In the English phrase “ the white
house” , the adjective white precedes the noun house . In the Arabic
equivalent , “Al bayt Al abyd” the adjective Al abyd follows the noun Al bayt.(
Hajjaj & Khrama 1989)

Advantages of Structural Analysis Clues:

Morphemic clues

1. The main advantage of morphemic clues is that their use enables readers to
become independent in word identification. If readers use these clues
correctly, they can be fairly certain that their identification of words is
accurate. They don’t need external verification . Morphemic clues are
particularly useful in identifying word forms that readers have not previously
encountered in print.

2. Morphemic analysis not only enables students to identify word forms in their
reading, but also helps to increase their vocabularies. As students learn new
morphemes, they can combine them into meaningful sequences to construct
new words.
3. Morphemic clues are not as sensitive to the difficulty and interest levels of
instructional materials as are, for example , contextual clues. Since they are
restricted to word components, they can be relatively independent of context.
At times, though contextual clues are a necessary adjunct to morphemic clues
in identifying words. For example, the syntactic clue provided by the pronouns
she and her is essential for the successful identification of the word form
{dresses} in the phrases she dresses and her dresses. The pronoun she
31
 indicates that dresses is a verb; the pronoun her indicates that it is a noun. (
Ives et al,1989)

Syntactic Clues:
1.The use of syntactic clues , together with contextual clues, enables the
readers to identify words and word groups, more rapidly and efficiently than they
can by using any other technique. The more familiar the syntax of the material is to
the readers , the more rapidly they can identify the words.
2. Another advantage of this technique is that entire groups of words
representing complete syntactic units may be identified without requiring the
reader to examine individual words or their components. More words can be
identified in a single eye fixation if they are in meaningful sequences within
recognized syntactic structures than if the words are unrelated to each other in any
meaningful way.
3.Syntactic structure is a source of information that readers can use to
predict and infer the words in a sentence . The better their predictions , the less
visual-orthographic information they need. In the sentence “ She is a very tall girl” ,
the word tall is obviously a modifier of girl ( because of its position between very
and girl).Words like tell, till, tail, or ball would be ruled out as possibilities with
minimal , if any, visual or phonic clues. (Ives et al, 1989)

4. One of the most important advantages of syntactic clues is that they are
generalizable to the identification of all word forms in all kinds of contexts. Also
words that don’t follow consistent letter-sound correspondences can be identified
as readily as those that do. Syntactic clues are particularly useful for identifying
structure words that are very often difficult to identify through other
techniques.(Oslon, 1982)

32
Limitations of Structural analysis clues:

Morphemic clues

1. In morphemic clues ,as well as in some other word identification techniques,

one has to do with dialect variations. In some nonstandard English dialects
inflectional endings are used differently than in standard English. Consider the
following pairs of sentences:
Nonstandard : I have five cent
Standard : I have five cents.
Nonstandard : Kate wear new shoes
Standard : Kate wears new shoes

2. Another limitation also is that morphemic analysis can usually be used only to
identify content words. It involves the analysis of words into their semantic
units. Since most structure words consist of only a single morpheme , they
cannot be divided into smaller subunits of meaning. The only exceptions are
those structure words that are compounds such as myself, however, heretofore,
and so on. Nouns , verbs, adjectives and adverbs are more likely to consist of
combinations of morphemes.

3. Whereas beginning readers cannot use contextual clues effectively because of

their own limitations, they are unable to use morphemic clues primarily
because of the absence of such clues in their reading materials. ( Flood & Lapp,
1987)

4. Morphemic clues also have some unique limitations posed by the

inconsistencies of specific morphemic units. Although most prefixes are readily
perceived , some present difficulties because they can be spelled in more than
one way. For example the prefix{ com }meaning with or together can be spelled

33
 :{col} as in collate ,{cor} as in corroborate , and {con} in congress. Note the
spelling of the prefix{in} meaning not in impossible, irrational, illegal, and
ignoble. (Brownstein ,1999)|

5. Probably the major problem in using free roots for word identification is that
adding some derivational suffixes and inflectional endings changes the spelling
of the roots. Such spelling changes may render the roots unrecognizable to
readers who are not familiar with such changes and so don’t take them into
account. Ives et al (1989) find it important to make students aware of these
spelling changes. Then when they encounter derived and inflected words , they
will be able to figure out what the root words are, and so be able to identify the
whole words. Some common spelling changes follow: When a suffix or ending
that begins with a vowel letter is added to a root word that ends with {e} , the
{e} is dropped.
Skate +{ing}= skating
Drive +{er}= driver
Fame +{ous}=famous.

6. Some morphemic analysis entails the identification of meaningful subunits

within words, it is slower than whole word identification techniques. This
disadvantage is compensated for by the relative independence it allows readers.
The visual forms of morpheme are reasonably stable in English, so once a
morpheme is known it can usually be recognized wherever it appears. If one
morpheme of a word is known , the entire word is more easily identified.

Syntactic Clues:

Syntactic clues are subject to the same kinds of limitations that semantic and
picture clues are when used in isolation (Ives et al 1989) . Although a syntactic
structure can be successfully predicted from context , the specific items of
34
structure usually cannot. The final choice of the specific item can only be made in
the light of additional information , usually contextual or orthographic-
phonological. For example , in the sentence “ the man went to the ________ of the
house,” the syntax indicates that a noun belongs to the blank space. However the
specific noun cannot be predicted or identified without additional clues.
Syntactically , the context of the sentence indicates that the missing noun has some
relationship to the house., but only contextual or orthographic-phonological
information can reveal if it is the top, front , side , or back of the house. Syntactic
clues can be used successfully only when enough of the other words in the context
are identified easily enough for readers to follow writers’ syntactic structures
without difficulty. As a result, readers can use these clues only when the material
they are reading is at their instructional and independent reading levels.

Another limitation of syntactic clues is that they are not readily available to
beginning readers. Beginning readers must first learn to use other word
identification techniques such as the use of picture , configuration and phonic clues.
( Heilman et al, 1981 & 1998). By doing so they become able to identify a sufficient
number of words to enable them to use syntactic clues.

35
Contextual Analysis Clues

Contextual and structural clues are interdependent. Contextual units carry

structural information; structural units carry contextual information. Thus, readers
tend to use the two together to anticipate and confirm the identification of words.
It is probably for these reasons that many people who speak or write about the
teaching of reading do not distinguish between contextual and structural clues, but
refer to them together as meaning clues, sentence clues, story clues, or contextual
clues. ( refer to Anthony 1984 and Heilman et al 1981)

Kinds of Contextual Clues

Contextual clues may be either implicit or explicit. Implicit clues are those that
are inherent in written context. Explicit clues, on the other hand, are clues that are
deliberately included by a writer to provide additional or redundant information.
Implicit and explicit clues may be used singly, but they are more likely to be used in
combinations. The specific kinds of implicit and explicit clues are described below.

Explicit Clues

Writers use a variety of stylistic devices to clarify words and concepts that
they assume may be unfamiliar to or difficult for readers. Such devices are explicit
semantic clues. Authors and editors who prepare subject matter materials
frequently include them. Some of these devices are the following :

Synonyms. Synonyms may be included in context in several different ways. The basic
device is to introduce the synonym as a post-appositive addition, usually setting it
off with some form of punctuation, and frequently introducing it with or / that is.

36
(McCourt, 1980) In the examples that follow the word being clarified by the writer is
italicized:

He was reliable, or dependable, in everything he did.

A ferocious, that is, fierce dog, guarded the gate and snarled loudly.
The garrulous (talkative) man chattered incessantly.

Most of the other stylistic devices used by writers to clarify words and
concepts through synonyms are variations of the above. For example:
He killed the man with his rapier ,a sword.
Bishop O’Connor ordered the miscreant (or heretic ) expelled from the
Church.

Post-appositive synonyms may also be introduced by or without accompanying

punctuation , as in the following sentences:
While hiking in the mountains, they came to a tarn or mountain lake.
The male sperm fertilizes the ovum or egg.

This practice may bewilder inexperienced readers who may incorrectly

conclude from the first sentence that the hikers came upon both a tarn and a
mountain lake, and in the second, that the male sperm fertilizes two different
things.

Antonyms.

The contrast of antonyms is a useful explicit clue when one of the

antonyms of the pair is in the reading vocabularies of the readers. These contrasts
are frequently set up by correlative conjunctions such as not /but, both /and,
neither/nor, and not only /but also, among others. For example:

Both the rich and the destitute were welcome in his home.
37
In this sentence the correlative conjunctions both / and suggest that destitute is the
opposite of rich. The same suggestion could have been made had the writer used
not only / but also as the correlative conjunctions:
Not only the rich but also the destitute were welcome in his home.
Antonyms may also appear in separate sentences. The clues in such instance are
more difficult to recognize. Consider the following:

My father was beloved by everyone because he paid no attention to social class.

The rich were often in his home. Just as frequently the destitute would appear
there to enjoy his company. Everyone mourned when he died.

Antonyms need not appear in consecutive sentences to serve as clues to each other;
one or more sentences may intervene.

Examples. Examples included as clues may be introduced by using any of the devices
just described for synonyms, antonyms, definitions, and explanations. In addition,
examples may be introduced by the phrases for example and such as or, simply, by
citing them. Consider the following sentences:( Ives et al ,1989:61)
Citrus fruits, for example, oranges and grapefruits, should be included
in everyone’s daily diet.
The definitions of morphemes, such as prefixes and suffixes, may be
used to help identify difficult, technical words.
Some examples of conifers are pines, firs, and spruce trees.

Implicit Clues

The lexical value of individual words and of word combinations provides clues
to the identity of other words in a sentence or paragraph. Efficient use of such clues
in a particular instance depends upon readers’ knowledge relevant to the
information being communicated. The following are examples of implicit clues.

38
The Topic. The topic or subject matter helps determine the sense in which specific
words are used. If the topic relates to money, for example, the word form (bank)
probably refers to a depository for money; if the topic relates to geology, (bank)
may more likely refer to an elevation of ground. Previewing a selection before
reading it enables readers to become oriented to the topic of the selection so that
they can use semantic clues as soon as they begin reading. Without preview, readers
must gradually acquire information about the topic and are, therefore, less able to
use semantic clues as effectively at the beginning of the selection.( Ives et al, 1989:
56)

Words Preceding and/or Following an Unfamiliar Word in the Same Sentence.

Meanings of unfamiliar words can be inferred from the denotative and

connotative meanings of words that precede them in the same sentence, depending
upon readers’ past experiences and acquired concepts as well as their knowledge of
language. For example, in the sentence “Tony found the map of the U.K in the
_________,” the unfamiliar word form (atlas) may be anticipated and identified if
readers can relate it to the preceding word map.

Known words that follow an unknown word in the same sentence can be used
in the same way. Consider the identification of the word form (batter) in the
following pair of sentences ( Ives et al,1989):
The batter hit the ball over the fence for a homerun.
The batter has been mixed and is ready for baking.

The semantic clues to the identification of (batter) in the first sentence are the
meanings of the words ball, hit, and homerun, which are familiar to anyone who
knows baseball. In the second sentence the clues are the meanings of the words
mixed and banking. Words are known to anyone familiar with the preparation of
baked goods.
39
 Clues to the identity of an unfamiliar word may both precede and follow that
word in the same sentence. For example, in the sentence “The puppy found a cozy
_______ in which to sleep,” the word form (nook) may be identified by anyone
familiar with the sleep habits of puppies by relating it to the preceding known word
cozy and the following known word sleep.

Words in Sentences preceding and/or Following the Sentences in Which an

Unfamiliar Word Appears.

Clues for identifying a word may be provided by the denotative and

connotative meanings of words that appear at intermittent intervals throughout the
reading material. If readers are able to accumulate a sufficient number of clues, they
may be able to identify a word form that they would not be able to identify on the
basis of a single clue. Some readers may require more clues than others, and any
one reader may require a different number of clues at different times to identify
words, even to identify the same words. The following pairs of sentences are
examples in which the semantic clues may be found in a preceding sentence:
The boys have decided to play baseball. They need a
pitcher.
They ‘re going to serve milk. They need a pitcher.

The meanings of the words baseball and milk in the first of each pair of sentences
above are the clues to the identification of (pitcher) in each of the second
sentences. In other instances the clue(s) may be found in a succeeding sentence:
The batter was not good. He kept striking out.
The batter was not good. She used a spoiled egg.

40
Here the expressions striking out and spoiled egg in the second sentences provide
the semantic clues to the identification of (batter) in the first sentences. The clues
need not be in sentences adjacent to the one containing the word they clarify. They
may be separated by one or more sentences as in the following paragraph:
It was the first baseball game of the season. All the parents had come
to watch. Everybody was excited. It was time to start. The batter was
ready.

The clue to the word batter in the last sentence is the expression baseball game in
the first sentence; three sentences intervene between the clue and the word it
helps identify. The word to be identified can, of course, be in the first sentence of a
paragraph and its clarifying clue in the last:

The batter was ready. The children came to watch. They were all
excited. It was a very special time. Mother was about to put the
Christmas cake in the oven to bake.

The clues to the word batter in the first sentence are Christmas cake, oven and bake
in the last sentence; again, three sentences intervene.

Sentences with relevant clues may both precede and follow the sentence
containing an unfamiliar word. The following paragraph is an example in which
immediately preceding and immediately following sentences provide clues to the
identification of the word batter.

Rosa and Jerry went to the ball game.

The first batter was not good. He is struck out.

41
 The following paragraph is an example in which clues to the identification of
the word batter are in non-adjacent preceding and following sentences.
Rosa wanted to bake a chocolate cake for Jerry ’s birthday. He was going to be
sixteen years old. She got everything ready. The first batter was not good. She
had to start all over. This time she mixed in less milk and more flour.( Ives et
al,1989: 57,58)

Commonly Used Expressions: If readers are familiar with commonly used

expressions, idioms, colloquialisms, figures of speech, proverbs, and other familiar
sayings ,then whole expressions may function as units for identification purposes.
Readers can infer the entire expression from a minimum of clues. For example, if
readers encounter the sequence of words “ Don’t count your chickens,” they do not
need to look for additional clues to know that the remaining words are “ before they
hatch.”

The same process is applicable to longer sequences of words that are familiar
to readers, such as nursery rhymes and other forms of poetry, excerpts from well-
known plays, and other forms of familiar prose. Obviously, readers can do this only if
they recognize enough of the other words in an expression. For example, the
blanked out word in “Life isn’t all beer and ________” is most likely to be skittles.
Americans ,as well as EFL learners who don’t use British expressions may not know
what skittles are and, therefore, might have difficulty identifying this word out of
this specific context.

How Contextual Clues Work

Contextual clues are the clues that answer the readers’ question “Does that
make sense?” when they are considering the identification of a given unfamiliar
word. ( Ives et al, 1989) The answer to this question involves the integration of the
42
context in which a word appears and the readers’ background knowledge. “The
Semantic clues enable readers to infer the meaning of a word form if they are able
to identify enough other words to follow the sense of the sentences. The source of
information for this technique is the semantic structure of the language.” (Nathan,
2001)

Since semantic clues may occur before or after an unidentified word form,
meaning context permits the anticipation of words as well as the successful
identification of words when clues follow them. Thus, regressive eye movements are
not restricted to beginning readers; they are also common among proficient
readers. For example, in the sentence “One should be cautious when using a
pesticide to kill insects, ” the critical word pesticide may be entirely new to readers.
Readers may pass over that unfamiliar word momentarily, searching for clues in the
words that follow. The phrase “to kill insects” is a clue to the identification of the
word form (pesticide). Readers may or may not have been regressive eye
movements in using such clues. They do not actually have to look back at a word in
order to identify it on the basis of the subsequent semantic information.

There are times when semantic clues must be used to identify words,
regardless of what other techniques may be used. Word forms like (close) and
(rebel) cannot be identified without semantic or syntactic information. The following
sentences are illustrative:
Please close the window.
Please sit close to the window.
John is a rebel, although he has nothing to rebel about.

Conversely, words like quickly, swiftly, speedily, and hastily can be identified
through semantic and syntactic clues alone. Since these words are synonyms, one

43
can be differentiated from the other only with the assistance of word structure
clues.

Homographs that represent the same part of speech can be differentiated

from each other only through semantic clues, as in the following pairs of examples: (
Ives et al,1989)
He was given the lead in the school play.
He was given the lead in the small box.
She was a fair person. She inherited her mother’s
blondness.
She was a fair person. She listened to both sides of the
story.

What Contextual Clues Depend On

The efficient use of contextual clues for word identification depends on a

number of conditions. Some of the conditions are related more to readers
themselves and some are related more to the written material involved.

A. Conditions related to readers include the dependence of this technique on

their store of background information and knowledge stock of vocabulary and
concepts, grammatical fluency, and reasoning abilities. The larger their vocabularies
and their funds of information and knowledge, the more resources readers have to
draw on. If readers’ experiences cannot be brought to bear on the written material,
they will have difficulty in using contextual clues. For example, if readers have never
had any direct or indirect experience with fairs as competitive exhibitions, and
understand the word fair only in connection with weather or an attitude, they are
likely not to be able to use contextual clues to identify (fair) in a sentence like” Kathy
won a prize at the fair.”
44
 Older readers are more likely to be successful in using contextual clues than
young, beginning readers. Having lived longer, they have had made more
experiences, have heard and read more, have stored more information and
knowledge in their memories, and have accumulated larger vocabularies and more
concepts. This enables them to identify words successfully even when the words are
not part of their vocabularies. Beginning readers do not have sufficient background
experiences and knowledge of language to be able to identify word forms
representing words that are not part of their own vocabularies. Moreover, older
readers usually have developed greater reasoning abilities that enable them to
make inferences more easily than younger readers can.

B .Conditions related more to the reading material and readers’ interactions

with it include the readability (difficulty) level, and cultural content of the material.
Materials that are too difficult for readers present them with a considerable number
of unknown words. This hinders their use of semantic clues because they cannot
accumulate enough semantic information to assist them in their identification of
unfamiliar words. This is illustrated by the following sentence, in which the blank
spaces represented unknown words:

“_____, the ______, believe in _______, _______not only with our ______but with
the _____________ also.” ( Ives et al, 1989)

Level of difficulty may be affected by such factors as word length, sentence length,
sentence complexity, frequency of difficult words, and conceptual difficulty.

C. Reading material must also be significant and interesting to readers to make the
use of contextual clues effective. Readers must want to understand what they are
reading. Unless they insist on getting meaning, they will not be aware of the
contextual clues that are available. They will be more likely to concentrate on
individual word naming and more likely to use word structure clues. Students who
45
overely on non-contextual, word structure clues are commonly called ”word
callers.” (Spedding , 1993). They do not anticipate words and have difficulty
determining whether they have identified words correctly or not. Students who use
contextual clues for word identification are usually not word-by-word readers. They
are likely to understand what they read to a greater degree than students who limit
themselves to clues available only within the words being identified.

D. When the cultural or subject matter content of the material closely

matches the cultural background of readers, they have stronger bases for
understanding the material. Therefore, they are better able and more likely to use
contextual clues. The degree of match directly affects readability level. The more
readers know about the content of what they are reading, the more successfully
they will able to use contextual clues. Thus, readers will be able to use contextual
clues more effectively with some materials than others.

E. Dialect variations also affect the use of contextual clues. When the
language of readers approximates the language of the reading material, the use of
contextual clues is easy and natural. When the language of the reading material is
unfamiliar to readers, they cannot take advantage of contextual clues because of
the disparity between the two language systems. For example, if pupils read the
sentence “How about some sugar?” within the context of two people greeting each
other, they will be confused if the word sugar refers only to a sweetening agent in
their dialect and not to a kiss.( Ives et al, 1989)

F. Slang terminology also affects the use of contextual clues. In recent years for
example , the word dig has had , as slang , the meanings “understand” and
“approve”. (Graves et al, 1998). If readers see this word in dialog that was written
when one of these slang meanings was current , they should not expect a reference
to a shovel.

46
 G. Specialized vocabularies present difficulties that are similar in kind. In an
account of a baseball game , for example, one might find the sentence “ He doubled
against the right field wall and drove in three runs.” The verb double has a perfectly
clear meaning in this context , but one has to know baseball terminology to
understand it. Whenever people study a new field of study , they at first devote a
great deal of time learning the specialized vocabularies. ( Ives et al,1989)

H. Because the materials themselves can play a very significant role in the
development of the students’ skill in using contextual clues , teachers should choose
instructional materials carefully.

All the factors discussed above must be considered.

Advantages of Contextual Clues

A. Contextual Clues permit readers to identify written word forms very rapidly,
particularly when the content and the word forms themselves are familiar.
Also, since this technique requires only a minimum of orthographic or phonic
information, it usually results in rapid and fluent reading.

B. Another advantage of this technique is that meaningful context facilitates the

identification of words. Pupils can often identify words in context that they
cannot identify in isolation or in word lists.

C. The more readers use contextual clues for word identification , the more
independent they become. They get continual feedback as they read and are
able to monitor their own reading. This procedure is frequently referred to as
hypothesis testing and confirmation. Readers predict what a word form
represents (hypothesis) and then confirm or reject their hypothesis on the
basis of whether or not it makes sense in the context of what they are reading
.( Ives et al, 1989)
47
 D. Contextual clues are especially helpful to students who may be deficient in
spelling and recoding. These clues do not require the close attention to visual
details that word structure techniques do. Thus, use of contextual clues
technique often enables poor spellers and recoders to become proficient
readers.

E. One of the most important advantages of this technique is that its use is highly
generalizable and applicable to the identification of all kinds of words and word
groups . It works as well in the identification of words that do not follow
consistent letter-sound correspondences as in the identification of those that
do. Furthermore, contextual clues may be used to identify words that are
encountered in written form by readers for the first time . Since these clues
are anticipatory in nature , new as well as familiar word forms can be identified
with equal facility. (Ives et al, 1989)

Limitations of Contextual Clues

A. Several words may have similar or nearly similar meanings in English and ,
therefore, make sense in a given context. Because of this , contextual clues ,
when used apart from other word identification techniques , do not necessarily
result in an exact identification of words. They are similar to picture clues in this
respect. For example, just as a picture cannot differentiate among words such as
cat and kitty , contextual clues may not either in many contexts.

B. One’s reading purpose usually determines how close the correspondence

between writing and speech must be. Some purposes (reading a light novel for
entertainment ) can tolerate a considerable amount of variance between writing
and speech without negative effects , while other purposes require a great
amount of precision (reading a legal document or a medical prescription ). For
example , exactness of recoding is required for the word form {on }in the
48
 sentence “Put the money on the desk”. Misreading ,on- as ,in- would completely
alter the meaning of the sentence.

C. Another limitation of contextual clues is that they are not readily available to
beginning readers. Beginning readers must first learn to use other word
identification techniques such as picture, configuration, and phonic clues.
(Heilman et al, 1981, 1998). By doing so, they become able to identify a
sufficient number of words that they then can use as a basis for using contextual
clues . As their reading vocabulary increases, their proficiency in the use of
contextual clues can increase. But as long as their reading vocabulary is limited,
their use of contextual clues continues to be limited also.

To conclude , this chapter shows clearly the different types of structural analysis
and contextual analysis clues that are very important in the process of reading and
comprehension. It is the analytical merit, above all, that makes the suggested
program an urgent need to convey these skills to the teachers of the future. The
chapter discussed the kinds of every main skills, the advantages and disadvantages
of each, their limitations, and what they depend upon. This basic theortical
background formed the rationale for the framework of the suggested program.

49
50
 Chapter III
Review of Literature
Background:
The field of reading is one of the most intriguing, complex, and seemingly
overwhelming areas in all education ( Sawby , 1984 :2)The reading skill , once
developed , is the one which can be most easily maintained at a high level by the
student him/herself without further help from the teacher.(Rivers,1985; 214)

Literature related to pre-service – teacher training in reading:

Many studies have been conducted to design training programs in reading for
pre-service teachers as a way of developing reading in general and basic reading in
particular.

Koehler et al(1971) designed a research to examine a number of factors that

findings from verbal learning studies indicate should affect the recall and transfer of
word identification materials. Sight word and phonics-based or rule-based learning
were investigated in 112 kindergarteners who were identified as nonreaders.
Groups were trained on mixed word lists containing sight words and rule words
varying the list structure, amount and order of practice, and the distinctiveness of
list contents. The effects of training were assessed by having subjects read and learn
sentences containing the sight words, rule words, and new rule words containing
the previously trained phonics components. Means and standard deviations for each
group on mixed sentence list practice and the retention-transfer tasks are listed. The
use of a light blue background cue to distinguish sight words had little influence on
transfer performance. The sequence of rule word/sight word/mixed list in learning
sight word and rule word contents tends to play an important role in the word

51
identification process during reading and influences further practice of these
contents.

Kennedy and Getz (1972) presented a description of the restructuring of a

traditionally organized plan for teaching pre-service secondary level students the
knowledge , skills and abilities related to reading at the secondary school level . The
traditional course structure was abandoned and replaced by a series of self –
instructional packages . This new structure facilitated the identification of desirable
professional competencies , actualization of individualized , self-paced instruction ,
utilization of different patterns of teacher student interaction , and increased use of
instructional technology . The competency-based program described requires each
pre-service student to acquire certain competencies with respect to secondary
school reading before he is certified . All competencies , the means by which the
students may acquire these competencies , and the method of evaluation to
determine if the competencies have been met were identified in the instructional
packages . (pp:15-19) .

Britton (1973) implemented a prototypic pre-service reading methods

program featuring large group , on-site , individualized instruction .The program
explored an alternate strategy relative to undergraduate teacher preparation in an
elementary reading methods course . A critical dimension of this approach was the
incorporation of on-site , instruction to a currently existing program . This format
met with an enthusiastic response from all participants . The positive reaction
expressed by the college students via the evaluative questionnaire rating scale index
revealed that this program format facilitated in effectively communicating teaching
skill concepts to undergraduate teacher candidates . (pp:29-32) .

52
 Schell et al (1973) designed a booklet for teaching word identification
resources. Only materials specifically designed to teach one or more of the following
word identification skills were included in this booklet: sight words, context clues,
phonic analysis, structural analysis, and dictionary skills. Materials for grades one
through six are stressed, although a few materials suitable for secondary school
students are listed. The areas of material covered include: (1) "Audio-Visual
Materials," which lists charts and posters, films, filmstrips, flannel and peg board
materials, machines, records and coordinated materials, tachistoscopic materials,
tapes and coordinated materials, and transparencies and coordinated materials; (2)
"Non-Book Practice Material," which includes drill cards, games and similar drill
materials, liquid duplicating masters, and word wheels; (3) "Phonic Readers"; (4)
"Programmed Materials"; (5) "Word Analysis Programs"; (6) "Workbooks"; and (7)
"Sources of Reading Games, Activities, and Ideas." An appendix listing names and
addresses of publishers and producers is included.

Rutherford and Weaver (1974) identified the preferences of elementary

reading teachers for certain instructional patterns and procedures and compared
them with those of a similar group of teachers in another geographic location .
Teachers responded to questions concerning : (1) pre-service preparation : (2)
current educational needs : and (3) desired approaches to in-service training.
Analysis of responses were made according to grade level and years of experience ,
teaching level and years of experience influence training preferences , but variance
within grade and experience level may be greater than variance between levels .
Teachers in the two separate communities were more similar than dissimilar in their
preferences . (pp:271-275) .

Flight (1974) expressed hearty and overwhelming agreement with the

international reading association commission on higher quality teacher education in
53
review of the commission’s proposed new model for a professional program for pre-
service and continuing education in modular preparation for teaching reading .
Stress was put on the legitimate differences between elementary and secondary
teachers in needed competencies for reading instruction . Moreover , the emphasis
on studies of language and community sociology and the fact that they were spelled
out for each level of competencies was most appropriate . (pp:153-158) .

Chapman (1974) conducted a study testing a hierarchical theory postulating

that the literal reading comprehension process can be divided into separate skills
that are distinguishably different from each other and which are hierarchically
related . Results indicated that literal reading comprehension can be divided into
different related skills of which structural analysis , contextual analysis ,and
dictionary use are the basic reading skills (pp.; 232-34)
Britton (1975) compared two pre-service reading methods courses : a five- hour
course that included a practicum and a three – hour traditional compus- based
course . 62 student teachers participating in either of the courses were asked , via a
questionnaire rating scale , to assess their perceived competencies in teaching
reading skills to children . The T-test statistic was employed in comparing the two
courses . the result strongly suggest that a five-hour pre-service reading methods
program that is coordinated with a practium improves the effectiveness of student
teachers in communicating reading skills to elementary school children . (pp:71-74) .

Kingston et al (1975) pointed out that for many years a number of reading
specialists have felt an urgent need for an instrument which would determine how
well a teacher or prospective teacher understands reading pedagogy . In response to
this need , Sterl Artley and Varalee B.Hardin have published the inventory of teacher
knowledge of reading (1971) . The inventory measures 7 important areas of reading
, and consists of 95 multiple choice – completion statements . In an attempt to test
54
the instrument’s reliability , it was administrated to 3 groups of students (N=332) to
determine if observable differences exist between pre-service and experienced
teachers . Another purpose was to determine if differences exist between the
responses made by experienced elementary teachers , and reading specialists . A
factor analysis of the data was also conducted to identify the degree to which the
instrument measures the individual components . The most significant percentage
of variance accounted for by the 1St factor was 5.68% and the 2nd was 2.86% . There
is no clearly defined factor pattern for this instrument . (pp:133-136) .

Gray (1976) considered some questions concerning the field based methods
program such as : (1) who determines which elementary teachers are to cooperate
in the program and what standards are to be used ? (2) should elementary schools
be limited by screening procedures ? A field based program can be one answer to
improve preparation of reading teachers if : (A) both theory and practice are integral
program parts , and (B) both pre-service students and cooperating teachers can
demonstrate competence on a teaching performance test . (PP : 380-382).

Mickulechy and K. (1977) reviewed the studies that have been completed
over the past few years on the teacher-as-reader . Teachers’ reading competence
has varied , but scores in general were distressingly low . Some studies ranked the
main body of those teachers tested in the 0-9% percentile range for total
comprehension using college freshman norms . surveys of reading habits revealed
that the average elementary teacher (surveyed in Mary land in 1972) read one book
each four months , and one in five teachers reported reading no professional journal
. In 1973 , Mauler surveyed pre-service teachers in reading methods classes and
found that 70% chose TV or movies over reading a book , and more than 50% chose
TV news over a newspaper . One hundred and forty-nine students at the University
of Wis taking reading methods courses were used as students to determine the
55
effect of teachers’ reading habits and competence on student achievement .
Students’ attitudes were measured by three different tests . Reading performance
was measured by the Nelson – Denny Reading Test . Using sixteenth grade norms ,
the students average in the 63% percentile rank . This study’s finding suggested that
teachers do have fairly good reading competence . Since these findings were very
different from the majority of other research results , further investigation was
needed . (pp:573-581) .

Cogan and Anderson (1977) surveyed teachers in a stratified random sample

of 100 Minnesota elementary schools , to determine which professional periodicals
they most commonly read , and to determine relationship between reading
practices reported and certain demographic variables . The survey questionnaire
utilized a Likert-type scale to determine frequency of reading on twenty periodicals
published for elementary teachers . Analysis of the data returned from 76% of the
sample suggests the following : (1) Elementary teachers read most frequently
pragmatic educational periodicals, ideas transferable to immediate classroom
practice . (2) There is a high correlation between teacher readers and school
subscriptions suggesting that professional reading materials be made readily
available within the school . (3) Age is a significant factor in teachers’ professional
reading habits with older teachers reading more often the seven most read
periodicals . (pp:254-258) .

Rupley and Norton (1978) reviewed research and expert opinion dealing with
pre-service and in-service education of reading and language arts teachers. The pre-
service education programs were classified as either field – based or competency –
based. No one pre-service education program in reading and language arts has been
shown superior. However many recommendations were offered for careful
consideration. It was argued that many of those suggestions; e.g., on –the-job
56
training. individualized instruction , and evaluation of actual student data , appear
logical procedures for better preparing teachers of reading and language arts . It was
emphasized that pre-service programs alone are adequate for the preparation of
highly qualified and effective teachers ; it is essential that school districts provide a
continuous program of in-service education . Five major issues related to in-service
education for reading and language arts teachers were discussed , each focussed on
one of five questions. Two of them are : who should be involved in in-service ?
where should program effectiveness be measured ? Although the literature
reviewed in an attempt to answer these questions proved substantial , few
guidelines were available based on empirical research findings . (pp:641-647).

Gilmore (1978) investigated the relationship between pupils’ ability to

comprehend inferential meanings from a reading text and the teacher’s use of a 3-
part discourse structure in a reading lesson’s discussion phase. He used 25 pre-
service teachers of English as students. Those teachers who employed greater use of
the 3-part structure – elicitation / response / reaction – enabled more pupils to infer
the texts major theme than did those teachers how employed significantly fewer
instances of the structure. The teacher’s choice of a particular verbal strategy
determines the social context and communication system of the classroom, which
effects pupils’ learning. (Pp: 128-135).

Robison et al (1978) conducted a cross cultural study of psycholinguistic

practices and beliefs among 37 US and 37 English in-service, and 25 46 and US
English pre-service teachers. Using a graphic rating scale, the students responded to
a series of 12 statements that indicted their familiarity with psycholinguistic insights.
For most students the basic tenets of psycholinguistic thought were either unknown
or tended to oppose their current teaching practices. (Pp: 134-137).

57
 Mac Court (1980) had a psychological point of view that the main approaches
to word identification are : sight vocabulary development , phonic analysis
,structural analysis , contextual analysis , and dictionary use. Thus she suggested
that any reading program should focus on (1) phonic analysis/high utility word
meanings, (2) phonic analysis/word associations, (3) structural analysis/antonyms,
(4) semantic feature analysis/contextual analysis, (5) dictionary usage/multiple
meanings, (6) contextual analysis/homographs, (7) connotation-
denotation/contextual analysis, and (8) word devices/phonic analysis. Categorizing
sight words and using analogies are also proposed as activities for coordinated
instruction.

Zimmerman (1982) developed a booklet for Boston high school students

giving priority to the basic reading skills needed for the students at this age . Literal
reading comprehension was presented as the first and basic level of reading
comprehension. To read critically , students should at first recognize and recall
information found in a reading selection.(p.202)

Perfetti (1983) explored the psychological time spent in word recognition and
word identification, and found that reading a word , and realizing its meaning , in
context is faster than reading it isolated .Thus he presented a type of measuring
word timing and this type assumes that the time to identify a word in context is an
activation function, whereas the time to activate a word in memory beyond some
criterial identification threshold is a multiplicative function of context plus the
individual's basic word processing rate. Studies confirm this model's predictions for
individual differences in the time to read a word in context: skilled readers identify
words more quickly and are affected less either by context or by stimulus degrading
than unskilled readers.

58
 Eckert and Wollenberg (1984) outlined a competency – based predictor model
for evaluating foundation courses and counseling pre-service teachers. Prospective
teachers (N=61 elementary and special education majors) completed a basic skills
course in the teaching of reading. Scores achieved on each of fair criterion –
referenced tests, concentrating on reading readiness, approaches to teaching
reading, word recognition skills, and research and study skills, were analyzed in
terms of academic achievement, aptitude, and attitudinal predicator variables. The
findings indicated significant Correlations among scores on the criterion –
referenced tests and the predicator variables of composite score, vocabulary and
comprehension scores on the Nelson. Denny Reading Test and high school grade
point average. A negative relationship was found to exist between achievement on
the criterion – referenced tests and the predictor variables of major and attitudes
toward reading. (Pp: 238-242).

Gary (1984) described the responses of 37 elementary education majors and

23 special education majors to a rating scale aiming at determining whether the
view of the reading process held by these individuals reflected the influence of
recent psycholinguistic research. Two hypotheses were tested: (1) newly prepared
teachers will not hold beliefs about reading that show the influence of recent
psycholinguistic research (2) there will be no difference in the response of pre-
service elementary education students and those of the pre-service special
education students. For hypothesis 2, three categories showed a significant
difference in the ratings in the two groups. It was surprising to note that teachers
still in preparation appeared to cling very closely to traditional beliefs about the
reading process. This was true for only pre-service students at one university. If a
wider sample of students were surveyed, results might be different. Clearly,

59
however, all students in preparation should be in possession of an understanding of
psycholinguistic views of the reading process. (Pp.: 253-258).

Sieddow and Hasselbring (1984) explored the feasibility of using altered texts
with students experiencing reading difficulties. Pre-service teachers were taught to
rewrite social studies text passages in such a way as to lower readability without loss
of comprehensibility. No differences in effectiveness were noticed among the three
text alteration methods used. Altered and unaltered versions of the passages were
used as text material with reading – disabled students (N=24). Analysis of the scores
from 10-point quizzes given for each passage indicated that altering the texts led to
increase comprehensibility. It was suggested that teachers must be careful, in
rewriting text, to insure that lower readability is not achieved at the expense of
comprehensibility. Moreover, altered text by it self does not guarantee improved
comprehension: it must be used in conjunction with sound instructional strategies.
(Pp. 276-279).

Cheek et al (1984) estimated that anywhere from 1%-20% of the US adult

population was illiterate at that time. To reverse this downward spiral, the skill of
reading had to be viewed as a continuing complex developmental process.
Secondary teachers can contribute to a K-12 reading program, following these
suggested principles (1) coordination of reading with other communicative
experiences; (2) instruction in basic reading skills, content area reading, study skills,
and personal reading; (3) flexibility; (4) meeting the needs of each child according to
needs, abilities, and interests; (5) reading conceived as a perceptual process; (6)
stress on reading for thinking, understanding; and learning. The program also must
endeavor to develop critical skills and flexibility in comprehension. The elementary
component, pre-service teachers training, and teacher attitude were factors to be

60
considered. The regular or special education component in a K-12 perspective was in
its infancy, partly because of a lack of appropriate and empirically validated
methods and materials. The reading curriculum at levels 7-12 was often isolated
from other areas and viewed as the responsibility of the remedial teacher. A
program for developing a K-12 perspective was presented. (Pp. 42-49).

Hoffman et al (1985) analyzed the content of elementary reading methods

textbooks, spanning nearly 100 years, to note patterns of emphasis for selected
topics. Trends such as a lag behind instructional practices, synchronization with
current instructional practices or wide pendulum swings in amount of coverage
devoted to particular topic were investigated. In most cases methods textbook
content reflected actual instructional practices, such as oral reading receiving much
coverage in the early 1900s and little coverage in the early 1960s, 1970s and 1980s.
Cases were also noted where the amount of textbook coverage of a topic was
inversely related to its instructional popularity. Overall, there appeared to be a fairly
stable body of knowledge about reading which College instructors present to pre-
service elementary teachers. Awareness of patterns of emphasis however may
provide insight for reading educators as they attempt to prepare teachers for the
future. (Pp: 65-72).

Chance (1985) designed a five-year study centered on the use of the cloze
procedure as a practical assessment instrument for secondary classroom content
area teachers. Pre-service secondary education majors (N=600) administrated the
Slossen Oral Reading Test to secondary students. Based upon the students’ grade
level score, each student was given a cloze test on material written at the grade
level determined by the Slossen Oral. Results of the cloze procedure indicated that
the Slossen Oral predicts the instructional reading level in 20% of the cases, and

61
frustration level in 20% of the cases. This is significant, since the Slossen Oral is quick
and easy to administer and, when used in conjunction with the cloze procedure,
gives a more total reading profile of students for secondary teachers to use in
assessing reading ability. (Pp: 690-693).

Abdel Ghany (1986) conducted a study to determine if significant differences

existed between students in the experimental and control groups in achievement on
the five subtests measuring lexical comprehension , literal comprehension ,
inferential comprehension , grammar and language structures , and on the general
reading comprehension test. Results revealed significant differences between the
two groups ( favoring the experimental group ) in achievement on the lexical
comprehension, grammar and language structures , and on the general reading
comprehension test. There were no significant differences between the two groups
on the literal comprehension test. (pp76-75)

Charles (1988) investigated belief systems across pre-service and in-service

teachers, addressing the question of whether their beliefs differ and whether the
two groups make instructional choices based on their theoretical orientations.
Students were pre-service and in-service teachers (N=83 and 44, respectively) who
completed identical packets of material in anonymous responses. Pre-service
teachers, undergraduate education majors enrolled in an elementary reading
methods course, were given the packets during the first three weeks of the course
to minimize the effect of the instructors personal philosophy of reading. The in-
service teachers were evenly distributed across three states and were first -, second
-, and third – grade teachers from eight public schools with at least two years of
teaching experience. Packets were placed in their mailbox in envelopes coded by
school, so no teacher could be identified. In addition to question sets, each packet

62
contained nine lesson plans, three each in the areas of vocabulary, comprehension,
and syllabification. Results imply that (1) there is little difference between groups in
theoretical orientation regarding how reading takes place and how reading ability
develops; (2) both pre-service and in-service teachers with reader-based /holistic
explanations for how reading takes place and develops did not tend to choose
vocabulary and comprehension lessons reflecting their beliefs; (3) students in both
groups holding text-based, interactive mastery of specific skills and differential
acquisition explanations for how reading takes place and develops did not choose
lessons consistent with their theoretical orientation (pp:357-377) .

Jacqueline and Roger (1989) stated that learning how to evaluate reading
texts should be an important part of pre-service training. A simulated text book
selection process was used to compare differences in the consistency of
experimental and control groups (total N=96) in evaluating textbooks. The
experimental groups, who were required to define their criteria operationally, were
more consistent in their evaluations than the control group, who used traditional
checklists. (Pp: 5-15).

Roger and David (1989) conducted a qualitative study to explore pre-service

secondary teacher’s attitudes concerning content area reading instruction (N
unspecified). A questionnaire was administered to students on there first entering a
content area reading course. Students were asked why the state requires a course in
reading for secondary teachers and how such a course could aid their teaching.
Findings suggest that pre-service teachers entering content reading courses may
have misconceptions or misinformation as to course purpose and outcome. These
initial misconceptions were not manifest at the conclusion of the course, probably
because course content specifically focused upon these areas; however, other more

63
subtle, complex, and deeply ingrained misconceptions were found in the exit data –
misconceptions that fuel a continued resistance to content reading. (Pp: 396-401).

Kern (1989) investigated the effects of second language Reading strategy

instruction on comprehension and word inference ability. The subjects were fifty-
three students enrolled in a course named “ French Three “ at the university of
California. All subjects were given the ETS Achievement Test in French (Reading
Comprehension FORM ) . The experimental treatment centered around reading skill
development in the areas of : word analysis , sentence analysis , discourse analysis ,
reading for specific purposes and reading task interview. Subjects were told that
they would be presented a French text one sentence at a time and that they would
be asked to report what they were thinking as they read the sentences: what they
understood, what they didn’t understand , how they went about determining the
meaning of unfamiliar words , whether they made any predictions or inferences ,
whether they translated into English , etc. Two quantitative measures were derived
from the reading task interview: a comprehension measure and a word inference
measure , both scored on a scale of 0 –100. Word inference scores were calculated
as the percentage of words that the subjects indicated as familiar as the outset of
the interview whose meanings became clear in the context of the passage. Results
showed a statistically significant main effect difference between experimental and
control subjects’ comprehension gain scores. This indicates that strategy instruction
had a definite positive effect on readers’ comprehension of the test passage. (Pp.:
135-145).

Hollingsworth (1989) discussed two ways that enable beginning teachers to

learn more about teaching reading. The first is a traditional approach in which an
instructor transmits reading techniques by modeling examples. The second involves

64
teachers-instructor collaboration to create new examples. Brief case histories of two
students’ teaching experiences were presented. (Pp: 698-702).

Adams (1990) reviewed the history of the debate, the literature on the
relative effectiveness of different instructional approaches, the theory and research
on the knowledge and processes involved in skillful reading, and the various
literatures relevant to reading acquisition. He confesses that that task was especially
challenging and especially worthwhile because the relevant information and
arguments were scattered across so many fields. More specifically, the relevant
research literature divides itself not only across fields of education, psychology, and
linguistics, but also the fields of computer science and anthropology. He found that
the most influential arguments for teaching word identification are based on studies
comparing the relative effectiveness of different approaches to teaching beginning
reading. These studies can be sorted into two categories. Those in the first category
consist of small but focused laboratory studies. Those in the second category have
compared the effectiveness of instructional approaches in real classrooms. He
concluded that a child's success in learning to read in the first grade appears to be
the best predictor of her or his ultimate success in schooling as well as all of the
events and outcomes that correlate with that. Yet, across the literature he reviewed,
children's first-grade reading achievement depends most of all on how much they
know about reading before they get to school.

Richard et al (1990) offered several principles for improving the pre-service

education of prospective teachers of literacy. They claimed that traditional
American teacher education fails to develop expert teachers because knowledge
and skills are taught in the abstract, decontextualized form practice in classrooms.
Several principles for improving teacher education were offered. In particular,
incorporating the use of video technology into pre-service teacher education is
65
suggested. Close analysis and discussion of the videotaped lessons of prospective
teachers could be the centerpiece of university education courses. (Pp: 187-209).

Willis and Willis (1991) evaluated a computer simulation that helps student
teachers learn to administer the Informal Reading Inventory (IRI). The simulation
was developed using the authoring system course of action. IRIS (Informal
Reading Inventory Simulation) provides pre-service teachers with multiple
practice opportunities in administering this important instrument. Effectiveness
of the simulation was evaluated by providing 35 students with in – class
instruction and guidance on administration of the IRI; 50% of the students were
instructed to practise administering the test on their own and he other 50 %used
the simulation. A week later, students were given the Test of Essential
Judgement and Administration Skills (TEJAS). Scores were significantly better for
the group who had used the simulation. (Pp: 245-248).

Mosenthal et al (1992) addressed the current lack of comprehension

instruction in the classroom and its potential importance as a learning tool. They
thought that teacher education activities should provide a model of extended
strategy instruction (ESI) instead of merely reinforcing the practice of “ mentioning”
.The authors attempt to implement ESI with pre-service teachers in reading
methods courses was described, including group discussion transcripts. The program
had two main goals: giving teacher trainees the experience of (1) learning and using
a new strategy in an instructional setting, and (2) constructing meaning from text by
utilizing a particular strategy. Students’ use of and reaction to the strategy were
described, and issues concerning effective implementation of ESI were addressed.
(Pp: 198-207).

66
 Lambley (1992) examined reading instruction from the teacher’s viewpoint
through the review of current instructional methods and teacher attitudes.
Information was gathered by surveys of teachers conducted in 1988 and
1989/90. Area of focus included specific classroom practices and differing types
of teaching approaches, forms of teacher assessment of student progress, the
teaching of phonics, and the use of “schemes” in reading acquisition. Also
discussed were teacher’s perceptions of specialized in- service training and the
lack of consistent educational support for increasing teacher skills. Pre-service
training of teachers was discussed with concern expressed for the level of
preparation that student teachers receive. It was concluded that reading
teachers may shy away from the debate over teacher training because of their
realistically perceived low level of adequate training (pp: 21-22).

Spedding et al (1993) Studied interrelationships among metacognitive abilities at

the word level (phonemic awareness and metacognitive abilities in word
identification), word identification skills, and reading comprehension for 55 year-
5 Australian students (aged about 9-10 years). Metacognitive abilities at word
level are related to reading comprehension directly and indirectly through word-
identification skills.

Zidan (1994) examined the effects of explicit , formal training in text rhetorical
organization on EFL majors’ achievement in the analytical reading of English as
concerns knowledge of text rhetorical structure , basic content analysis, and making
inferences .The results indicated that the analytical reading behavior of EFL Egyptian
readers is significantly enhanced as a result of training in the rhetorical patterns of
written English and that this training variable has significantly positive effect on the

67
reader’s analysis of basic content and making inferences in reading
comprehension.(PP.:77-106)

Konopak et al (1994) examined pre and in- service secondary teachers ‘ (N=58
and 46, respectively) orientations toward content area reading and instruction.
Instrument included two sets of belief statements and three sets of lesson plans; for
comparison, each instrument incorporated three explanations of the reading
process. Based on their selection of statements and plans, pre-service teachers held
reader – based beliefs in both areas. In addition, both groups selected primary
reader-based vocabulary and comprehension lessons but varied in their choices of
decoding lessons. Only teachers holding reader-based beliefs consistently chose
corresponding vocabulary and comprehension plans (pp: 220-227).

Risko (1995) presented a summary of findings, current explorations and

future directions in undergraduate developmental and remedial reading methods
courses conducted at Nonderbilt University. Two recent papers were also presented
in the year – book – of – the – American – Reading – Forum. The first was designed
to systematically trace the process by which pre-service teachers learn to use
acquired information, and the second was directed toward a more in – depth
analysis of student knowledge acquisition by comparing the performance of
experienced teachers and pre-service teachers on standardized protocols. Recent
findings indicate that pre-service teachers are developing flexible knowledge
representations and an in-depth understanding of information in this program. (Pp:
15,45-53).

Turner and Traxler (1995) developed an approach to preparing education

students to teach whole language techniques to immerse the pre-service teachers in
a whole language environment. Methods described were silent reading, literature
68
response groups, cooperative learning, thematic literature collection, and evaluation
notebook and field experience. The program was designed to enable teachers to be
open and informed as they decide on their approaches to literacy instruction. (Pp:
245-246).

Cavanaugh and Linek (1995) advocated the increased use of course – specific
Academic portfolios in literacy methods courses for undergraduate teacher
education students. Portfolios were characterized as a balance of process. And
product –oriented evaluation. Some specific examples of portfolio analyzes were
provided. (PP: 185-190).

Romine et al (1996) presented survey results of the reading requirements for

content literacy methods in teacher education established by the States, drawing on
a survey of all 50 state departments of education and the district of Columbia. It was
found that the number of states requiring at least one reading course for teacher
certification has risen from 35 in 1983 to 37, plus the district of Columbia in, 1994.
Although the overall finding of an increase in number of teachers exposed to
content literacy techniques, was positive, it was noted that preservice teachers
routinely resist such techniques, indicating that more intensive efforts must be
made to make them a part of every teacher preparation plan (pp: 194-198).

Wedman et al (1996) examined the differences in achievement between pre-

service teachers who learned word recognition content and pedagogy using expert –
jigsaw groups (N=27) vs. a traditional methods course (N=26). Students studied
materials from the same reading methods textbook and their performance was
measured by pre- and post tests using essays, multiple –choice, and open-ended
questions; these were analyzed using t tests, percentage, and rubrics. Results
showed that both groups acquired the material, but the experimental group’s
69
posttest essays showed significantly greater achievement. A concern instrument was
also administrated and students in the experimental group tended toward the
desired direction of acceptance of the jigsaw method innovation. The procedure
was recommended as an effective alternative method for teaching reading (pp: 111-
123).

Mc Eachern (1996) outlined the contributions to South African literacy by

non-governmental organizations, although the government and publishers have
worked to provide culturally relevant literature – based reading materials for black
children, money to buy them has been lacked. The Molteno project has developed
programs in teachers training and English and mother tongue literacy for
elementary school (pp: 189-196).

Wolf (1996) used assisted case studies to prepare teachers to be more

knowledgeable and skilled in supporting children‘s responses to literature. Pre-
service elementary teachers (N=43) enrolled in university children’s literature course
each chose a child aged 1: 8-11:0 with whom to read at least 30 minutes weekly.
Field notes on books, questions, answers, and activities were recorded and
submitted twice during the semester to help teachers focus on and understand
patterns. Class discussions were also analyzed. The influence of teacher’s
expectations and their understanding of intertextuality on the interaction, the
relationship between expectations and interextuality, and the shift, if any, of these
factors over time were examined. The teachers moved toward a vision of literary
response that highlights interpretation over comprehension. A side – by – side
model of children’s literature instruction where pre-service teacher follow a
university course with firsthand individual case studies was recommended. (Pp.:
130-157).

70
 Moharam (1997) conducted a study to investigate the effects of using the
discussion method on developing first year, Faculty of Education, English Majors’
reading comprehension and creative reading skills .Eighty eight students were
randomly divided into a control group and an experimental group . While students
of the experimental group were trained on a program of reading comprehension
and creative reading skills through the discussion method, the students of the
control group were instructed a course in reading skills through the traditional
method of teaching . Tools of the study included: a questionnaire to determine the
sub-skills of literal , critical comprehension and creative reading skills ; a training
program in reading comprehension and creative reading skills ; a test on the
knowledge of reading skills ; a test on the use of the reading skills .Results revealed
that the experimental group surpassed the control group in the post-test of the
knowledge and use of reading comprehension and creative reading skills .(pp.:33-
60)

Tan (1998) designed a program for improving college English students’

reading proficiency at Fujian Normal University to : (a) examine the significance of
extensive reading to collage English teaching , (b) to use the study results ( the
college English band 4 test results and a questionnaire results ) as a reference to
recommend some feasible reforms in collage English teaching including the revision
of the syllabus of college English . the results were as follows : 1- The college
English band 4 test result (1997) suggested that , compared with the intensive
reading approach , the intensive reading approach more effectively improved
college English students’ reading proficiency and linguistic knowledge (grammar and
vocabulary ) .
2- There was an increase in vocabulary learning behavior and attitude towards
vocabulary learning ; as most of the students learned vocabulary through extensive
reading and thought that the best way to learn vocabulary was to read extensively .
71
3- It was concluded that extensive reading positively influences students’ reading
habits : A. Reading without doing frequent grammar analyses and word forward
translation . B. Instead of consulting the dictionary immediately , skipping the new
words or guessing their meanings by the context clues in dealing with new words in
the reading process . c. Getting the main idea of a paragraph or a passage by
detecting the topic sentence or the topic paragraph . d. Reading on discourse level ,
not on word or sentence level (pp:150, 154 , 159 , 160 )

Jonson (1998) designed the California Reading Initiative as a multifaceted

strategy to improve elementary school reading instruction. The program had as
goals professional development for all K-8 teachers and modification in the pre-
service preparation of teacher candidates in reading instruction. The program
included phonemic awareness, direct, systematic, explicit phonics, and decoding.
The vital role of independent reading was discussed and key factors in its successful
implementation were described in the study. (Pp: 90-96).

Griffith and Laframboise (1998) used the literature case studies as a teacher
education strategy that combines methods from case – based instruction and
reader response to literature. A literature case study is a novel that contains
school – based events and characters; the richer descriptions of characters
background, personalities and problems in a literature case were considered
appropriate for pre-service teachers who lack the background for understanding
contexts and problems in the traditional teaching case. It was concluded that the
use of literature case studies is enjoyable for students and develops lifelong
reading habits (pp: 364-375).

72
 El Naggar et al(1999) began an attempt to focus on the current situation of
Primary EFL teachers’ preparation and pre service programs nationwide ,
declaring them not to be uniform in terms of content , teaching strategies ,
teaching practice and student evaluation. They also analyzed a futuristic
overview in terms of how to ensure comprehensive and consistent pre service
programs nationwide and the means through which the constrains imposed on
the whole EFL spectrum can be manipulated to better serve the EFL context in
Egypt.

Touba et al (1999) explored the place of Content Based Instruction (CBI) in the
Egyptian educational context with reference to primary English language teacher
education programs. Three course outlines were presented as in progress reports
; they are :1) An undergraduate language course using literature as content.

2) An undergraduate language course using global issues content.

3) A post graduate course using a variety of content areas.
They concluded with a brief comment on future plans for content based courses.

Mahmoud, A.M. (1999) designed a study to construct and investigate the

effectiveness of a proposed program for preparing pre-service EFL teachers in the
Primary Education Branch at the Faculties of Education in Egypt. She desinged a
training program for the primary stage preservice teachers based on their
Professional needs, and pointed out that following the introduction of English as a
foreign language at the primary level, Faculties of Education in Egypt opened English
Sections in Primary Education Branches. In these sections, pre-service teachers are
prepared to teach English as a foreign language to children in the primary stage.
These sections are in dire need of research-based teacher education programs to
meet the needs of English language teaching for young learners. Because of the
importance of this critical stage, it is not reasonable to have incompetent teachers

73
who are not able to achieve the general aims or the specific objectives of teaching
English in the primary stage. The competent teacher is the basis of the educational
process in general and teaching English as a foreign language in the primary stage, in
particular. Results included a list of the professional nedded required for preparing
pre-service EFL teachers in the Primary Education Branch at the Faculties of
Education in Egypt,a proposed program for preparing pre-service EFL teachers in
Primary Education Branch at Faculties of Education in Egypt,a proposed training
course for integrating the methods course, the skills lab, and the teaching practice,
and that the proposed training course that was offered to the treatment sample,
proved to be effective. The effectiveness of the course is an indication that the
whole proposed program is effective as well.( pp. 201-210)

Literature related to Gender differences in Reading :

Bewley (1975) investigated the relationship of the combined factors of family

structure, socioeconomic status, and pupil gender' to reading readiness scores.
Specifically, the study attempted to determine if there were significant differences
among mean reading readiness scores when pupils were grouped by family
structure; socioeconomic status; gender; family structure and socioeconomic status;
family structure and gender; socioeconomic status and gender; and family structure,
socioeconomic status, and gender. The subjects for the study consisted of 223
kindergarten pupils from 15 elementary schools in Oklahoma. Data for each pupil
were determined by the Hollingshead Two-Factor Index of Social Position; male or
female; and the Metropolitan Readiness Tests score. Some of the conclusions drawn
from the study were that socioeconomic status apparently affects reading readiness
scores; girls can be expected to score higher than boys; family structure alone is
apparently an inadequate predictor of reading readiness scores; and a combination

74
of the three main variables (family structure, socioeconomic status, and gender)
could be used to predict general reading readiness scores.(pp. 50-136)

Yawkey (1980) reported the results of a study of five-year-olds, which

indicated that social relationships are a facilitator of cognitive learning of reading
readiness concepts and imaginativeness. Girls in the experimental treatments
significantly outperformed the boys.(pp.159-68)

Nielsen et al (1981) revealed that female high school seniors in a group of

poor readers were significantly more external in locus of control than males in the
group, but that no significant differences existed between females and males in a
group of above-average readers.(pp.339-40)

Flynn (1983) reports the results of a pilot study conducted to determine the
effect of the gender of college students on their responses to three short stories.
Concludes that male students react to disturbing stories by rejecting or dominating
them while female students more often achieve critical detachment.

Day et al (1983) investigated the effects of sex differences on the relationship

between conservation ability and the reading and linguistic awareness of five-year-
old children. Findings of this study and others consistently support the hypothesis
that conservation ability correlates more highly with reading in girls than in
boys.(pp.347-50)

Hogrebe (1985) conducted a study to investigate the relation of gender to

reading achievement at the high school level. Findings suggest that by the time
students reach high school, the magnitude of gender differences in reading
achievement as assessed by the High School and Beyond survey is small.
75
 Thompson (1987) designed three studies to examine individual differences
among 6- and 7-year-olds in the extent of use of alternative cognitive processes for
word reading. He supported the expectation that boys tended to rely more than
girls of the same reading level on access to phonological segments of words.(pp.212-
219)
Hyde et al ( 1988) reviewed 165 studies (representing the testing of 1,418,899
subjects) that reported data on gender differences in verbal ability indicated a slight
female superiority in performance. The difference is so small that it appears that
gender differences in verbal ability no longer exist. A major goal was also to define
age trends in the pattern of gender differences. Analyses of effect sizes for different
measures of verbal ability showed almost all to be small in magnitude; these
measures covered vocabulary, analogies, reading comprehension, speech
production, essay writing, anagrams, and general verbal ability. For the 1985
administration of the Scholastic Aptitude Test, verbal scores showed superior male
performance. Analysis of tests requiring different cognitive processes involved in
verbal ability gave no evidence of substantial gender differences in any aspect of
processing. An analysis by age showed no striking changes in the magnitude of
gender differences at different ages, countering E. E. Maccoby and C. N. Jacklin's
conclusion that gender differences in verbal ability emerge at about 11 years of age.
Comparison of studies published in 1973 or earlier with subsequent studies
indicates a slight decline in the magnitude of the gender differences in recent years.
These findings have implications for theories of sex differences in brain lateralization
and changing gender roles.(pp. 1-75)

McCall (1989) declared that while the charge that standardized tests are
biased is not new, critics (including feminists) recently have made accusations of
gender bias. One argument for the superior performance of males on the Scholastic
76
Aptitude Tests (SAT), the Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test/National Merit
Scholarship Qualifying Test (PSAT/NMSQT), and the American College Testing
Assessment Exam (ACT) is that males and females study different subjects. Fair Test,
the National Center for Fair and Open Testing, makes the opposing argument that
such tests tend to obscure the real differences in ability that may exist. One
consequence of a lack of sustained research into sex-related differences coupled
with non-substantiation of a biologically related female verbal advantage may be
that the anti-female bias of the conclusions from some studies will stand, and
standardized tests will not be examined for gender bias. Girls have been penalized,
not rewarded, for verbal skills and have been blamed for creating an atmosphere
that contributes to boys' failing. Girls begin to test less well than boys in secondary
school even while receiving higher grades. Various responses have been made to
what is perceived as abusive practices in assessment: (1) educators and advocates
are calling for national regulation of testing; (2) it has been suggested that the age of
admission to primary school be reconsidered; (3) states are introducing legislation to
reduce the number of tests and the time spent on them; and (4) special interest
groups have threatened lawsuits.( pp.15-21)

Edwards (1989) conducted a study (involving 100 children in grades 1-5) to

investigate whether children thought of reading as especially a male or female
activity. Findings indicated that in grades 1-4, boys regarded reading as mostly a
feminine activity, while in grade 5 boys regarded reading as mostly a masculine
activity and girls regarded it as mostly a feminine activity.( pp.31-36)

Schultheis (1990) conducted a study in which she intended to negate or

confirm the findings of prior studies conducted on the relationship between gender
and reading preferences in high school students and to ascertain whether any
changes have occurred that would reflect changing attitudes toward gender roles.
77
Data were gathered by using a survey which was distributed to approximately 240
11th grade students at a suburban Cleveland (Ohio) public high school. The current
study supports results of earlier studies that have shown that females spend more
time reading than males; that certain types of books are typically more or less
appealing to members of one sex or the other; and that males prefer reading books
with male protagonists. The research indicates that females also prefer male
protagonists and identified with them more often than with female characters. In
contrast to previous studies, this research shows that males identified with
characters more frequently than females. Included in the appendices are the
questionnaire used in the study; the categories of books that the respondents like to
read; the three top-ranked choices of categories; newspaper sections in order of
those most read; and choices of magazines by type.(pp. 1-38)

Lock (1992) examined gender differences in results from the holistic model
reading tests developed by the Pennsylvania State Department of Education.
Patterns of differences were examined and interpreted within the context of
previous reading research. Data were collected from the Testing for Essential
Learning and Literacy Skills (TELLS) reading tests administered to students in grades
3, 5, and 8 in March 1991. Information came from the item responses of
approximately 117,000 third graders, 113,000 fifth graders, and 107,000 eighth
graders enrolled in Pennsylvania's 500 public school districts, with some parallel
analyses for students in Chapter 1 compensatory education programs. Some
statistically significant gender mean differences were found, but their magnitude
was slight. This was particularly evident in considering the minimal variance that
gender contributes to explaining levels of reading comprehension on the TELLS
tests. There is little basis to conclude that gender is particularly favored by explicit,
implicit, or extended type test items or by the nature of the test item passage.
Similarly, there is little basis to conclude that gender is better either in reported
78
strategy selection or prior knowledge. The Pennsylvania process for developing
reading tests and careful passage selection are important factors in understanding
why gender differences are minimal.( pp. 1-16)

Johnson (1992) conducted a study to identify a set of predictor variables for

student grades in a first-quarter English course, a study was undertaken of students'
reading and language scores on the Career Planning Program (CPP) and the Multiple
Assessment and Program Services (MAPS) placement tests. In addition, the
relationship was examined between the first-quarter English course grades and
students' age, gender, and race. The CPP and the MAPS were administered to all
students at a metropolitan two-year college prior to the first day of classes in the
four quarters of 1989. In addition, reading and language sub tests were
administered on the first day of classes to 104 students enrolled in entry-level
English course. Study findings, based on an analysis of student course grades,
standardized test scores, and demographic variables, included the following: (1) the
mean age of the sample was 26 years old, 63.5% were male, and 95.2% were white;
(2) age and the MAPS reading and language scores were found to be statistically
significant in predicting students' grades; (3) CPP reading and language scores,
gender, and race were not found to be statistically significant; (4) a significant
positive relationship was found between all of the subtests; and (5) while age was
found to have a significant relationship with the two MAPS subtests, it showed no
relationship with the two CPP subtests.(pp. 20-86)

Shannon (1992) designed a study to examine sex differences in school

learning with a focus on how the variable of gender affects the teaching, learning,
development, and behavior of children. The initial entries in this collection of articles
focus on reading: the reading interests of girls and boys, sex bias and stereotyping in
reading tests, and the influence of gender, sex-role beliefs, and socioeconomic
79
status on listening comprehension. The second section deals with sex differences in
the field of mathematics. The combined references of the two articles in this section
provide almost 50 opportunities for further reading and research. The third section
examines the issues of gender and sex stereotyping. Articles focus on children's
understanding of gender, the influence of sex stereotyping in limiting children's play
choices, the responses of kindergarten and fourth-grade students to a series of
gender-related stories, a "curriculum of self-concept," and the knowledge and
attitudes of preservice teachers toward the role of women in society. The final
section examines sex differences from the perspective of nonverbal and verbal
behaviors, describing sex differences in nonverbal skills and discussing implications
for children's developing communicative and social skills. Implications of sex
differences in "male and female language" for teachers are also pointed out.(pp.30-
59)

Day (1994) presented summaries of empirical studies of kindergartners, fifth

graders, high school students, and college students, which suggest that people use
stereotypes and gender-based identification in encoding, retrieving, and making
inferences. She also discussed results of qualitative research on differences in male
and female responses to literary texts, and reviewed theoretical interpretations of
the research.(pp.91-107)

Thomas (1994) designed a study in which he declared that differences in girls'

and boys' writing were felt to stem from cultural experiences relating to their
reading and viewing. The aim of teachers should not be to produce degendered
narrative but to encourage the complementary components of assertiveness,
reflectiveness, and awareness of opposed values in both boys' and girls'
writing.(pp.154-58)

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 Trapp (1995) designed a study to investigate if either school entry age or
gender had any effect on the reading achievement of 121 second-grade students
from the Metuchen, New Jersey, public school district. The subjects were
administered the California Achievement Test in the Spring of 1994. Results
indicated that late starters scored significantly better than early starters, whereas
there were no gender differences in achievement.( 36-40)

Quinlan (1996) designed a study to examine the question of whether or not a

child's chronological age at school entry or gender affects his/her academic
achievement. It posits 2 hypotheses: (1) that there is a low or negligible correlation
between the chronological age at which a child enters kindergarten and a sample of
the child's overall reading ability by the end of third grade; and (2) that there are no
gender differences between reading achievement of similarly aged entrants. The
population selected for this study included only students who entered kindergarten
in the Hillside School System in New Jersey between January 1, 1986 and December
31, 1986 and continued in the district until their third-grade year. Using cumulative
records, data were gathered on each student's birth date, gender, and national
percentile rank composite reading score on the Metropolitan Achievement Test
(MAT) given in April (1995) of their third-grade year. The population was divided
into early, medial, and late entrants. Results proved both hypotheses to be true.
Conclusions would suggest that districts should use a multifaceted approach in the
assessment of school readiness. Chronological age and gender do not seem to be
adequate ways of predicting third-grade reading success.( pp. 35-49)

McKenna (1997) examined gender differences in reading attitudes among

school age children. The hypothesis was that school age children in grades K-8
regard reading as a predominately feminine activity. Subjects were 269 students,
grades K-8, from a low-income, urban school setting. Students completed Reading
81
Attitude Surveys, modified from the Downing Object Activity Opinion Survey. The
first survey was given to grades K-3, and the second was presented to students in
grades 4-8. Results indicated that the overall majority of students see reading as an
activity more suitable for girls, supporting the study's hypothesis. Findings suggest
that these perceptions intensify with age for both boys and girls. Findings also
revealed that the most dramatic increase in this perception seems to take place
around grade 5.( pp.5-30)

Cole (1997) managed to conduct the Educational Testing Service (ETS) Gender
Study which is the result of 4 years of work by several researchers using data from
more than 400 tests and other measures from more than 1,500 data sets involving
millions of students. The study focuses on nationally representative samples that cut
across grades (ages), academic subjects, and years in order to control factors that
may have introduced confusion and contradictory results into previous studies of
gender differences in educational settings. Results indicate that gender differences
are not quite as expected. For nationally representative samples of 12th graders, the
gender differences are quite small for most subjects, small to medium for a few
subjects, and quite symmetrical for females and males. There is not a dominant
picture of one gender excelling academically, and in fact, the average performance
difference across all subjects is essentially zero. The familiar mathematics and
science advantage for males was found to be quite small, significantly smaller than
30 years ago. However, a language advantage for females has remained largely
unchanged over that time period. Also, gender differences for component skills of
academic disciplines were often different than for the discipline as a whole. Gender
differences were shown to change as students grew older and moved to higher
grades. Patterns of gender differences in performance are similar to patterns of
differences in interests and out-of-school activities, suggesting that a broad
constellation of events relates to observed differences. Results show larger gender
82
differences for self-selected groups taking high-stakes tests than for nationally
representative samples, reflecting primarily the wider spread of male scores. Results
indicate that neither guessing, speededness, nor the multiple-choice format per se
accounts for the gender differences. However, results on presently used open-
ended questions sometimes reflected no gender effect and sometimes reflected
effects in which females' performances exceeded those of males and vice versa.
(pp.1-36)

Fiore (1999) examined gender differences in reading attitudes among second

and fourth grade students, their parents, and teachers. The hypothesis was that
reading is viewed as a predominantly female activity by students. The subjects were
34 second grade boys, 23 second grade girls, 28 fourth grade boys and 30 fourth
grade girls from a middle income, suburban Catholic school in New York. Students
completed a reading attitude survey that was modified from the Pottorff, Phelps-
Zientarski and Skovera study in 1996. In addition, the parents and four teachers
were given the same survey. The parents and teachers were also given two separate
surveys developed especially for this study. Results indicated that the majority of
students viewed reading as an activity for both boys and girls. These findings negate
the hypothesis that reading is viewed as a mostly feminine activity by the students.
A majority of the parents viewed reading as an activity for girls and a majority of the
teachers viewed reading as an activity for both boys and girls.(pp.56-70)

Kranzler (1999) conducted a study to examine racial/ethnic and gender bias

on curriculum-based measurement (CBM) of reading with African-American and
Caucasian male and female regular education students across grades 2-5.
Simultaneous multiple regression analyses were conducted by grade to examine
group differences on CBM as an estimate of reading comprehension. Regression
equations were estimated with CBM, gender, race/ethnicity, and the interactions of
83
gender and race/ethnicity with CBM. Results indicated that CBM is a biased
indicator of reading comprehension. Although no evidence of bias was found at the
second and third grades, intercept bias was found for racial/ethnic groups at the
fourth and fifth grades, and intercept and slope bias were found for gender at the
fifth grade. Implications suggest that the meaning of CBM scores differs across
race/ethnicity or gender, or both, at certain grade levels. CBM performance over-
estimates the reading comprehension of African American students and under-
estimates that of Caucasians; and at grade 5, CBM performance overestimates the
reading comprehension of girls and under-estimates that of boys. Mean differences
between boys and girls were also much greater at lower levels of CBM performance
than at higher levels. These findings raise issues concerning the use of CBM as a
screening measure and in determining eligibility for and termination of special
education and related services.( pp. 6-18)

Fink ( 2000) designed a study of highly successful men and women with
reading disabilities and used a developmental approach to investigate how, and
under what conditions, males and females with reading disabilities develop high
literacy levels and resilient self-concepts. The 60 participants in the study included a
Nobel laureate, a member of the National Academy of Sciences, and other leaders
and professionals in a variety of careers that require extensive reading (i.e.,
medicine, law, business, and the arts and sciences). The participants self-reported
learning disabilities or reading difficulties and were interviewed using 20 questions;
background information was also gathered about them. The study found that the
participants demonstrated strong, enduring concepts of self, with no significant
differences by gender. Both men and women with reading disabilities developed
literacy through avid reading of high-interest texts. A difference between the sexes
was in their favorite topics and genres, which followed traditional gender patterns.
In addition, women were more likely to be encouraged to develop their femininity
84
and grace, while men were encouraged to overcome their difficulties. The
instructional implications of the study's findings are that students should be helped
to develop and follow their passion in reading and should be led to critical analysis
of reading. Recommended teaching methods include using twin texts (fact and
fiction on the same topic), creative writing, and helping students to challenge
educational expectations in all domains.(pp.45-60)

Valon (2000) conducted a study to examine whether adults view reading as a

masculine or feminine activity, and to see the impact that variables such as gender,
age, educational attainment, attitude toward reading, and reading activity have on
adults' views. The sample consisted of 169 adult male and female patients from a
doctor's office in Northern New Jersey. Both men and women viewed reading as a
mostly feminine activity. Variables, such as gender, age, educational attainment,
attitude toward reading, and reading activity, were found to influence men's and
women's views of reading as mostly masculine or mostly feminine. Results also
indicated that women had more positive attitudes toward reading; greater
educational attainment did not result in men and women viewing reading as more
gender appropriate; and both men and women of all ages were more likely to view
reading as a more gender appropriate activity.( pp.20-51)

General Remarks on the Literature: -

1. Most of the studies were conducted abroad with subjects who are learners of
English as a second language (44), very few dealt with learners of English as a
foreign language ,(6).
2. Most of the studies dealt with subjects who are pre service teachers in
different faculties of Education .

85
3. The Egyptian studies are fewer in number , besides they deal mainly with
students who are pre service teachers for the preparatory or the secondary
stages , not the primary one.
4. Some studies focused on presenting programs in basic reading instruction for
pre service teachers , while others focused on presenting programs in reading
skills for them.
5. Results of the current studies on primary pre service teacher education in
Egypt , that are being conducted at the time , are not still certain.
6. No study in Egypt focused on developing the basic reading skills needed for
this sample.
7. Some studies considered the decoding and vocabulary skills to be of the most
important basic reading skills.
8. Some studies found slight differences between males and females in reading,
favoring the females over the males (11 studies vs. 2).
9. Some studies found no differences between males and females in reading
achievement , rather the difference was in the reading preferences and
reading attitudes.
10.Some studies found some differences between boys and girls in the cognitive
processes for word reading.
11.Gender differences were shown to change as students grow older and move
to higher grades.

From surveying the above mentioned studies, it is noted that the field of primary
teacher education in Egypt is still in need for more specialized studies to investigate
this area; many studies need to be performed to explore the different teaching
skills, strategies of teaching, curricula , and training techniques required for this
sample. It is also noted that very few studies were performed in teaching reading in
general and basic reading in particular for these students. Many studies have been
86
conducted abroad, but still in Egypt we need to plant our feet firmly on the land of
EFL in primary education. Thus, the present study addresses an already exsiting
need for developing the basic reading skills of primary pre service teachers of
English in Egypt, examining the differences between college males and females in
the acquistion of basic reading skills, and investigating the relationship between
language proficiency and achievement in basic reading – with the purpose of
systemantically teaching the reading skills to establish the right reading habits on
the part of the prosprctive teachers of English in the Primary school.

87
88
 Chapter IV
Materials and Methodology

The present study was conducted at Qena Faculty of Education , South Valley
University. The experiment lasted for six weeks, two sessions a week, two hours a
session, starting from the 25th of October ,2000 and ending on the 10th of
December,2000.

Design of the Experiment:

The study had a pre-post test design to be administered for the second year
primary stage preserivce teachers , English Majors of the Faculty of Education. All
the subjects were treated as one experimental group and were exposed to pre-post
means of getting data.

Variables:
I The independent variable is the suggested training program in basic reading.
II The dependent variable includes the subjects’ basic reading skills as measured
by a pre-post test on word identification skills.
III The control variables are :
a. age
b. years of studying English
c. proficiency level in English

Tools of the study:

I A Needs Assessment Inventory

This questionnaire was designed for a group of TEFL jury to determine the
skills and subskills of basic reading needed for primary stage preserivce teacher of
English.
89
a. Objectives of the Needs Assessment Inventory:

1. To determine the skills and subskills of structural analysis and

contextual analysis skills in reading.

2. To identify skills that primary education English Majors need to improve

their level in reading for getting the meaning and identifying new
words, so that these skills will be included in the program.
b. Steps for building up the Needs Assessment Inventory:
1.Stating the objectives of the Needs Assessment Inventory.
2.Stating the skills and subskills through
i. reviewing literature
ii. conducting informal personal meetings with a number of
specialists in the field of reading instruction.
iii. Investigating the opinion of members of the jury through a
preliminary Needs Assessment Inventory. They were
required to respond with yes/no to whether the skills and
subskills belong to the main one(s), and to rate the skills in
three categories of “mostly, moderately or never needed”.

c. Final Format of the Needs Assessment Inventory:

The Needs Assessment Inventory is divided into two main parts; structural
analysis skills, and contextual analysis skills. These two are, in turn, divided into
Morphemic Clues and Syntactic Clues for the former part , and Explicit Clues and
Implicit clues for the latter part. A glossary of technical terms is attached for the
convenience of the members of the jury. This Needs Assessment Inventoryis of
the closed type since it requires a specific response to each item. See appendix .
d. Validity of the Needs Assessment Inventory :
90
 The Needs Assessment Inventory was submitted for a group of fourteen TEFL
experts who constitute the members of the jury. See appendix (B) for jury
members’ names and comments.
e. Analyzing data obtained:
After the administration of the Needs Assessment Inventory to the jury
members , results indicated that some items need to be rephrased, some others
need to be more elaborated into other subskills, and some others need to be
eliminated from the skills list.( for example using the dictionary for looking up
new words, was thought by most members of the jury to be a study skill more
than a basic reading skill, so it has been elimniated – for the Needs Assessment
Inventory in its final format see appendix D)

II A training program in basic reading and word identification skills:

A training program in basic reading and word identification skills was prepared by
the researcher to rain 2nd year primary preserivce teachers of English in these skills.

a. Procedure for designing the program:

i. Stating the general objectives of the program.

ii. Stating the behavioral objectives of the program.
iii. Building the frame of the program including general and
behavioral objectives, content, training techniques, activities and
evaluation. see appendix
iv. Evaluating the frame of the program by submitting it to a jury of
fourteen specialists highly qualified and experienced in TEFL,
according to certain given criteria. (see appendix B).
91
 v. Building up the whole program; the students’ book and the
teacher’s guide.
vi. Judging the whole program by the same jury for its contents and
general form.
b. Final format of the training program :

i. The program contains four units in two parts;

- part one, structural analysis, includes unit one “using
morphemic clues”, and unit two “ using syntactic clues”
- part two , contextual analysis, includes unit three” using
explicit context clues “ and unit four “ using implicit
context clues”.
ii. Each unit contains three lessons; so the whole program contains
twelve lessons.
iii. Each lesson begins with general objectives and a warm-up
preview for students to assess their level before beginning the
lesson and to refer to after completing the lesson.
iv. Then a background and explanations are provided for the student
along with a sufficient number of examples.
v. Practice is graded beginning from group work, pair work ,
individual work and ending with home work; thus establishing
students’ confidence in handling the practice items.
vi. Training techniques include whole class instruction, modeling of
the required skill ,guided practice ,pair work, and independent
practice.
vii. Aids include the black board, work sheets and answer sheets.
Refer to the appendix for the program in its final format.

92
III A pre-post test in basic reading skills:

a. Objectives of the test:

i. To assess second year primary preservice teachers’ word
identification and basic reading skills.
ii. To assess the degree of improvement in the experimental group
performance.

b. Construction of the test:

i. The test consists of two parts representing the main parts of the
program
ii. In each part there are six questions representing the lessons of
the of the program.
iii. In each question there are five items; so the whole test consists
of 60 items
c. Item Type:
The items of the test are of completion type for the first part, and multiple choice
type for the second part.
d. Scoring :
One point is given for each test item . Maximum score of this test is 60 points.
e. Instructions of the test:

Instructions are written in English. They are brief , simple ,and easy to
understand. They contain information about the purpose of the test , time
allowed to complete the test and how to record the answer. Examples are given
to the completion questions to avoid any source of ambiguity.

93
f. Validity and reliability of the test:
i. A pilot study was conducted a bout a month before the
administration of the program to estimate the validity and
reliability of the test. A group of 35 second year primary
preservice teachers were selected randomly representing
different levels of achievement; high, middle and low.
ii. Face validity of the test: the members of the jury supported the
suitability of the test for its objectives and the applicability of the
test to the age and achievement level of the subjects.
iii. Reliability of the test: The reliability of the test was determined
by the test-retest method. In the pilot study the researcher
administered the test and part of the program on second year
English Majors of the Primary Division at Qena Faculty of
Education, Hurghada Branch, then readministered it again on the
same group after 28 days. Number of subjects in the piloting
phase was 35, and the Correlations between examinees’ scores
were computed. The reliability co-efficient of the test was [.67],
which is a significant value at [.01] of t-test.

IV English Proficiency Exam for Egypt (EPEE):

The English Proficiency Exam for Egypt form A was used to ensure initial
subjects’ equivalence.
a. Objectives of the test:
i. To assess the students’ level of proficiency in English.
ii. The following sub-objectives were branched out to
evaluate the level of students’ performance in :
-a listening section of 34 items
-a structure and written expression section having 33
94
 items
–a vocabulary and reading comprehension section
having 33 items.
b. Scoring :
Maximum score of this test is 100 points.
c. Validity and reliability of the test:
The reliability co-efficient of the test is (0.83) and the statistically
computed validity of the test is (0.91). Index of difficulty ranged between
(0.40) and (0.85)

Subjects :
The subjects chosen for the present study were 85 students enrolled in the second
year primary division, English Majors at Qena Faculty of Education, South Valley
University. Eight students were excluded from the analysis of data because they
were absent in one or more of the tests, or because they skipped two or more of
the training sessions. The final sample of the study was 75 students.

Control Variables:
a. Proficiency level; through using the EPEE test.
b. Grade ; All subjects were in the second year primary division,
English Majors at Qena Faculty of Education, South Valley
University.
c. Age ; The age of the students was calculated and counted in
months. Days less than 15 were omitted. Fifteen days or more
were counted a month. Then the arithmetic mean for the whole
group was computed. “T-test” showed no significant differences
among the subjects of the experiment.

95
 d. Years of studying English; All subjects reported that they studied
English for seven years before being enrolled in the second year,
English department.
Table (1)
T-test analysis for the age variable
Number of subjects Mean Standard Deviation
75 18.33 .498

Table (2)
T-test analysis for the group’s achievement in the pretest
Number of Subjects Mean Standard
Deviation
75 24.647 4.986
Maximum score = 60
Table (3)
T-test analysis for the the group’s achievement in the (EPEE)
Number of Subjects Mean Standard
Deviation
75 41.113 7.246
Maximum score = 100

Teachers:
The researcher trained the subjects of the group through the suggested
program in basic reading and word identification skills.

Procedures:
1) . Designing the questionnaire.

2) Choosing the sample from the second year primary stage English Majors in
Qena Faculty of Education, South Valley University.
3) Controling for the following variables:

96
 a) Language proficiency b) age c) years of studying English
4) Designing the frame of the program.
5) Establishing the appropriacy and validity of the frame of the program by a
jury of TEFL experts.
6) Designing the teaching program.
7) Establishing the appropriacy and validity of the reading program by the
jury.
8) Administrating the pre-test.
9) Training the experimental group, using the suggested basic reading
program.
10) Administering the post-test.
11) Analyzing students’ scores on the tests statistically using T-test.
12) Reporting and discussion of results.
13) Conclusions, recommendations, and suggestions for further research.

97
98
 Chapter V

Findings and Discussions

Findings:

“T-test” analyses were run to test the set hypotheses of the significant mean
differences between the achievement of the subjects in the pre and the posttests in
basic reading.

Hypothesis (1):
Hypothesis (1) predicted that there are no statistically significant mean
differences between the experimental group’s achievement on the pre-test and that
on the post-test. Analysis of data using t-test showed that the mean difference
between the achievement of the group in the pretest and that of the posttest was
significant. In order to figure out t-value for one experimental group in a pre and
posttest, the following equation was used :
D  D
t
ˆ D

Where - D means the statistical mean of differences, it also equals the difference
between the two means,
-  D means the sum of standard deviations of these differences at the mean of
these differences
-and ̂ D means the number of subjects.(Weinberg & Kenneth, 1994:332)

The following table shows the results of applying this equation:


From the given data, we can obtain

D
 D  26.467
N

ˆ 2

 (D  D ) 2

 5.219
N 1
ˆ  ˆ 2  1.21  1.1
99
 Table (4)

T-test analysis for the the group’s achievement in the pretest and that in the
posttest of basic reading.
Pretest posttest T Signifi
D  D value cance
level
Perc Stand Mea Perc Stand
ent ard n ent ard 26.4 5.21 43.91 .01 **
Deviat Deviat 67 9 7
ion ion
24 42% 4.986 51.1 85% 41.87
. 13
64

Maximum score = 60

** Significant.

The findings of this hypothesis answer the first question of the study. The
findings state that there are significant mean differences between the
achievement of the subjects of the study in the pretest and that in the
posttest, favoring the posttest’s.

Hypothesis (2):

Hypothesis (2) predicted that there are no statistically significant mean

differences between the male subjects’ achievement and the female subjects’
achievement on the post-test. Analysis of data using t-test showed that the mean
difference between the male and the female subjects of the experiment is
significant, favoring the females, as shown in the following table.

100
 Table (5)
T-test analysis for the differences of the male and female subjects’
achievement in the posttest.

Number Num Mean of percen Mean percen t- Significan

of ber of males’ t of t valu ce level
males femal scores female e
es s’
scores

27 48 49.67 82.7% 51.93 86.5% 2.24 .05*

* significant

On basis of these results, there is a statistical mean difference between the

achievement of the males and the females , favoring the females’
achievement in the posttest in basic reading after the administration of the
training program.

The findings of this hypothesis answer the second question of the

study. The findings state that there is a significant mean difference between
the achievement of the male subjects and that of the female subjects in the
posttest of basic reading, favoring the achievement of the female subjects.

Hypothesis (3)

Hypothesis (3) predicted that there is no statistically significant correlation

coefficient value between the achievement of the subjects on the proficiency test
and on the posttest of basic reading. Analysis of data using Pearson’s method as well
as Spearman’s method showed that there is a positive correlation between the
subjects’ achievement in the EPEE test and in the posttest of basic reading. This
means that the more scores a subject gets in the proficiency test, the more s/he is
likely to get a high score in the posttest of basic reading, the following equation was
used and results are shown in the following table.

101
 N
1
Cov( X , Y ) 
N
(X
i 1
i  X )(Yi  Y ) (Weinberg & Kenneth, 1994:110)

Table (6)
Means, standard Deviations and correlation value of the
the group’s achievement in the post-test and the proficiency test (EPEE)
using Pearson’s Method

Number of Mean Mean Standard Standard Correlation Significance

subjects in the in the deviation deviation coefficient level
postte EPEE in the in the value
st posttest EPEE

75 51.13 41.11 4.187 7.247 0.341 0.01*

3 3

Using Spearman correlation formula , the correlation between the students’

acheivement and their language performance was 0.317 , significant at 0.01

On basis of these results, there is a positive relation between students’

Language proficiency level and their level in basic reading after the administration of
the training program.
The findings of this hypothesis answer the third question of the study. The
findings state that there is a positive correlation between students’ Language
proficiency level and their achievement level in basic reading.

Discussion:

The present study was conducted to measure the effect of a training program
in basic reading on improving preservice teachers’ basic reading and word
identification skills.

Results of the study confirmed that there was a remarkable increase in

students’ level of achievement after the experiment. Means of scores in the posttest

102
and the obtained t-value in the pre-posttest were siginificantly favoring the posttest
results. Results also showed that there is a statistically significant mean difference
between the male subjects’ achievement and the female subjects’ achievement in
the posttest of basic reading skills favoring the females’. The third result was that
there is a positive correlation between the achievement of the subjects in the
proficiency test and that in the posttest of basic reading.

These remarkable high gains obtained by the subjects in the posttest are due
to the effect of using the suggested training program. The study, having these
results, confirms the results of many previous studies conducted in the field of
teacher education on reading. It confirms the results obtained by Tan (1998) who
designed a teacher education program for improving English students’ reading
proficiency at Fujian Normal University, and concluded that there was a rise in
students’ level in reading when they used context clues in dealing with new words in
the reading process.

The study also affirms the results obtained by Moharam (1997) who designed
a program in reading comprehension, critical and creative reading using the
discussion method for Minia faculty of Education English Majors and found that the
experimental group surpassed the control group in reading comprehension and
creative reading skills when using the most common reading comprehension skills
including some word identification skills.

The results also coincide with those of Zidan (1994) who indicated that the
analytical reading behavior of EFL Egyptian readers, including using basic reading
skills, is significantly enhanced as a result of training in the rhetorical patterns of
written English and that this training variable has significantly positive effects on the
reader’s analysis of basic content and making inferences in reading.
103
 The results affirm what Chapman indicated in (1974) that literal reading
comprehension can be divided into different related skills of which structural
analysis, contextual analysis and dictionary use are the basic reading skills, that can
be systematically taught to EFL readers.

The study also verifies Zimmmerman’s idea (1982) of developing a booklet for
high school students giving priority to the basic reading skills needed for students at
this age. The results, moreover, emphasize the suggested principles of Cheek et
al(1984) when they included in their teacher education training program instruction
in basic reading skills, content area reading, study skills and personal reading.

However the results came opposing Abdel Ghany ‘s finding (1986) of no

significant differences between a control group and an experimental group on a
literal comprehension test. The results also refuse what Gray (1984) surprisingly
found; that preservice teachers appeared to cling very closely to traditional beliefs
about the reading process.

Nevertheless the results are consistent with many other studies that sought
to develop reading skills for EFL teacher education in general and basic reading in
particular : Kern (1989) ,Kim and Groetz (1994), Konopak et al (1994),,and El Naggar
et al(1999).

The results, above all, display a state of the affair of the place and quality of
primary teacher education in Egypt. The study affirms that these students need
more care and guidance; their abilities are not sufficient for a student majoring in
English in a faculty. These students have finished their secondary school
education,and are supposed to have mastered a basic level of proficiency in English
104
to be enrolled in the English Department. However the fact is that they are still
unable to match with the kind of study, the linguistic tasks or the study
requirements to be good readers of English.

The results of the present study are especially important for the primary
education programs at the faculties of Education for the following reasons:

1. There are no clear cut formula for the Primary Division in the Egyptian
Faculties of Education (El Naggar 1999); some faculties accept students from the
first year to be enrolled in the English Department, while others accept them only in
the second or the third years after a due share of general education subjects in the
first (and some times second) year(s).

2. This drop -for one year and some times two- isolates the students from
practicing the language as specialists, so when they come to the year of
specialization they still want to revise what they mastered before.

3. The courses for these students are mostly borrowed courses from the
General Education Division in Faculties of Education. The latter courses are, by their
turn, borrowed from the Faculties of Arts- simply because the instructors in all three
divisions are the same people.

Concerning the gender differences in reading achievement in the posttest,

results showed that the female subjects surpassed the male subjects in reading
achievement. These results coincide with many studies that found differences
between males and females in reading , favoring the females over the males ( Valon
2000, Kranzler 1999, McKenna 1997, McCall 1989, Edwards 1989, Hyde et al 1988,
Flynn 1983, Day et al 1983, Yawkey 1980 and Bewley 1975)
105
 However most of these studies found that these differences tend to change
according to the age and development of students from time to time. Females in the
present study have surpassed males due to many reasons excluding the big number
of females in the present study; since many of the above mentioned studies didn’t
have equal numbers of males and females. These reasons include the following:

1. Females tend to be interested in reading more than males. (

Edwards 1989, Shannon 1992)

2. Most females as well as males regard reading as a female activity.

(Valon 2000, McKenna 1997, McCall 1989)

3. In Thompsons view, “boys tended to rely more than girls of the

same reading level on access to phonological segments of words”
when using alternative cognitive processes of word reading.
(1987: p. 212)

4. Mazid explains that “ females make better language teachers

(and learners) may be because language…. is both
communication and metacommunication. They try to maintain
an exchange and make their interlocutors feel OK.” (1995: P.7)

5. Schultheis (1999) concluded that females spend more time

reading than males.

6. McCall (1989) declares that girls have been penalized, not

rewarded, for verbal skills and have been blamed for creating an
atmosphere that contributes to boys' failing. Girls begin to test
less well than boys in secondary school even while receiving
higher grades.
106
 7. Hyde et al (1988) indicate a slight female superiority in reading
performance, while verbal scores showed superior male
performance, and they suggest that these findings should have
implications for theories of sex differences in brain lateralization
and changing gender roles.

8. Lock (1992) concludes that there is little basis to conclude that

gender is particularly favored by explicit, implicit, or extended
type reading test items or by the nature of the reading test item
passage.

In the present study females surpassed males probably because:

1. Females were more interested in the program than the males.

2.Females reported that they spent more time in studying the program at home.

3. Females tended to show off more than boys especially in the analytical activities.

Concerning the correlation between language proficiency and reading

achievement, the study shows that the reading achievement level of the students
improves as long as their language proficiency level is satisfactory. This also
indicates that language learning is a comprehensive process, that all the four
language skills serve each other, and that proficiency in one skill will, in most cases,
lead to proficiency in others.

Asking students about their impressions concerning the knowledge provided

in the program, they confirmed that the program enriched their linguistic
background, that they needed these skills badly to cope with the difficult subjects
they study and that they will keep returning to the information in the program for
future years.
107
 To conclude, the results of the study showed that students who were exposed
to the training program improved their basic reading skills using word identification
techniques.

Recommendations:

On the basis of the results obtained from the study, a number of

recommendations can be helpful for the methodology of teaching English and EFL
teacher education:

1. Need is urgent to make a course description for the Primary Division

in faculties of Education in order to work on a solid basis for the
preparation of EFL teachers for the primary stage.

2. Word identification skills should be a major part in the reading and

comprehension courses in faculties of Education.

3. Students of the primary Division should be accepted to join the

English Department from the first year.

4. There should be consistent pre service programs nationwide to

manipulate the constrains imposed on the whole EFL spectrum to
better serve the EFL context in Egypt.

5. Content Based Instruction (CBI), as Touba (1999) suggested, is

recommended to be included in an undergraduate language course
using global issues and an undergraduate language course using
literature as content.

108
 6. An admission language test should be designed and administered
nationwide as a policy for accepting students in the English
Departments in Faculties of Education.

7. New technologies are recommended to be implemented for the

proper teaching for this sample and similar samples such as , using
computers, the internet, software design, and intranet.

Suggestions for further research:

1. A study is needed to explore the higher levels of reading for

primary preservice teachers of English; reading comprehension,
evaluative reading, interpretative reading, critical reading, and
creative reading.

2. Many studies are needed to investigate the place of other

language skills for this sample; Writing, Speaking, and Listening.

3. Further research is required to manipulate new methods of

teaching for this sample such as the discussion method, the
problem solving method, or the discovery method.

4. A study is required to investigate the methods of teaching

“methods of teaching” for this sample and similar samples in
faculties of Education.

5. Further research is required on the area of the performance of

these preservice teachers after graduation and their in-service
teaching and linguistic proficiency.

109
Summary of the Study
Problem of the study:

The main purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of
a suggested program on developing some basic reading skills for second
year primary English Majors.

The study also attempted to assess the contributions of gender and language
profeciency on the reading performance of the sample of the study

Significance of the study:

The present study is expected to:

1. Provide primary stage prospective teachers of English with practical guidelines

for their future readings.

2. Facilitate other readings in English which these students are apt to

encounter during their study-years (literature, linguistics, education, etc)

3. Enable Primary stage prospective teachers of English acquire the basic

reading

skills in order to impart them on their future students.

4. Be a step in the development of training courses for these students.

Hypotheses of the study:

1- There are no statistically significant mean differences between the experimental

group’s achievement on the pre-test and that on the post-test.

2- There are no statistically significant mean differences between the male subjects’
achievement and the female subjects’ achievement on the post-test.

110
3- There are no statistically significant mean differences between the achievement
of the subjects on the proficiency test and on the posttest of basic reading.

Limitations of the study:

The main skills treated in the present study are the skills of structural analysis
and contextual analysis. These skills have been chosen because students in the
primary section in faculties of Education showed a very low level in basic reading
skills. Results from a questionnaire for TEFL experts, and a pilot study emphasized
the bad need for training these students in these skills.

Design of the experiment:

The study has a one group design ; all the students have been involved in the
experiment after taking a proficiency (EPEE) test and a pre test. The subjects were
75 students enrolled in the second year English Department, Primary Division , at
Qena Faculty of Education. The experiment lasted for six weeks , twice a week , for
two hours each session.

Pilot Study:

One month before the experiment began , a pilot study was conducted to
determine the validity and reliability of the tools of the study. These were 0.74 and
0.67 respectively.

Tools of the study:

1. A questionnaire to determine the skills and sub skills of structural analysis and
contextual analysis.

2. A frame for the program of teaching basic reading skills.

3. The suggested teaching program.

111
4. A pre-post test on basic reading skills.
5. EPEE (English Proficiency Examination for Egypt) for equalizing the sample.

Findings and Discussion:

After the study was conducted, “t” test was used in analyzing the data
obtained. Scores of subjects in all the tests were analyzed and compared. Results
revealed and confirmed a remarkable degree of improvement in the achievement of
the post test in basic reading and word identification skills. Also there was a
statistically significant mean difference , favoring the females, between the male
subjects’ achievement and the female subjects’ achievement in the posttest of basic
reading after the administration of the training program. There was a positive
correlation between subjects’ level of language proficiency and their achievement in
the posttest of basic reading

112
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Appendices

129
130
 Appendix (A) Tables
Table (7)
Raw score of students in the EPEE test.
Subject Score Subject Score
1 52 39 48
2 45.5 40 35.5
3 32 41 47
4 28 42 34
5 42 43 42
6 30 44 42
7 40 45 53
8 36.5 46 47
9 40 47 39
10 46.5 48 48
11 39 49 42
12 35.5 50 33
13 48 51 45.5
14 41 52 40
15 49 53 38
16 55.5 54 47
17 38 55 49
18 51 56 47
19 42 57 52
20 35 58 43
21 34.5 59 40
22 49 60 37
23 39 61 40
24 40 62 30
25 50 63 35.5
26 36.5 64 35.5
27 55.5 65 42
28 53 66 30
29 34.5 67 30
30 40 68 39
31 39 69 34
32 44 70 32
33 44 71 35.5
34 36 72 53
35 40 73 39
36 44 74 59
37 26.5 75 32
38 35.5
Total score = 100

131
 Table ( 8)
Raw scores of the male subjects
in the EPEE test.
Subject Score
1 52
2 45.5
3 32
4 28
5 50
6 36.5
7 39
8 36
9 44
10 26.5
11 35.5
12 48
13 35.5
14 47
15 34
16 42
17 42
18 53
19 48
20 42
21 33
22 45.5
23 30
24 30
25 30
26 39
27 34
Mean = 39.18

132
 Table (9)
Raw scores of the female
subjects in the EPEE test.

Subject Score Subject Score

1 42 25 44
2 30 26 44
3 40 27 40
4 36.5 28 47
5 40 29 39
6 46.5 30 40
7 39 31 38
8 35.5 32 47
9 48 33 49
10 41 34 47
11 49 35 52
12 55.5 36 43
13 38 37 40
14 51 38 37
15 42 39 40
16 35. 40 35.5
17 34.5 41 35.5
18 49 42 42
19 39 43 32
20 40 44 35.5
21 55.5 45 53
22 53 46 39
23 34.5 47 59
24 40 48 32

Mean = 42.19

133
 Table (10)
Raw scores of subjects in the
pre test in Basic Reading.
Subject Score Subject Score
1 29.5 39 35
2 37.5 40 28
3 17 41 25
4 20 42 23
5 24 43 35
6 22 44 28
7 25 45 33
8 19 46 22
9 33.5 47 20
10 25 48 22
11 42.5 49 30
12 23 50 19
13 25 51 23
14 23 52 23
15 31.5 53 18
16 20 54 22
17 23 55 23
18 28 56 24
19 22.5 57 19
20 26 58 23
21 20 59 24
22 24 60 23
23 30.5 61 21
24 19 62 30
25 28.5 63 26
26 28 64 31
27 27 65 28
28 29 66 29
29 29 67 11
30 28 68 25
31 17 69 19
32 26 70 15
33 23.5 71 18
34 29 72 25
35 24 73 26
36 31 74 25
37 25 75 25
38 15

Total Score =60

134
 Table (11)
Raw scores of the male subjects in the pre test of Basic Reading

Subject Score
1 29.5
2 37.5
3 17
4 20
5 28.5
6 28
7 17
8 29
9 31
10 25
11 15
12 35
13 28
14 25
15 23
16 35
17 28
18 33
19 22
20 30
21 19
22 23
23 30
24 29
25 11
26 25
27 19

Mean = 25.64

135
 Table (12)
Raw scores of the females subjects
in the pre test of Basic Reading
Subject Score Subject Score
1 24 25 26
2 22 26 23.5
3 25 27 24
4 19 28 22
5 33.5 29 20
6 25 30 23
7 42.5 31 18
8 23 32 22
9 25 33 23
10 23 34 24
11 31.5 35 19
12 20 36 23
13 23 37 24
14 28 38 23
15 22.5 39 21
16 26 40 26
17 20 41 31
18 24 42 28
19 30.5 43 15
20 19 44 18
21 27 45 25
22 29 46 26
23 29 47 25
24 28 48 25

Mean = 24.08

136
 Table (13)
Raw scores of the subjects in the post test of Basic Reading
Subject Score Subject Score
1 51 39 53
2 52 40 49
3 45 41 52
4 42.5 42 46
5 54.5 43 48.5
6 52.5 44 42
7 50 45 54.5
8 45 46 53
9 52.5 47 53
10 50 48 54.5
11 53.5 49 54.5
12 53.5 50 49
13 52.5 51 56
14 52 52 50
15 56 53 52
16 50.5 54 56.5
17 51 55 54.5
18 55 56 50.5
19 55 57 50
20 54 58 51
21 45 59 52.5
22 40 60 53
23 51 61 52
24 48 62 48
25 53 63 53
26 45 64 55
27 51 65 55
28 56 66 56
29 55 67 42
30 49 68 47
31 42 69 56
32 56 70 42.5
33 56 71 45
34 52 72 52
35 53.5 73 57
36 50 74 57
37 48 75 49.5
38 43.5
Total Score =60

137
 Table (14)
Raw scores of the male subjects
in the posttest of Basic Reading.
Subject Score
1 51
2 52
3 45
4 42.5
5 53
6 45
7 42
8 52
9 50
10 48
11 43.5
12 53
13 49
14 52
15 46
16 48.5
17 42
18 54.5
19 54.5
20 54.5
21 49
22 56
23 48
24 56
25 42
26 47
27 56
Mean = 49.67

138
 Table (15)
Raw Scores of the female subjects
in the posttest of Basic Reading.
Subject Score Subject Score
1 54.5 25 56
2 52.5 26 56
3 50 27 53.5
4 45 28 53
5 52.5 29 53
6 50 30 50
7 53.5 31 52
8 53.5 32 56.5
9 52.5 33 54.5
10 52 34 50.5
11 56 35 50
12 50.5 36 51
13 51 37 52.5
14 55 38 53
15 55 39 52
16 54 40 53
17 45 41 55
18 40 42 55
19 51 43 42.5
20 48 44 45
21 51 45 52
22 56 46 57
23 55 47 57
24 49 48 49.5

Mean = 51.93

139
 Table (16)
Raw scores of students’ age before the experiment
Subject Age Subject Age
Year Month Year Month
1 18 4 39 19 10
2 18 3 40 17 11
3 18 10 41 17 10
4 18 5 42 18 4
5 18 10 43 18 1
6 18 9 44 18 9
7 18 6 45 18 3
8 19 0 46 18 0
9 18 0 47 18 0
10 18 5 48 18 6
11 18 1 49 18 11
12 18 5 50 17 10
13 18 7 51 17 11
14 19 2 52 18 2
15 18 3 53 18 6
16 18 10 54 18 6
17 18 10 55 18 7
18 17 10 56 18 4
19 18 6 57 17 9
20 18 2 58 17 9
21 18 2 59 18 0
22 18 8 60 18 0
23 18 3 61 18 0
24 19 3 62 18 10
25 18 3 63 18 0
26 18 0 64 18 0
27 18 0 65 18 4
28 18 0 66 18 6
29 17 9 67 18 3
30 18 0 68 18 7
31 18 0 69 18 2
32 18 1 70 18 3
33 18 7 71 18 8
34 18 5 72 18 6
35 18 0 73 18 0
36 18 11 74 18 10
37 18 7 75 18 7
38 18 2
Mean age : 18.4
140
Framework of the Reading Programme

141
142
 General Frame of the suggested Program in Basic Reading

Behavioral Content Activities Evaluation

Objective
General
Objectives Areas
Techniques Aids

Part One: Structural Analysis

Unit (1) Lesson 1 -whole -Black completion
Lesson 1 1- The uses of class board items,
1- To mention prefixes. Instruction -Work -Multiple
some prefixes A. Knowing -modeling sheets choice
of words (auto some of the -Answer items
Developing the use of morphemic cues

– dis – micro – commonly required sheets -Correction

etc…) used skill items
2- To identify prefixes. -guided -T/F items
prefixes in B. Identifying practice
order to unlock prefixes to -pair work
the meaning of unlock the -
a new word (an meaning of independe
– pre – post – new words. nt practice
etc…). C. Forming new
3- To write some words using
prefixes to prefixes to
change the change
meaning of meaning.
some given 2- some exercises on
words. the uses of prefixes.

Lesson 2 : Lesson 2: -whole -Black -completion

1- To recognize 1. The uses of class board items,
some suffixes. Instruction -Work -Multiple
commonly used A. Recognizing some -modeling sheets choice
suffixes of commonly used of the -Answer items
words (able ) (- suffixes. required sheets -Correction
age) (-full), (- B. Identifying suffixes skill items
ism) . to know the -guided -T/F items
2- To identify meaning and practice
suffixes to functions of new -pair work
know the words in a reading -
meaning of text. independe
new words in a C. Writing some nt practice
reading words using
passage. suffixes to change
3- To write some meanings and
suffixes to functions.
change the 2. Some exercises on
 General Frame of the suggested Program in Basic Reading

Behavioral Content Activities Evaluation

Objective
General
Objectives Areas
Techniques Aids

functions of the uses of

some given suffixes.
words.
-whole -Black -completion
Lesson 3 Lesson 3 class board items,
1- To give some 1- The uses of word Instruction -Work -Multiple
roots of words. roots. -modeling sheets choice
2- To identify a- Recognizing of the -Answer items
roots of words some word required sheets -Correction
in a reading roots. skill items
text. b- Identifying -guided -T/F items
3- To write some word roots practice
words derived in a reading -pair work
from the text. -
original roots of c- Forming independe
some given words using nt practice
words. the roots of
other
words.
2- Some exercises
on the uses of
word roots.
Lesson 4 : Lesson 4. -whole -Black completion
1. To know some 1. The uses of class board items,
word contractions. Instruction -Work -Multiple
contractions, A. Knowing some -modeling sheets choice
i.e. (‘m, ‘ll, ‘re, commonly used of the -Answer items
‘s, etc…) contractions. required sheets -Correction
2. To identify B. Identifying skill items
contractions in contractions in a -guided -T/F items
a reading text reading text. practice
in order to C. Writing full forms -pair work
know the of contracted -
meaning of words. independe
new contracted 2. Some exercises on nt practice
words. the uses of
3. To write the contractions.
complete form
of contracted
words

144
 General Frame of the suggested Program in Basic Reading

Behavioral Content Activities Evaluation

Objective
General
Objectives Areas
Techniques Aids

Unit (2) Unit (2) -whole -Black completion

Lesson 1: Lesson 1: class board items,
1. To mention the 1.The uses of Instruction -Work -Multiple
different kinds sentence patterns. -modeling sheets choice
of sentence A. Mentioning of the -Answer items
patterns. sentence patterns. required sheets -Correction
Developing the use of syntactic cues

2. To identify B. Identifying skill items

sentence sentence patterns -guided -T/F items
patterns in a C. Forming sentence practice
reading text, patterns -pair work
i.e. statement, 2. some exercises on -
requests. the use of sentence independe
Instructions etc patterns nt practice
3. To form
sentences
following these
patterns to
express
question,
commands,
requests,
instructions,
offers,
statements.etc.
lesson 2: Lesson 2: -whole Blackboar -completion
1. to recognize 1. The uses of word class d items,
the different markers. Instruction Workshe -Multiple
kinds of word A. Recognizing word -modeling ets choice
markers: markers a. noun of the Answer items
a. noun markers markers required sheets -Correction
b. verb markers b. verb markers skill items
c. adjective and c. adjective -guided -T/F items
adverb markers markers practice
d. phrase markers d. phrase markers -pair work
e. clause markers e. clause markers -
2. To be able to B. Indicating kinds of independe
indicate kinds of words on the basis nt practice
words on the basis of word markers.
of word markers i,C. Forming sentences
e (noun markers: using the patterns
articles, possessive of the markers.
145
 General Frame of the suggested Program in Basic Reading

Behavioral Content Activities Evaluation

Objective
General
Objectives Areas
Techniques Aids

pronouns, 2. Some exercises on

demonstratives, the uses of word
.etc). markers.

Lesson 3 : Lesson 3 : -whole Black completion

1- To mention the 1- The uses of class board items,
different kinds punctuation. Instruction Work Multiple
of punctuation A-mentioning the -modeling sheets choice
rules. rules of of the Answer items
-Apostrophes, punctuation. required sheets Correction
exclamation B recognizing skill items
points, reading texts on -guided True/false
Hyphens the basis of practice items
Quotation punctuation rules. -pair work
marks full stop, C- Forming -
colon commas, sentences using independe
and punctuation rules. nt practice
capitalization. 2- Some exercises on
2- -To recognize the uses of
written punctuation.
materials using
punctuation
rules.
3- -To write
sentences using
the rules of
punctuation.

Part Two: Contextual Analysis

Unit (3) Unit (3) -whole -Black -completion
developing the uses of Explicit

Lesson 1: Lesson 1: class board items,

1.to define what is 1-The uses of Instruction -Work -Multiple
a synonym. synonyms -modeling sheets choice
2.To understand a. defining of the -Answer items
cues

the meaning of a synonyms required sheets -Correction

word depending b. Recognizing skill items
on the use of the meaning of -guided -T/F items
synonyms new words on practice
3. To give some the basis of the -pair work
synonyms of some given -
146
 General Frame of the suggested Program in Basic Reading

Behavioral Content Activities Evaluation

Objective
General
Objectives Areas
Techniques Aids

given words. synonyms. independe

c. giving nt practice
synonyms to
certain words
2. Some exercises on
the uses of synonyms.
Lesson 2: Lesson 2: -whole -Black -completion
class board items,
1:to define what is1- The uses of Instruction -Work -Multiple
an antonym. antonyms. -modeling sheets choice
2- To understand A-defining of the -Answer items
the meaning of a antonyms required sheets -Correction
word using B- Understanding skill items
antonyms the meaning of -guided -T/F items
3- to give new words in practice
antonyms of some context depending -pair work
given words on the use of -
antonyms. independe
C- Giving nt practice
antonyms to
certain words.
2- Some exercises on
the use of antonyms.
Lesson 3 : Lesson 3 : -whole -Black -completion
1- To recognize 1-The uses of class board items,
how to give explanation and Instruction -Work -Multiple
explanation or description. -modeling sheets choice
description to A. Recognizing of the -Answer items
how to give
new words in required sheets -Correction
explanation
English. and
skill items
2- To understand description. -guided -T/F items
the meaning of B. Understanding practice
new words the meaning of -pair work
depending on new word -
the provided depending on independe
explanation or their nt practice
description in explanation and
the context. deception.
3- To explain / C. Explaining and
describe some describing some
govern words.
147
 General Frame of the suggested Program in Basic Reading

Behavioral Content Activities Evaluation

Objective
General
Objectives Areas
Techniques Aids

given words 2- some exercises on

the uses of description
and explanation.
Lesson 1 : lesson 1: -whole -Black -completion
Developing the uses of Implicit cues

1- To mention the 1-Mentioning the class board items,

meaning of a meaning of word in Instruction -Work -Multiple
word context depend on -modeling sheets choice
depending on other words. of the -Answer items
the proceeding 1- Mentioning the required sheets -Correction
words. meaning of a word skill items
2- To mark the in context -guided -T/F items
context in depending on practice
which a new other sentences. -pair work
word occurs. 3-some exercises on -
3- To recognize the use of words in independe
the meaning of a context nt practice
word depending
on the preceding
sentences
following the
sentence in which
that unfamiliar
word appears
Lesson 2 : Lesson 2 : -whole -Black -completion
class board items,
1- To recognize 1- Recognizing the Instruction -Work -Multiple
the meaning of meaning of a -modeling sheets choice
a phrase phrase in context of the -Answer items
depending on depending on required sheets -Correction
the following other words. skill items
words. 2- Recognizing the -guided -T/F items
2- To mark the meaning of a practice
context in phrase in context -pair work
which a new depending on -
phrase occurs. other sentences. independe
3- To recognize 3- Some exercises on nt practice
the meaning of the use of phrase
a phrase in context.
depending on
the proceeding
following the
148
 General Frame of the suggested Program in Basic Reading

Behavioral Content Activities Evaluation

Objective
General
Objectives Areas
Techniques Aids

sentence in
which that
unfamiliar
phrase appears.
Lesson 3 : Lesson 3 : -whole -Black -completion
1-The use of class board items,
1- to mention expressions and Instruction -Work -Multiple
some idioms. -modeling sheets choice
commonly used A- Mentioning of the -Answer items
expressions some required sheets -Correction
and idioms commonly skill items
2- To recognize used -guided -T/F items
the meaning of express ions practice
words and idioms. -pair work
depending on B- Recognizing -
the meaning of meaning of independe
some words nt practice
commonly used depending
expressions on
and idioms. expressions
3- To mention the and idioms
meaning of C- Mentioning
some given the
expressions meaning of
and idioms. some
expressions
and idioms
2- some exercises on
the exercises on the
use of some
commonly used
expressions and
idioms.

149
150
Teacher’s Guide

151
152
 Teacher’s Guide
Introduction
This program is an attempt to develop some basic skills of reading for second
year faculty of Education, English Majors of the primary division. The main focus of
the program is upon two main broad categories of basic skills: structural analysis
and contextual analysis. The program consists of two parts, four units and 12
lessons. Structural analysis is divided into two units: Morphemic clues; dealing with
how to analyze words structurally via knowledge and use of prefixes, suffixes, and
roots. The second unit is syntactic clues: dealing with how to analyze sentences
syntactically via knowledge and use of sentence patterns, word markers, and
punctuation.
Part two “ contextual analysis” in its turn is divided into two units: explicit clues;
dealing with how to analyze words contextually via knowledge and use of synonyms,
antonyms and examples . The second and last unit is implicit cues dealing with how
to analyze sentences contextually via sense of the sentence context clues (word in
context and phrase in context) and by knowing and using some well-known
expressions and idioms.

Th main broad aim of the program is to provide students with the basics of
reading upon which other developing courses may build.
Objectives of the Program:
1. To develop the use of structural analysis in reading passages
a. To develop the use of morphemic cues:
i. To develop the use of prefixes
ii. To develop the use of suffixes
iii. To develop the use of roots
b. To develop the use of syntactic cues:
i. To develop the use of sentence patterns
153
ii. To develop the use of word markers
iii. To develop the use of punctuation

2.To develop the use of contextual analysis in reading passages

a. To develop the use of explicit cues
i. To develop the use of synonyms
ii. To develop the use of antonyms
iii. To develop the use of examples
b. To develop the use of implicit cues
i. To develop the use of sense of the sentence context clues
ii. To understand the meaning of new words depending on knowledge of
well-known expression and idioms.

Definition of terms.

Program:
Abolyosr (1996: 9) defines a program as “ a series of instructional activities which
take place over a period of time”
Reading:
There is much controversy among scientists on the definition of reading, Lapp and
Flood (1978: 6) see that all definitions of reading fall in two categories; first there
are those who view reading primarily as a decoding process, a breaking of a visual
code. In a second view, reading for meaning is emphasized from the very earliest
stages of instruction, in this view, reading as a comprehension process is stressed.
Mckeown (1975: 15) confirms that “reading consists basically in deciphering a
code.”
The definition adopted in the present study is Lapp and Flood’s definition (1978:
90); “Reading is the process of perceiving, interpreting, and evaluating a printed
material. It is one of the four major tools of communication; listening, speaking,
154
reading, and writing. It is usually silent, and it is receptive in nature. Reading
requires the development of meaningful vocabulary and a multiplicity of skills. The
reader must be able to perceive and recognize written symbols, and must be able to
associate concepts with written symbols. He must be able to understand both
concrete and abstract ideas as they are presented in written forms.”

Basic Reading Skills:

The basic reading skills presented in this study are: structural analysis and
contextual analysis.
Structural Analysis:
While Ives et al (1989: 254) see structural analysis as an “ ambiguous term that
some writers use to mean the identification of some pronunciation units and some
meaning units in words” , they prefer to call it “ word structure clues and define it as
“Those correspondences between orthographic units and units of meaning and
sound or pronunciation that enable readers to infer what written words are by
identifying their meaning and/or pronunciation component. Word structure clues
include morphemic clues and phonic clues.”
On the other hand Helman et al (1998 : 342 )define it as “ the investigation of
unknown words for known meaningful parts , such as root words , compound words
, contractions, prefixes and suffixes , plurals, past tense endings ,and comparison
endings .”
Anthony (1984:59 )defines it as “ the approach to word attack that is based on
recognition of compounds made up of smaller words.”
The present study adopts the second definition.
Contextual analysis:

Graves et al (1998:335) refer to contextual analysis as “the words , phrases, and

sentences that surround an unknown word and provide clues to its meaning.”
Anthony (1984: 55) sees it as “ a method of word attack which is the most common
155
 means of determining word meaning, it is one in which students need guidance if
they are to develop real proficiency.”
Ives et al (1989:248) define it as “ the words and syntactic structures that surround a
word or other language unit and that affect its meaning . Contextual clues refer to
semantic and syntactic information that readers may use for identifying written
words.”
The present study adopts Graves’ definition.

Components and organization:-

The program consists of a students’ book , a teacher’s guide and a pre-post test.
The students’ book contains the core teaching materials. The course is divided
into 2 parts , and 4 units , in 12 lessons.
Every lesson begins with a preview about which students have to think before
handling the lesson. This is to serve many objectives :
- to work as a form of warm-up for the students before beginning the lesson
- to be a form of a pre –test for students to assess their progress and prior
knowledge
- The students can refer to it after finishing the lesson to edit themselves and
figure out their knowledge before and after the lesson.

Following the preview is a background, in which the teacher discusses with

students an introduction for the required skill.

Then comes the part of the Examples and illustrations in which clear examples
are given and discussed logically in order to reach a certain end depending on the
use of the required skills. This logical discussion is most important as it supplies
the students with learning strategies and a thinking technique when facing such
examples.
156
 After that comes the Practice stage which is divided in most lessons into: Group
work, pair work, individual work, and homework; thus moving from grouping into
individuality. The practice part contains many examples and items for students to
practice, because the main focus – we assure – is on the use of the skill itself. “It
is a skill, not content, that a reading program should teach” (Eskey, 1984:4)
However, the reading passages employed in the program are varying in order to
enrich the knowledge of the students. There are passages about literature and
linguistics, science and technology, history and politics, education and economic
and famous people-Arabs and foreigners.

Approach to Learning:-
Learning is an active process. If we want our students to be good readers , this
means much more than giving them knowledge of the language . It means helping
them to use the proposed skills for unlocking the meaning of unfamiliar words
and phrases in the reading passages. This means learning by discovering, by doing
, by practice, and practice makes perfect. The emphasis of the program is mainly
on developing two basic skills of reading.

The Role of the Teacher:-

A Teacher in this suggested program has to:
- Plan and manage the class
- Be knowledgeable about what s/he is teaching.
- Provide good models for handling the skill.
- Guide the students in the process of learning.
- Help students think for themselves.
- Be ready to help with problems.

157
Duration:-
Every lesson should be taught in 2 hours.

Pair Work:-
Allowing students to work together encourages motivation, confidence, and
enjoyment . Remember , however, two important points: Students shouldn’t be
asked to work in pairs\ groups until you are sure that they know exactly what to do;
and pair work should be limited in time or students become bored and no active
learning will take place.

Teaching Aids
Using teaching Aids helps the learning process and brings variety to a lesson. The
blackboard is the main aid employed, however use of cards indicating parts of
words, for example, is encouraged, as well as use of technological devices
(computers, overhead projectors, episcopes, …etc) When using the black board , you
need to know how to divide it , how to organize it and how to write on it .
The best way for organizing the blackboard in a reading text is to divide it into three
equal parts ; one for the new language items to be explained, another for the
examples and drawings you employ to clarify the meaning , and the third part is for
the contributions of the students , their answers and their examples.
Dividing the black board in this way helps you write in a clear forward
handwriting on the board. Your handwriting should be big enough for all the
students to see it should be clear and precise.
When drawing on the black board you need to draw simple drawings,
expressive and quick ; since you are not an arts teacher, but you may employ arts
and drawings to help you in the teaching process.
Here is an example of a good blackboard.
158
 New Examples SS’ part
Language 1-The operator 1-Party in
Synonyms: connected one party, or sentence 1
1-Party speaker, to the other. means: speaker.
2-Party 2-The new couples were 2-In sentence 2 it
………. going to attend the means :social
………. party, because they liked gathering
………. this kind of social
gathering.

Teaching Method:
Since the program is skill-based, no specific method of teaching is recommended
particularly. Any method that gets to achieve the aims of the program is the right
method. However, as long as the subjects of the experiment are English Majors in
the Faculty of Education, the discussion method is the one recommended as the
main presentation method. Try to avoid lecturing in presenting your lessons with
your students through encouraging them to infer, conclude and discover by
themselves. At least, it is your role to comment on these conclusions.
Divide your students into small heterogeneous discussion groups of 5 or 6
students. Assign a leader for each group and a recorder from students. The leader
offers a report at the end of every discussion and also keeps the discussion moving
by encouraging all to take part in discussion. As for the recorder, he keeps a record
of the important points and decisions made during the discussion.
Use questions to start discussions. Wait from 4 to 6 minutes after asking each
question to give the groups a chance to discuss with each other, before the leader
offers a report of the discussion.
Provide copies of modeling materials (passages, article..etc)
159
 Ask the groups to discuss each exercise first among themselves and then orally
under your supervision.
Evaluate your students’ competence through the use of the lesson and unit
evaluation in which they have to perform individually (independent practice)
In discussion, as in other methods, your role as teacher is to prepare, execute and
follow up. Before the discussion begins you, the teacher must make sure that every
one is properly prepared. During the class’s first experiences with real discussion
you will have to act as moderator. All times you will need to act as supervisor and
observer. In roles, please make sure that the problem to be discussed is properly
defined.
Characteristics of a good discussion:
1. A discussion is a purposeful conversation proceeding toward some goal,
2. The topic presented must be discussible,
3. Though it is informal , it is always serious ,
4. The teacher is merely a moderator , who supervises rather than directs the
conversation,
5. All members of the group have a chance to express an opinion.

160
 Part One: Structural Analysis
Unit One:
Developing the use of Morphemic Clues:

Lesson One: Use of Prefixes

Learning Objectives.
By the end of this lesson students will be able to:
4- To mention some prefixes of words (auto – dis – micro – etc…)
5- To identify prefixes in order to unlock the meaning of a new word (an – pre –
post – etc…).
3-To write some prefixes to change the meaning of some given words.

Warm-up :
Get Ss to try to mention the meanings of the words in the list and check them at the
right place.

Presentation:
1. Tell Ss about how words are formed; long words are divided into parts of
separate meanings , all together constitute the whole unique meaning of the
word at hand ,( analyze with them this word “ dis connec tion” and “Un in habit
ed”
2. Elicit other examples from the Ss themselves
3. Get Ss to state the definition of prefixes as in the box.
4. Explain in details the meaning of every prefix in the table giving other examples.

Practice.
Let Ss work together in the work-In-groups section, one of each group, a recorder,
writing the answers for the group.
Go round checking if any S needs help, especially in the individual work section.

161
For home work, ask Ss to read any available material; newspaper, textbook,
novels,.. etc, and underline the prefixes included in these passages.

Teacher’s Comments:
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162
 Lesson Two: Use of Suffixes:
Learning Objectives:
By the end of this lesson students will be able to :
4- To recognize some commonly used suffixes of words (able) (-age) (-full), (-ism).
5- To identify suffixes to know the meaning of new words in a reading passage.
3-To write some suffixes to change the functions of some given words.

Warm-up:
Ask Ss to mention the meanings of the words they know in the list and to put a
check before the words they know at the right place.

Presentation:
1. Tell Ss about that like prefixes, suffixes are word parts, however they are
added at the end of roots to change the meaning and some times the
functions of the original words.
2. Give examples to prove your point : Careful is the opposite of Careless; what
makes the contrast is the two suffixes : full and less. Also indicate the word
believe is a verb, if we add able to it , it becomes an adjective; believable.
3. Elicit other examples from the Ss themselves
4. Get Ss to state the definition of suffixes as in the box.
5. Explain in details the meaning of every suffix in the table giving other
examples.

Practice.
Make it clear that in the Work-in-groups Section , Ss are to discuss together the
underlined words in the practice items, while in the individual work section ,
every one has got to work individually asking for help only from the teacher.

163
Let Ss work together in the work-In-groups section, one of each group, a
recorder, writing the answers for the group.
Go round checking if any S needs help, especially in the individual work section.
For home work, ask Ss to read any available material; newspaper, textbook,
novels,. .etc, and underline the suffixes included in these passages.
Teacher’s Comments:

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164
 Lesson Three: Use of Roots:
Learning Objectives.
By the end of this lesson students will be able to :
4- Give some roots of words.
5- Identify roots of words in a reading text.
3-Write some words derived from the original roots of some given words.

Warm-up:
Ask Ss to mention the meanings of the words they know in the list and to put a
check before the words they know at the right place.

Presentation:
1.Tell Ss that roots are the bases of words. Sometimes they are called stems or
origins of words. These roots may be borrowed form other languages and may be
complete words with full meaning.
2. Give examples like the following; Bio is a Greek word that means Life, it has been
taken into English and became the root of words like; autobiography, biology,
antibiotic, biochemistry,.. etc
3. Get Ss to think of the roots of words like; paragraph, photograph, monograph,
telegraph, and telescope, television, and telephone.
4. Get Ss to state the definition of suffixes as in the box.
5. Explain in details the meaning of every suffix in the table giving other examples.

Practice:
Let Ss work together in the work-In-groups section, one student of each group,
a recorder, writes the answers for the group.
Go round checking if any S needs help, especially in the individual work section.

165
For homework, ask Ss to read the passage entitled: “Why people go to the
Cinema” and write the meanings of the underlined words at home.
Remember to check this homework the next meeting before beginning the new
lesson, by discussing the answers with the whole class.

Teacher’s Comments:

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166
 Unit Two
Developing the use of Syntactic Clues:
Lesson One: Use of Sentence Patterns:
Learning Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, students are expected to:
4. Mention the different kinds of sentence patterns.
5. Identify sentence patterns in a reading text, i.e. statement, requests.
Instructions …etc
6. Form sentences following these patterns to express question, commands,
requests, instructions, offers, statements……etc.

Warm-up:
Ask students to complete the sentences by filling in the blanks with appropriate
words depending on their sense of language for the first activity, and to choose the
correct sentence type for the second activity.

Presentation:
1. Explain in details the difference between the Arabic sentence building system
and the English one. Indicate that in Arabic there are two kinds of sentences: 1)
the sentence that begins with a noun ‫ جملة أسمية‬and 2) the sentence that begins
with a verb, ‫جملة فعلية‬. In the first kind there must be a subject and a predicate ‫مبتدأ‬
‫و خبر‬while in the second kind there must be a verb + a subject +(some times) a
complement.
2. Indicate that in the English language the sentence patterns are different. Give
Arabic and English examples like those in the students’ book to indicate the
difference between Arabic sentences and English sentences, encourage students
to give their own examples.

167
3. Explain the differences among various sentences patterns; interrogative,
declarative, imperative, and exclamatory.
4. Get students to give examples of their own using these sentence patterns.
5. Explain the meanings of transitive verbs, intransitive verbs, , direct objects,
indirect objects , and get students to give examples applying them.

Practice:
Ask students to work together and answer the questions on the first passage.
In the second passage make sure that students answer it individually, asking help
from you when they need.
For homework, ask students to refer any available material; newspaper,
textbook, novels,. .etc, and extract the different sentence patterns and
sentence types included in these passages.
Teacher’s Comments:

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168
 Lesson Two: Use of Word Markers
Learning Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, students are expected to :
2. Recognize the different kinds of word markers:
noun markers

verb markers

adjective and adverb markers

phrase markers

clause markers

3. Be able to indicate kinds of words on the basis of word markers i, e (noun

markers: articles, possessive pronouns, demonstratives, .etc).

Warm-up:
Ask students to complete the sentences by filling in the blanks with appropriate
words depending on their sense of language.

Presentation:
Explain that word markers are very important in recognizing unfamiliar words;
through word markers we can know many things about the new word: is it a verb
or a noun, is singular or plural, is it countable or uncountable, is it an adjective or
an adverb.. etc.
Explain the examples indicating that any word beginning with ( the ), ( a) or (an )
is certainly a noun. Any word that is proceeded by (has\have\or had )and doesn’t
have (the \a\or an ) is certainly a past participle . Knowledge of these items of
word markers helps recognize the overall meaning in a reading passage.

Practice:
169
 In practice One indicate that students are to determine first the function the
missing word, then they are to provide with any suitable word.
In practice two , students use their knowledge about word markers and fill in
the blanks with appropriate words that make sense.

Teacher’s Comments:

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170
 Lesson Three: Use of Punctuation:
Learning Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, students are expected to:
4- Mention the different kinds of punctuation rules.
apostrophes, exclamation points, hyphens, quotation marks, full stop, colon,
commas, and capitalization.

5- Recognize written materials using punctuation rules.

6- Write sentences using the rules of punctuation.

Warm-up:
Ask students to look at the sentences and think of the punctuation errors like lake of
capital letters, lake of full stops, quotation marks…etc. Ask them to make the
necessary changes that will make the sentences quite meaningful.

Presentation:
 Explain in details that punctuation marks are very important as they signal
the beginning, ending, result, consequence of sentences. Without
punctuation marks, it would be difficult to recognize where one sentence
begins and where the other ends. In the same way, punctuation marks
give vital clues as to recognize the formation of sentences as well as their
meanings.
 Explain the examples to the students loading emphasis on the functions of
punctuation marks.
Get students to tell you what they remember of their previous study years
at the preparatory and the secondary stages about punctuation marks and
punctuation rules.

171
 Explain every punctuation mark of those in the table in full details giving
other examples and encouraging students to give their own examples of
good formatted sentences and ill-formatted sentences.
Practice:
In the first activity ask students to add the necessary marks and make the
necessary changes to get the final overall meaning of the passage. They may
refer to the original text in the newspaper after finishing to score their answers.
In the second activity ask students to review the uses of the comma in English ,
then try to locate a comma where necessary.
In the third activity ask students to review all the punctuation marks to answer
this activity. They are to fill in the blanks with appropriate marks that give
meaning to the whole passage. If students encounter difficulty in this passage tell
them that the passage is about white lies in the life of doctors who treat many
patients whose cases may be hopeless.
In the final activity, tell the students that t these are but examples of errors of
students like themselves who always make similar errors in exams. Ask them to
correct the errors where indicated.
As a homework ask the students to refer to any piece of writing (article , essay,
composition,…etc) that they have written themselves in the writing course and
modify their writing to follow punctuation rules.
Teacher’s Comments:

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172
 Part Two: Contextual Analysis
Unit Three
Developing the Use of Explicit Clues
Lesson One: Use of Synonyms
Learning Objectives:

By the end of this lesson, students are expected to:

1. Define what is a synonym.

2. Understand the meaning of a word depending on the use of synonyms

3. Give some synonyms of some given words.

Warm-up:

Ask students to look at the list of words and think of any meaning they know
for them. Ask them to make a check before the word they recognize.
Presentation:

Indicate that when we read we don’t understand separate words. We

understand whole sentences and phrases. The fact that we read to understand
leads us to think about the Context of the reading passage.
Discuss the meaning of ‘context’, and elicit a suitable definition to the word
close to that in the box.
Explain that Some times when you read, you find a meaning that has been
repeated using different words and expressions. Then explain the examples in
details asking students every time about the similar words used to identify the
unfamiliar word.
Elicit that there are equal words that share some meaning, these are called
synonyms. Establish the meaning of synonyms like in the box.
Ask students to give you examples of words that may share almost the same
meaning; happy and glad, fast and quick, angry and frustrated, ..etc.
Practice:
173
Ask students to work in groups, discuss the part of speech depending on their
study of syntactic clues, then discuss the sentence to reach the meaning of the
new word.
A recorder of each group will write down the answer of his/her mates and a
spokesperson says the answers.
In the individual work section ask students to work individually and choose the
word that is closest in meaning to the underlined word.
For homework ask students to read the interview with professor Ahmad
Zewail and depending on the context and on their knowledge of synonyms ,
give equivalents to the underlined words in the passage.
When students finish the in-class activities let them refer back to the preview
section and check again the words they know after studying the lesson, so as
to measure their progress.
Teacher’s Comments:

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174
 Lesson Two: Use of Antonyms:

Learning Objectives:

By the end of this lesson, students are expected to:

1- Define what is an antonym.

2- Understand the meaning of a word using antonyms

3- Give antonyms of some given words.

Warm-up:

Ask students to look at the list of words and think of any meaning they know
for them. Ask them to make a check before the words they recognize.
Presentation:

Explain that antonym context clues provide the opposite meaning of the
new words, and refer to the drawing to indicate that there should be
signals that illustrate the opposite meaning in the sentence.
Explain the examples loading emphasis on the use of while, on the other
hand, however, but, on the contrary, and similar phrases that indicate the
opposite meaning.
Elicit the meaning of antonyms and establish the definition in the box.
Get students to give examples of words and their opposites so as to get
acquainted to the use of antonyms in reading passages; happy and sad,
good and bad, kind and cruel,. .etc.
Practice:
Ask students to work in groups and discuss the sentences to reach the
meaning of the new word depending on the signals and the antonyms in the
sentences.
A recorder of each group will write down the answer of his/her mates and a
spokesperson says the answers.
175
 In the individual work section ask students to work individually and choose the
word that is closest in meaning to the underlined word.
Make sure that students understand that the activity requires the choice of an
equivalent to the underlined word, not the opposite of it.
For homework ask students to read the passage on university life, and
depending on the context and on their knowledge of antonyms, give
equivalents to the underlined words in the passage.
When students finish the in-class activities let them refer back to the preview
section and check again the words they know after studying the lesson, so as
to measure their progress.
Teacher’s Comments:

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176
 Lesson Three: Use of Examples:

Learning Objectives:

By the end of this lesson, students are expected to :

1- Recognize how to give explanation or description to new words in English.

2-Understand the meaning of new words depending on the provided

explanation or description in the context.

3- Explain / describe some given words

Warm-up:

Ask students to look at the list of words and think of any meaning they know for
these words. Ask them to make a check before the words they recognize.

Presentation:

Explain that using example context clues is another method of understanding

new words. Example context clues are words or phrases that illustrate the
meaning of a new word. They should not be mistaken for synonyms or
definitions, because they are words or phrases that illustrate samples of the
word handled.
Get students to think of a word and give examples of related words. These
words needn’t be synonyms, but they should be illustrating the new word; for
example fruits include mango, orange, banana, strawberry,,…etc, a tutor can
be some one who teaches , educates or even brings up children.
Discuss the example of the devastation , and indicate that the sentence
“Houses were destroyed, roads were cracked, and cars were wrecked.” , gives
examples to illustrate the meaning of the word devastation.
Establish that an example context clue is a word or phrase that illustrates a
difficult word rather than defines the word. We can use the examples to
derive the correct meaning of an unfamiliar word.
177
 Practice:

Ask students to work in groups and discuss the sentences to reach the
meaning of the new word depending on the examples given in the sentences.
A recorder of each group writes down the answer of his/her mates and a
spokesperson says the answers.
In the individual work section ask students to work individually and give the
meaning that is closest to the underlined word depending on the given
examples in the sentences.
For homework ask students to read the two passages about the Intifada and
languages, and answer the questions by referring to the examples in the
passages.
Make sure that students understand quite well that in the first passage they
are to give meanings to the words depending on the examples, while in the
second passage they are to give examples from the passage to the words
indicated in the questions.
Let students refer back to the preview section and check again the words they
know after studying the lesson, so as to measure their progress.

Teacher’s Comments:

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178
 Unit Four:
Developing the Use of Implicit Clues
Lesson One: Use of Context [word in context]

Learning Objectives:

By the end of the lesson, students are expected to:

3- Mention the meaning of a word depending on the proceeding words.
4- Mark the context in which a new word occurs.
5- Recognize the meaning of a word depending on the preceding
sentences following the sentence in which that unfamiliar word appears

Warm-up:

Ask students to look at the list of words and think of more than one meaning
they know for these words. Ask them to make a check before the words they
recognize in two different ways.

Presentation:

Explain that in this lesson students are going to depend own their linguistic
sense when no structural or contextual clues are provided. They are to think of
the whole context and to think of more than one meaning to the new word
and to try every meaning to see which one fits in this certain place.
Revise the definition of context that you explained at the beginning of unit
three. Tell the students that one word may have different meanings depending
on the context in which it is located, so we needn’t memorize one certain
meaning for one certain word, rather we need to understand the whole
context and atmosphere of the sentence, the phrase, the paragraph, and the
whole passage to reach a suitable meaning.
Explain the examples indicating the different meanings of fire, and elicit other
examples from the students themselves by giving prompts such as; present as
a verb, a noun, and an adjective.
179
 Practice:

Ask students to work in groups and discuss the sentences to reach the
meaning of the new word depending on the overall meaning of the sentences
in which these words are located.
A recorder of each group writes down the answer of his/her mates and a
spokesperson says the answers.
In the individual work section ask students to work individually and give the
meaning that is closest to the underlined word depending the overall meaning
of the sentences.
For homework ask the students to complete the exercises done at the
classroom. You may also ask them to refer to any writing materials they have
encountered before and try to unlock the meaning of the words that seemed
difficult to them, and to tell you the result of their effort.
Let them refer back to the preview section and check again the words they
know after studying the lesson, so as to measure their progress.
Teacher’s Comments:

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180
 Lesson Two: Use of Context [phrase in context]

Learning Objectives:

By the end of the lesson, students are expected to:

4- Recognize the meaning of a phrase depending on the following words.
5- Mark the context in which a new phrase occurs.
6- Recognize the meaning of a phrase depending on the proceeding following the
sentence in which that unfamiliar phrase appears.
Warm-up:
Ask students to look at the list of phrases and think of any meaning they know
for these phrases. Ask them to make a check before the phrases they recognize.

Presentation:

Explain that this lesson is a continuation of the previous lesson; they have
been taught how to recognize the suitable meaning of a word in context , now
they are to apply the same rule with whole phrases that may be idioms.
Explain that Comprehension of a passage is built upon understanding the
vocabulary in that passage. Writers select words and phases to express special
modes, ideas, and images. Word or literal definition of these phrases usually
doesn’t make sense. So the best way of recognizing the meaning of such phrases
is through one’s own linguistic sense of the sentence.
Explain the example indicating that separate words have different meaning than
that when they are grouped in phrases. Discuss the questions with the students,
and ask them of any similar example they may have encountered in which very
different words have very different meanings, but have a very special meaning
when grouped together in a context.
Practice:

181
Ask students to work in groups and discuss the sentences to reach the
meaning of the new phrase depending on the overall meaning of the
sentences in which these phrases are located.
A recorder of each group writes down the answer of his/her mates and a
spokesperson says the answers.
In the individual work section ask students to work individually and match the
meaning that will make sense in the blank depending the overall meaning of
the sentences.
For homework ask the students to complete the exercises done at the
classroom and read the passage Untitled and try to give equivalents too the
underlined phrases. You may also ask them to refer to any writing materials
they have encountered before and try to unlock the meaning of the phrases
that seemed difficult to them, and to tell you the result of their effort.
Let them refer back to the preview section and check again the phrases they
know after studying the lesson, so as to measure their progress.
Teacher’s Comments:

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182
 Lesson Three: Use of Expressions and Proverbs:

Learning Objectives:

By the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1- Mention some commonly used expressions and idioms

2-Recognize the meaning of words depending on the meaning of some

commonly

used expressions and idioms.

3- Mention the meaning of some given expressions and idioms

Warm-up:

Ask students to look at the list of expressions and proverbs and think of any
meaning they know for these phrases. Ask them to make a check before the
expressions they recognize.

Presentation:

Explain that every language has a set of proverbs and well-known expressions
that are used in certain situations. If we get acquainted with most of these ,
we can be able to recognize the overall meaning of a reading text. A proverb
or an expression works like the key to the situation involved. Since people
know what the proverb means, they can expect similar situations related to
the original occasion.
Give examples of Arabic proverbs to prove your point, and elicit other
proverbs and expressions from the students. Then give examples of English
proverbs and ask the students of its meaning, for example; a bird in hand is
worth ten in the bush, elicit answers of what this proverb may refer to.

183
Explain in details the meanings of the proverbs and expressions that are in the
table stopping each time to make sure students understand the expression or
asking for Arabic equivalents.

Practice:

For the first activity ask students to work in groups and choose the answer
that best illustrates the meaning of the expression in the passages. Students
have to discuss together to reach a satisfactory end.
A recorder of each group writes down the answer of his/her mates and a
spokesperson says the answers.
In the individual work section ask students to work individually and choose the
meaning that will illustrate the meaning of the proverb or the expression.
For homework ask the students to complete the exercises done at the
classroom, however this time there are no choices, so they are to write down
what they understand of the expression or the proverb and from the overall
meaning of the passages. You may also ask them to refer to any writing
materials they have encountered before and try to unlock the meaning of the
phrases that seemed difficult to them, and to tell you the result of their effort.
Let them refer back to the preview section and check again the expressions
they know after studying the lesson, so as to measure their progress.

Teacher’s Comments:

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184
 Suggested Further Readings for Teachers

Books and Articles:

Al- Mutawa , Najat and Kailani, Taiseer, Methods of Teaching English to Arab
Students, London: Longman,1989.

Bander, Robert, G. Sentence Making, New York :Holt , Rinehart and Winston
Publishing Company. 1982

Brumfit, C. Communicative Methodology in Language Teaching. Oxford:

Pergamon Press,1984

Brumfit, C. Problems and Principles in English Teaching. Oxford: Pergamon

Press,1980

Graves, Michael et al, Teaching Reading in the 21st century, London :Macmillan
publishing company, 1998.

Grellet, F. Developing Reading Skills. Cambridge: the university Press, 1981

Harrison, C. Readability in the Classroom. Cambridge: the university Press, 1980

Kharma, N. Analysis of Arab Students’ errors in using the English Articles. Kuwait
University Monographs in Linguistics, No. 7

Nuttal,C. Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language. London: Heinemann

,1982

Urguhart, A. H. et al. Reading in a Foreign Language. London: Longman,1983

Williams ,E. Reading in the Language Classroom. London: Macmillan, 1984

On-line Resources:

Criteria for selecting an on-line courses

185
 Distance Learning Resource Network
(http://www.dlrn.org/edu/criteria.html)

On-line Workshops and conferences

TESOL Online Workshops for ESOL Professionals

http://www.tesol.org/edprg/2000/olw.html

Sample on-line publications

English Teaching Forum (http://e.usia.gov/forum)

TESL Electronic Journal (http://www.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/tesl-ej)

The Internet TESL Journal (http://www.aitech.ac.jp/_iteslj)

Resources for Teaching: Lesson Plans ( ready to use or adapt for use)

ESL Lessons ( http://www.esllessons.com)

Web-based Lesson Plan Gallery of WWW Institute for ABE/ESOSL Teachers an

Staff Developers
(http://.lacnyc.org/hacker/newlacsite/version4site/resources/technology/gallery
3.htm)

186
Students’ Book

187
188
 Introduction

In the English Department in the Faculty of Education, you study a lot of subjects
written in English .You often find difficulty in reading and comprehending these
English texts.
The problem is not that you are weak in English. The problem is that you don’t know
HOW to handle these texts , HOW to read quickly with understanding , and HOW to
guess the meaning of a new word or phrase while reading. You need to know some
skills in order to get better in your study in the English department, as well as in
your general readings in English.
This is a program in basic reading skills. It is supposed to develop your skills in
reading.
General Aims of the program:
1. to develop the use of structural analysis skills in reading
2. to develop the use of contextual analysis skills in reading.
Overview :

1- Pay attention to what the teacher says .

2-Try to guess the answers to the questions which the teacher
asks to open discussion.
3-Teacher will ask you to do some exercises. He is there to help
you.
4- If you find any difficult questions , please don’t hesitate to
consult your teacher.
5-The best thing to do after finishing a chapter is to apply the
skills of the chapter on other subjects you study.
6-In every chapter , you will find :

189
 A) A Preview that tests your knowledge before beginning the chapter, in order to
return to it to measure your progress after studying the chapter.
B) Different examples with full explanation
C) Many exercises and practice items which you have to answer in groups ,or
individually.

190
 Contents
Subject
Unit one : Developing the Use of Morphemic Clues
Lesson 1: Prefixes
Lesson 2: Suffixes
Lesson 3: Roots

Unit two : Developing the Use of Syntactic Clues

Lesson 1: Sentence Patterns
Lesson 2:Word Markers
Lesson 3: Punctuation

Unit three : Developing the Use of Explicit Clues

Lesson 1:Synonyms
Lesson 2:Antonyms
Lesson3: Examples

Unit Four :Developing the Use of Implicit Clues

Lesson 1: Word in Context
Lesson 2: Phrase in context
Lesson 3: Idioms and Expressions

191
 Part One : Structural Analysis

Unit One : Developing the use of Morphemic Cues:-

Lesson One : Using Prefixes in Recognizing meaning.

Lesson Two: Using Suffixes in Recognizing meaning

Lesson three: Using Roots of words in Recognizing meaning

192
 Unit One
Lesson one
Using prefixes to recognize meaning

By the end of this lesson , you will be able to :

6- mention some prefixes of words (auto – dis – micro – etc…)
7- identify prefixes in order to unlock the meaning of a new word (an – pre – post –
etc…).
8- write some prefixes to change the meaning of some given words.
9- Asnwer some exercises on the use of prefixes.

Warm-up :

Read the following list of words and check those you know:

__Antibiotic __bilingual
__immature __universal
__Antipathy __prologue
__malpractice __Combine
__Controversy __hydrophobia
__discord __predict
__inefficient __illegible
__microcosm

Presentation :
A prefix is a syllable that precedes the root or stem and changes or refines its
meaning.(Brownstein et al , 1999:266)

193
 When we read, we come across some words that are seemingly difficult , simply
because these words have got many letters , however , if we concentrate, we will
mark some very common, parts of words called prefixes. Let’s try the following
example :
Uninhabited places are very awful
 The word Uninhabited may be difficult to you.
 The first part UN means NOT
 The second part inhabit means LIVE IN
 The third part ED gives the adjective of the word
 So the word Uninhabited means a place where no
body lives.

Here is another example ,

A Microcosm can be noticed inside the atom.

 The word Microcosm may seem to you difficult .
 The first part Micro means SMALL
 the second part cosm means Universe
 so the word Microcosm means a small view of the universe.
This means that prefixes can be very useful clues into the meaning of new and
strange words in any reading passage.
Now let’s have a look at the most common prefixes in English:
Prefixes with negative meanings :

194
 Prefix Meaning Illustration
Un- Not Undisciplined
Il-, in-, im- Not Illegal, immature, irregular , insane
,ir-,
A Without Amoral; without moral sense
Mal- Bad, wrong Malpractice, a bad practice
,ill
Anti Against Antithetical; exactly opposite
Mis- Wrong Misunderstand
Non- Not Nonrefundable ; not to be refunded
Pseudo False Pseudopersonality
Contra, Against Contravene; conflict with
contro Controversy; dispute
Dis Not Disagree; do not agree

Prefixes that are numbers of quantity:-

Prefix Meaning Illustration
Bi- Two Bilabial; using the two lips
Du- Two Dual; with two meanings
Mono- One Monologue; to speak to one’s self
Multi- Many Multisyllabic ; of many syllables
Tri- Three triangle

Prefixes that identify placement or directions:-

Prefix Meaning Illustration
Ab-, Away,down, from to Abdicate
De-, Down, remove Decrease
Co-,com, co, col, Together Cooperate,combine,
cor, collect,correspond
Inter- Between Interrelations
Pro- Before , forward Prologue ;an
introduction
Re- Again Rethink, rewrite
Sub- Below Subordinate,
submarine
Super- Above Supernatural
Tele- Far Telegraph,
telecommunication
Trans- Across Transcontinental
;across continents

195
Prefixes that indicate time:-
Prefix Meaning Illustration
Pre- Before Predict
Post- After Postwar

Other commonly used prefixes :-

Prefix Meaning Illustration
Bene- Good Benefit
Hydro- Water Hydrophobia
;fear from water
Hyper Above,over,beynod Hyperactive
Hypo- Below, beneath Hypodermic
Micro- Small Microscope
Macro- Large Macroeconomics
Semi-,hemi- Half Hemisphere
Practice
Work in groups :-
Add a prefix to change the meaning of the words below :
Add a prefix that means Word formed
exist together _____ exist
not coherent _____coherent
small computer _____ computer
a wrong understanding ____ understanding
many facets. ____ faceted
not responsible _______ responsible
below normal _______normal
above the average human _______human

Pair work :-
Now give the meaning of the underlined words using your knowledge of prefixes:

196
Pre war post war
If we compare life and thought in the periods of pre and post October war, we
will find great contradictions. The legend of the unbeatable army of Isreal was
broken. The whole hemisphere witnessed the greatness of the Egyptian army.In the
pre war period , the press as well as the broadcast mediaused to spread a false
saying about the noncrossable canal due to the enemy's defenses,such as the auto-
directed air craft known as the Phantom. However , the post war era showed the
whole world that deep faith and strong will can change the impossible into the
possible. The Egyptian army reorganized its forces .
They co operated with most of the Arab countries using the weapon of the
decrease of petrol.Soldiers as well as flying eagles in Egyptian planes showed a great
bravery in the battle field . They ended the legend of the the undefeatable army.
Still in the post war era , we celeberate the 6th of October as our liberation Day in
which Sinai was restored , Egypt was rebuilt, and the Arab honour was regained.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Individual Work:
Say whether the follwing sentences are true or false , and correct the false ones :

197
1-People from many countries can exist together in peace. This means that they can
co-esixt. ( ) ( )
2-A small computer is a macro –computer. ( ) ( )
3-A wrong understanding is a dis –understanding. ( ) ( )
4-Writers who usae names other than their names are personbs who are
malnymous. ( ) ( )

Homework :-

Read the following passage and try to know the meaning of the underlined words :-
The Qur’an
Ther Qur’an is thye heart of Islam. Muslims believe it to be the literal ,
uncreated Word of God. It is inimitable and untranslatable , an object of veneration
and the basis of human understanding of the universe and man’s place in it.
Muslims emphasise th comperehnsive nature of the Qur’an. On one occasion the
Libyan leader Colonel Gadafi described Jean-Paul Sartre as a”lost man” because the
Qur’an already contained all the answers to his questions , and indeed, to all
significant questions, ‘Arab unity , socialism , inhereitance rights , the place of
women in society …. The destruction of our planet following the intervention of the
atom bomb. It is there for anyone willing to read it.’( Tames, Approaches to Islam,
1982 )
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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 Lesson Two
Using Suffixes to Recognize meaning

By the end of this lesson , you will be able to ;

6- recognize some commonly used suffixes of words (able ) (-age) (-full), (-ism) .
7- identify suffixes to know the meaning of new words in a reading passage.
8- write some suffixes to change the functions of some given words.

Warm up :
Read the following list of words and check those you know
__adaptable __western
__goodness __multitude
__memory __mindless
__theorize __rectify
__enlighten __overtly
__advantageous __activate
__shorten __wildly

Background:-
Some words can be analyzed , so that we can come closer to know their
meanings. In prefixes , certain parts of words are added before the word to change
its meaning.
Now in suffixes ,certain parts are attached at the end of the word, some times to
change its meaning ,and some other times to change its function.

Example :-
The careless journalist failed to get a speech from the powerfull man.
 look at the three underlined words
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  there are three endings; less, ist and full
 if you know that less means “lack the adjective before”; that is ; lacking care ,
 if you know that ist is used to refer to a professional in the job mentioned
before,
 and if you know that ful means ;having all the qualities of the adjective
before,
 then you will know that the sentence means:
A man working in a journal (journalist ) didn’t have much care(careless), so he
couldn’t get a speech from a man who owned a great power( powerful).

Suffixes are word parts that are attached to the end of a root
word or a whole word. Their main function is to change the
part of speech of a word. Suffixes can form nouns , verbs ,
adjectives,…etc.( Meagher ,L. & Thomas, G., 1984:88)

Now let’s try another example to see how suffixes change the function of the word:-
Anne : In order to marry me , you’ve got to memorize 3000 French loving words.
John : This gives me happiness . I actually have a dictionary for French loving words.
1. look at the underlined words, you notice these endings: ize , ness , ary.
2. If you know that ize forms verbs,
If you know that ness forms nouns,
If you know that ary forms nouns,
3. Then you will know that memorize is the verb from memory, and happiness is
the noun from happy , and dictionary is the noun from diction ( a book of words
).
Here is a list of some commenly used suffixes in English:-

200
Suffixes used to form nouns Examples and illustrations
-tion, sion, ion Transformation, impression ,
action
-age Voltage, courage ,average,
-ance,ence Acceptance ,presence, existence
-cy Vacancy, fluency, accuracy
-ism Tourism, terrorism, idealism,
naturalism (usually used with
philosophies)
-ment Establishment,management
-tude Attitude,multitude
-ness Goodness,happiness,greatness
(usually added to adjectives to
form nouns)
-ity Humanity
-ary,ory Dictionary
-ship Friendship, penmanship
-hood Childhood, manhood,
-dom Kingdom, boredom , wisdom
-ery Imagery
Suffixes used to form examples ` and illustrations
adjectives
-able,ible Adaptable,markable, believable
(usually used to form adjectives
referring to ability)
-ic Ironic,historic,mechanic
-ern Western,eastern,southern,north
ern
-ish Selfish,foolish,greenish(usually
used to refer to the full amount
of the word before)
-al,ial Professional, industrial,
instrumental
-y,ly Streamy ,friendly
-an African, Egyptian, Arabian
-ive Active, impressive, collective
-ous,ious Advantageous,dangerous,
ambiguous
-less Mindless,careless,
pennyless(usually means lacking

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 the word before)
-ate Affectionate , passionate,
compassionate
-ful Powerful, wonderful,
beautiful(usually menas the full
amount of the word before)
Suffixes used to form verbs Examples and illustrations
-ify Simplify, verify, rectify
-ize( AmE), ise (BrE) Theorize, memorize, recognize,
organize
-en Enlighten, shorten, widen,
narrowen
-ate Duplicate , formulate
Suffixes used to form Examples and illustrations
adverbs
-ly Happily, easily , actively , wildly

In addition , there is also a set of suffixes that indicate a person does something.
Suffixes used to indicate person or Examples and illustrations
thing
-ian Librarian, magician ,
electrician
-ist Archivist, journalist
-er, or , ar Teacher, professor,
scholar

Practice
Group work :
Add a suffix to change the part of speech of the words in the first column to the part
of speech indicated in the second column.

WORD NEW WORD

1- Wonder adjective ______
2- Memory verb _________
3- Marry noun __________
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4- Happy noun __________
5- Active adverb_________
Pair work
Read the following passage ,then give the meaning of the underlined words.

Anti-sentimentalism
Anti-sentimentalism is a term that refers to a ceratin period in the history of
literature. It was a kind of reaction against another stream in Britich drama called :
sentimentalism. To be sentimental is to be passaionate , affectionate , and spiritual.
However , the term sentimentalism moved to refer to comedy . In classical tragedy ,
the play usually ends in death or destruction , while in classical comedy , it usually
ends in marriage and happiness.
However some dramatists thought that comedy should restrict to the happy ending
, but still the events of the play shouldn't raise laughter. A Comedy for them -should
contain sermons , peices of advice and a simulation of well-known religious stories
in the Bible. People used to purify though feeling boredom throughout these
comedies.
Fortunately Oliver Goldsmith was the dramatist who thought that comedy should
get back to its humour and satire , to its laughing situations and critical events that
stir hearty laughs from the audience . He wrote his famous play "She stoops to
conquer" which marked the rising of antisentimantalism and the return of the
laughing theater in Britain . It was the reaction against the stream of sentiments.
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 Individual Work :
Say wgether the follwing sentences are true or false , and correct the false ones :
1- Some one who writes plays is a dramwright . ()()
2-Some one who is concerned with grammar is a linguistian ()()
3- Some one who is full of hope is hopeful. ` ()()
4-If you hold a gun and shoot the innocent people , then you practice terroration .
()()
5-When 6you reach the age of 18 this means you just reached the age of maturage.
()()

Home work
Read the following passage ,then give the meaning of the underlined words.
The story of Hoho
It is said that in ancient times there was a strange bird called the "Hoho". This
bird was tiny and feather-less, ugly and colorless. Most birds were reluctant to talk
to him or even try to teach him how to fly. But once he went to the owl as she was
known for her wisdom and asked her to for a solution to his problem.The owl said "
if you become more beautiful , you might become more boastful" ."I won't " he said,
" believe me , I 'll keep humble , modest and honest for all of you "
So , the owl declared that every bird should give Hoho one feather . Hoho became a
wonderful bird with all kinds of colorful feathers . The owl said" I will not give you
one feather , I 'll give you a peice of my wisdom " Hoho said " no, I still need a black
feather, please give it to me " So the owl did and announced among all birds that
Hoho is her son for whom she will ever care.
One day Hoho saw his image in the river ," Oh, how beautiful am I ! these birds are
ugly , I should leave them , they are not as beautiful as me "
All the birds warned him "don't fly away , be with us ". But he refused and flew away
,away , away , till no other bird could reach.
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 When the owl came , she was told that Hoho left them all. She became sad and
decided to search for him especially at night when he becomes tired and can not fly.
So whenever you hear an owl outside your window at night ,see what she says...Yes
! she says " Hoho!,Hoho! ,..." She is still calling him to come back.
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 Lesson three
using Roots To Recognize meaning

By the end of this lesson you will be able to :

6- give some roots of words.
7- identify roots of words in a reading text.
3- write some words derived from the original roots of some given words.
Warm up :
Read the following list of words and check those you know

- Bio - Theo
- Graph -Vid
-Psych -Dict
-Anthro -Port

Presentation :
You’ve learnt in the two previous lessons how to use prefixes and suffixes in
recognizing the meaning of unknown words in reading passages. In this lesson ,you
will know how to use roots to recognize meaning

Roots are word parts to which prefixes, suffixes , or both can be added . (Meagher
, L. ,& Thomas, G., 1984:89)
Roots are basic words which have been carried over into English.(Brownstein et al ,
1999:269)

A root of a word is the original stem of this word.

Let’s deal with this in details.

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 Examples :
“ Autobiography”
you know from your study of prefixes that Auto means self-made
you know from your study of suffixes that graph means to write
you know from your study of suffixes that the “y” is used to from nouns
Now what is left ? yes, Bio is the only part left
If you know that bio means life ,
then the word means : the action of writing one’s own life
from the same root bio we have (biology ),(antibiotic ) and (biochemistry )

Let’s look at another example :-

“Psychology”.
 the prefix “ology “ means “science “
 then “ psycho “ is the root of the word .
 If you know that “psych “ means “mind” or “ego”
 Then , you will know that the word means “ the science that studies mind and
behavior of human beings”
 From the same root “psych” we have psychologist , psychiatry , psychological .
Now let’s study same commonly , used roots :
Root Meaning Example
Anthro Man Anthropology
Astro Star Astrology
Bio Life Biology
Cept Take Accept
Cess Go,more Access
Demo People Democracy
Derm Skin Epidermis
Dict Say,speak contradict
Duct Talk,lead Conduct
Geo Earth Geology
Graph Write paragraph
Magin Great Magnificent
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 Mit Send,let go Transmit
Path Feeling Apathetic
Port Carry Transport
Psyych Mind Psychology
Script Write Transcript
Sist Stand Resistant
Spec Look Introspect ,spectacles
Rang Touch Rangible
Theo God Theology
Thermo Heat Thermostat
Tract Draw Attract
Vers Turn Reverse
Vid See Video
voc Call vocation

Practice :-
Give 2 words for each of the root words below :-
1- graph 2-psych 3-port
--------- ---------- ----------
---------- ---------- -----------

4-mit 5- script 6- dict

-------- ----------- -----------
-------- ------------ -------------
7- bio 8-demo 9- astro
-------- ---------- -------------
--------- ---------- ---------------

practice
Group work:
Read the passage , then give the meaning of the underlined words depending on
your knowledge of roots:-

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Cannibalists...Cannibalists!!!
By: Khalid Amayreh
....The scene defies linguistic description....A 12-year old child, in his father arms,
both seeking cover against a concrete wall from Israeli soldiers' bullets ...The father
tries in vain to shield the son with his arms and body....both terrified, helpless...
One "born-to-kill" soldier, apparently a sniper with manifestly cannibalistic extincts,
fires at the terrified child's head....the father, distraught, grieves,.."my son is
dying..my son is dying..." he raises his hand for help...then the same soldier shoots
at the father...silence...then an ambulance goes in a desperate effort to save the
child...the soldier riddles the ambulance with bullets ....and kills the driver...
The phantasmagoric scene appeared on TV screens ....probably except in the
US...where pain must remain a Jewish monopoly...
If that concrete wall could speak, it would probably weep a lot before uttering any
words...
how could that vile beast view himself in the mirror again?....but a beast has no
guilty conscience.
cannibalists...., is there a more appropriate word?
(http;//www.Palestine-net.com/ammdurrah.htm )

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 Individual Work :
Choose the correct word from these between brackets :
1-“Theology “ is a word referring to the study of (animals – gods – goods)
2-To be apathetic is to ( be abroad- have good feelings – have wild nature)
3-“Demonstration “ is a word that describes (people who oppose the country
system –people who live in peace –a person who is always lazy )
8- Some one who wears spectacles is some one whose( personality is weak –eye
sight is weak –head is bald )

Say whether the following sentences are true or false , and correct the false ones :
1-The science that studies the origins of man is “Man hood”( ) ( )
2-Some one who writes his own life is writing his biography. ( ) ( )
3-“Parapsychology “ is the science that studies the ordinary behaviors and states of
mind of man. ( ) ( )
4- T o predict some thing is to foresee it . ( )().

Home work:
Read the passages , then try to unfold the meaning of the underlined words
depending on your knowledge of roots:-

What is language ?
Language is the expression of human personality in words, whether written
or spoken .It is the universal medium alike for conveying the common facts and
feelings of every day life and the philosophers’ searching after truth, and all that
lies between. Yet thinkers as well as poets have always assumed that language can
be the bearer of all kinds of truth and the imager of every sort of reality.

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____________________________________________________________________
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Homework:
Read the following passage and try to know the meaning of the underlined words.

Why do people go to the cinema?

Nowadays nearly every body is fond of going to the movies, because the
cinema caters for all its various patrons. It appeals to the young and old, rich and
poor, educated and uneducated alike. There the schoolboy, burning or thrills and
excitement, sits silently; while his sister beside him is absorbed in the magic figures
of the romance on the silver screen.
Leaving his worries and cares behind his back, a business man can live for three
hours in a world entirely different from his own; while a factory hand is sinking in
his cozy chair and charmed with the events of the film, forgets his physical fatigue
as long as the lights are off. Even the highbrow can find some thing suitable in
certain sophisticated dramas.
The universal appeal of the cinema s mainly due to the fact that it acts like a
drug, It avoids the actual with its horrors and sufferings and flies to the land of
imagination where one can identify oneself with the hero or heroine. It lulls the
cinema-goer, suppresses his thinking power and lessons all efforts where physical,
or mental. Thus people sit in their comfortable seats and watch the picture

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appearing in rapid succession before their eyes, like an unfolded book; and they
don’t have the trouble of tuning over the leaves.
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 Unit Two: Developing the use of syntactic Cues:-

Lesson One : Using the knowledge about Sentence Patterns in Recognizing

meaning.

Lesson Two: Using Work Markers in Recognizing meaning

Lesson three: Using Punctuation structural clues in recognizing meaning

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 Unit Two
Lesson One
Using Sentence Patterns Structural Clues

By the end of this lesson , you are expected to :

7. mention the different kinds of sentence patterns.
8. identify sentence patterns in a reading text, i.e. statement, requests. Instructions
etc
3. form sentences following these patterns to express question, commands,
requests, instructions, offers, statements.etc.
Warm up:
Complete the following sentences with appropriate words.
1- The old woman _______ me a piece of cake.
2- The ___________ quarreled with my bother.
3- Why is the bird ___________?
4- _________ not shut the window.
5- _________ is a lot of people here.
6- Are you _________ to the market?
Choose the right pattern of the sentences from these between brackets:
1-Open the door! (Statement – request – order).
2-Can I help you? (Order – offer – request).
3-Can you help me? (Statement – request – offer).
4-Fill in the gaps. (Instruction- statement -offer).
5-He is very lazy. (Offer- instruction – statement).

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Explanation:

Every language has a limited number of common patterns by which the elements
of the language may be arranged meaningfully. Readers can use this information for
the identification of words . They can recognize what kinds of words to expect in
specific positions in sentences if the sentence patterns are familiar to them.

In the Arabic language , we have two main patterns of sentences. 1) The sentence
that begins with a noun ‫ جملة أسمية‬and 2) The sentence that begins with a verb, ‫جملة‬
‫فعلية‬. In the first kind there must be a subject and a predicate ‫مبتدأ و خبر‬while in the
second kind there must be a verb + a subject +( some times ) a complement .

Examples:-
First pattern The sky is clear ‫السماء صافية‬
Second pattern The man ate the food ‫أكل الرجل الطعام‬
In English, the basic statement sentence patterns are the following:

Pattern Example
S be Adv John is there \ in the garden..
S be C John is kind . (adj)
John is a doctor ( n)
SLVC John looks sad.
S In V The boy laughs.
S Trv O1 The boy reads a lesson.
S Trv O1 Adj The boy puts the book in the desk.
S Trv O1 C They made him a leader.
S Trv O2 O1 She gave him a present .
There be S Adv There is a man at the door.
It be Adj That …. It is important that you come on
time.

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 Where S means Subject
Inv means Intransitive verb
Tr means Transitive verb
L V means linking verb
C means Complement
Adj means Adjective
Adv means Adverb
O means Objective
O1 means Direct Objective
O2 means Indirect Objective
( Kharma & Hajjaj , 1989
Sentence Forms :-
In English , we have 4 main sentence forms:

1. Declarative Sentence ..
A Declarative sentence states a fact
Examples..- The man watching the TV laughed.
- Ali gave me his heavy sweater .
- It is important to make your flight reservations two weeks in advance
.
- Where S means S ubject
2. Interrogative sentence Inv means Intransitive
verb
An Interrogative sentence asks a question. Tr means Transitive verb
L V means linking verb
Examples – Is the concert hall new? C means Complement
-Has Ali eaten apples or oranges? Adj means Adjective
Adv means Adverb
- When will you leave for school? O means Objective
O1 means Direct
3. Imperative Sentence .. Objective
O2 means Indirect
Objective
216 ( Kharma & Hajaj , 1989)
 An Imperative Sentence orders some one to do some thing . It always begins with a
verb. It states a command In this type of sentences , the subject is normally
understood, and the sentence opens with its verb.
Examples..-Buy me a newspaper when you go to the store.
- Telephone me every day , Tom.
- Let’s go to the theater .
-
4- Exclamatory Sentence..
An Exclamatory sentence expresses special force or a strong emotion. In an
Exclamatory sentence , the subject and verb move to the end of the sentence . An
Exclamatory sentence ends with an exclamation point.
Examples..- How very cold the snow is!
- What a beautiful girl she is !
- What a tyrant the manager is !

Practice:-
A) List these sentences on the lines below as being declarative ,
interrogative , imperative , or exclamatory.
1. People often cook food outdoors in California .
2. How strange that music sounds!
3. Turn left at the first stop light.
4. Khalid sees three or four movie each month.
5. Has Charles ever been seasick?
6. My ambition is to become a doctor.
7. How I would love to have a piece of chocolate cake!
8. Stop worrying about that test and begin studying.
9. Do you want to ride in a hot air balloon ?
10.Send me a postcard from every city you visit.
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 11.What terrible destruction that erupting volcano caused!
12. Will Aly and Hoda join us for dinner?

Declarative Sentences:
a.________________________________________
b.________________________________________
c.________________________________________
Interrogative Sentences:-
a.________________________________________
b.________________________________________
c.________________________________________
Imperative Sentences:-
a.________________________________________
b.________________________________________
c.________________________________________

Exclamatory Sentences:-
a.________________________________________
b.________________________________________
c.________________________________________

Group work:
B) Read the following passage , then answer the questions that follow:
Mohamad studies English at California college . His first break time is at
10:00 AM . He feels hungry then. So he always goes to the food machines in the
student center. Some times he has coffee or a coke , some times he has a candy bar.

218
 One day , Mohamad went to the food machines in the morning . It was a hot
summer day, and he wanted a cold drink . He found his friend Lee standing at the
cold drink machine.
“ what are you going to get ?” Mohamad asked .
“ I want a coke,” Lee said , “ but I just lost my quarter, what can I do ?”
Mohamad pointed to a sign on the cold drink machine .” Can you read English ?”
Mohamad asked. Lee laughed “ a little English ,” he said . “ Then look at this sign .It
says ( coin return) .Push the lever and see what happens ,” Mohamad said .Lee
pushed the lever , a quarter fell into the opening under the word ( change).
“ Now try again,” said Mohamad . Lee put the quarter in the place that said “ 25 c”
He looked at the names beside four red buttons. The names were Coca Cola , 7-up,
Tab , and Orange Crush , Lee pushed the 7-up button . This time he got his drink.
Then Lee gave Mohamad a quarter” you helped me , so I’ll buy you a drink” “
Thanks”, said Mohamad , “ I ‘ll have a Tab.”
The next day Mohamad was sleepy at 10:00 AM . He wanted to get a cup of tea.
Tea always helps him to wake up. Mohamad also wanted to talk to Ashly . She was
his classmate. Mohamad knew he could find Ashly at the student center.
Mohamad went in the student center , and he saw that Ashly was standing at the
coffee machine . She was shaking her head. There are so many buttons ,” I don’t
know which button to push,” Ashly said . Mohamad smiled at Ashly , “ Let’s read the
words on the machine” he said . They read these words:
Coffee -------------------------------------------black
Coffee----------------------------------------sugar only
Coffee ---------------------------------------cream only
Coffee --------------------------------cream and sugar
Hot chocolate
Tea
Extra cream
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 Extra sugar
Now answer these questions :
From the passage try to get:
1. a transitive verb _____________________________________
2. an intransitive verb ___________________________________
3. a direct object _______________________________________
4. an indirect object _____________________________________
5. a declarative sentence__________________________________
6. an interrogative sentence________________________________
7. an imperative sentence _________________________________
8. an exclamatory sentence ________________________________ .

Individual Work
C) Read the following passage then answer the questions:-

Anwar is an international student studying linguistics at the university of

Southern California . he is in his way to the library right now.
There are three main libraries in the university . He always likes to go the
linguistics and humanities library. Today he is accompanying a new student with him
, his name is Ismail. “ Remember, you are not allowed to touch any book or search
among books!” says Anwar .” But how can I get the book I need without touching or
seeing books” Ismail asks.
“There is a computerized system for borrowing and viewing books here”
- how strange is this !
- first you switch on a computer , then from the desktop, you select
Homer and press ‘enter’
- Will this let me enter the library?

220
- yes , you have only to type the title of the book you need , and the
computer will tell you its place and number in the library.
- Well, but if I don’t know the title of the book ?
- Then , you have to type the name of the author , and the computer
will give you a list of all the books of this author, their numbers and
places .
- Well, well, well, still if I don’t know the name of the author?
- Still no problem, just type your field of study and the computer will
give you a big list of all the books found in the library related to this
field , their authors , numbers and places.
- Oh, I couldn’t imagine this in the best of my dreams! But , how can I
then borrow a book?
- Just click on the book you want from the screen, another screen will
appear with an application form; you fill in this form writing your
name , card number , address , telephone, faculty , grade , and submit
the form by pressing ‘enter’
- And then?
- Then you only go to the circulation desk to take your book and go
home.
- Thank you very much Anwar, you have been a great source of help.
Now answer these questions :
From the passage try to get:
a transitive verb _____________________________________
an intransitive verb __________________________________
a direct object ______________________________________
an indirect object ____________________________________
a declarative sentence________________________________
an interrogative sentence______________________________
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 an imperative sentence _______________________________
an exclamatory sentence ______________________________
type 1, sentence pattern ( .S be Adv.)____________________

Lesson 2
Using word markers structural clues to
recognize meaning in reading texts.
By the end of this lesson , you are expected to :
4. recognize the different kinds of word markers:
f. noun markers
g. verb markers
h. adjective and adverb markers
i. phrase markers
j. clause markers
2. be able to indicate kinds of words on the basis of word markers i, e (noun
markers: articles, possessive pronouns, demonstratives, .etc).

Warm up:
Complete the following sentences with appropriate words.
 The______ took my bag.
 Three_______ were watching me at the same time
 I’d like to______ how to make this dish.
 He is a very _______ man ; he can carry 300 kgs.
 All deserts are _____ because there is _______ rain or rivers there. They also
have a ______ range of temperature. The difference _______day and night , and
summer and winter temperature is very _______ .

222
 Background:-
In any reading text, sometimes you can expect what may come next ; for example
any word beginning with ( the ), ( a) or ( an ) is certainly a noun. Any word
proceeded by (has\have\or had )and doesn’t have (the \a\or an ) is certainly a past
participle . Knowledge of these items of word markers helps recognize the overall
meaning in a reading passage . Consider the following examples:
Examples ;
I have got three___________.
1. in the blank , we cannot insert a verb; ie, we can never say ( I have got 3 gos ,
sleeps, eats . or wents )*
2. but we can say :3 pens, dogs , cats , rats , hats , hens , pins, ..etc.
3. so , after any number put a NOUN.
After A \ AN or THE , put a NOUN

I’d like to ___________ more information about this subject.

1. in the blank , we cannot put a noun; we cannot say : (I’d like to pen, car, or
bicycle)*
2. we can put a verb; ( I’d like to know , have , acquire ,..)
3. so after (TO ) comes the infinitive {verb}

He behaves in a very _________ way.

1. here the lacking word describes the (way), so the word used for description is
an adjective ; ( gentle, bad , vulgar, good, …)
2. so before a noun , we always put an adjective.

I’m looking ________ my pen, have you seen it?

Here we lack a preposition to complete the sentence.
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 Practice:_
Choose the correct answers from the choices and then fill in the blanks with
appropriate words :
1. More than 1000 ___________ were in the match.
The word missed must be a (an) :
a. noun b. verb c. adjective d. adverb

2.What is a very ___________ thing with a long tail?

The word missed must be a (an )
a. noun b. verb c. adjective d. adverb

3.I’m going to _________to the market to buy some food.

The word missed must be a (an )
a. noun b. verb c. preposition d. adverb

4. I’m going to the __________to learn English.

The word missed must be a (an )
a. noun b. verb c. preposition d. adverb

5. This is the house ____________ which he lives.

The word missed must be a (an )
a. noun b. verb c. preposition d. adverb

6.She dances very _______________.

The word missed must be a (an )
a. noun b. verb c. preposition d. adverb

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 Practice (2) :
Fill in the blanks with appropriate words:
Tarik Habib is one of our best interviewers . In the __________ TV program “
Private Lives”, he __________ to give us a true picture of________________ famous
people live, what they like and what the greatest moments in their career were. We
usually feel pity for these well-___________ people.

In Egypt , we have four Arabic morning dailies : Al-Ahram. Al-Akhbar, Al-Gamhuria,

and Al- Wafd. They contain the chief ___________ that have happened
in_____________ parts of the country and __________. They supply us
______________ the latest news.
I prefer cleaning my shoes -------- because this doesn't take long. I can do it ----------
than a machine can. It's an easy ----------. Only lazy people ----------- their shoes
cleaned by a machine.

It was Friday morning when I sent my young brother to bring ten loaves of bread
and three ___________ of milk .He didn’t go , but had them ________ .He had to
admit his mistake as the bread turned out ________ and the milk turned out
__________

Intelligence tests can give us a shock if we __________ to find out the required
answers. On the other __________ , they give us more satisfaction when we
__________. Any way , every body __________
Knows her\his true abilities .

El-Fayoum is a great place with _____________ earth .All __________ of fruit are
grown there. Many people __________ to E l-Fayoum to ________ birds. Other
people prefer to go and ________ the birds through cages.
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As you read the following passage fill in the blanks with appropriate words:
The Internet is for every one
Hi, my name’s Nadia Ibrahim. I’m 16 years old. I’ve just _____ Britain, Hong
Kong and the U.S.A. I didn’t go there by air; I went there from our flat in Aswan.
How was this possible? It was possible because she went there on the Internet. She
needed some information on _________ for a science project, so she logged onto
the Internet and typed the word “_________”. She found articles on the subject
from all over the world. She chose articles from Britain, Hong Kong, and the U.S.A
for her project.
You don’t have to be a computer expert to use the Internet. All you need is a
_________, a telephone line, and a special computer program. You must then open
an account with an interior service provider. This ____ a company which will link
your computer to the World Wide Web, the system that stores information for all
computer users every where.
The Internet ____ the fastest growing communication system in human
history. As well as providing information on millions of different subjects, it also
allows _______ to write to each other electronic mail, or ‘e-mail’, and it uses the
telephone lines to send messages, letters, and even long documents to any person
in the _______ in seconds. Of course, that person must also have a computer linked
to the Internet.
Many young people are very ______ at using computers and the Internet. This
is Mathew Bernard. He is the director of a Canadian company ______ he stated
when he was only 17. This company produced an Internet magazine for teaching
science. But this wasn’t Mathew’s first project. He started his first computer
company when he ______ still at school at the age of 12.He made and sold
computer games in his spare _______.

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 The Internet _____ also used by professionals such as engineers and designers
to exchange information and to help each other with their work. This is Doctor Khan.
He is a Pakistani engineer who is designing a railway bridge. He has colleagues in
Australia _____ the U.S.A who have recently designed similar bridges. Dr. Khan can
send an e-mail to his colleagues to discuss one or two details and receive answers
minutes later. In this way his work is ___ delayed and he can have benefit of expert
knowledge from all corners of the world.
(Adapted from Don Dallas, Hello7 for Second Year Secondary Schools, 2000)

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 Lesson three
Using punctuation structural clues to recognize meaning.
By the end of this lesson , you are expected to:
7- mention the different kinds of punctuation rules.
-apostrophes, exclamation points, hyphens, quotation marks, full stop, colon,
commas, and capitalization.

8- recognize written materials using punctuation rules.

3- write sentences using the rules of punctuation
Preview:-
The following student sentences contain punctuation errors, indicate them and if
you can correct them: -
___1. For example, when a department store has a bargain sale at the
end of the summer .You may buy expensive clothes at a discount
Price
____2.college prepares you for a career that will make you a lot of
Money however it cost a lot at the beginning
_____3. It is n t until more closer that i catch the words Get out of here Get out
here

Background :-

In the English language, punctuation marks are very important as they signal
the beginning, ending, result, consequence of sentences. Without punctuation
marks, it would be difficult to recognize where one sentence begins and where the
other ends. In the same way, punctuation marks give vital clues as to recognize the
formation of sentences as well as their meanings. If you know for example that what
comes after the semicolon [;] clarifies what is mentioned before, that sentence.
Consider the following examples: -
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 Example:
my aunt a very old lady is so mean she does not even say good morning to her
neighbor instead she says morning
1. in this sentence ,you don’t know the meaning of (mean)
2. who is mean , the aunt or the neighbor ?
3. what does the aunt say?
4. What does not the aunt say ?
Now consider the same sentence with punctuation marks
My aunt -a very old lady -is so mean ;she does not even say: “good morning” to her
neighbor ,instead she says :”morning”

Example 2:
I’m going to meet the girl sitting in the car that needs water.
1. who needs water: the girl or the car?
Follow the girl with the sign that reads faculty members.
Who reads faculty members, the girl or the sign?
So, the use of punctuation is so important in recognizing the meaning of what is
read.
Here is a list of the uses of punctuation marks: -
Mark Uses Example
(.)point or full
1. at the end of 1.I’m here.
stop sentences 2.Mr. Dr. Sept.
2. .after abbreviations
(;) semi colon To clarify part of a I hate the
sentence mentioned darkness; it
before symbolizes for me
all bad things in
life.
(,) comma 1. before the subject 1. Last year , I
------, s+v went to
2.between items in a America.
list 2. I spent the day
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 Mark Uses Example
---,--,--,and---- eating ,
3.around inserted sleeping ,
material walking ,and
‫ـــ‬,--------,‫ـــــ‬ swimming.
4. before a quotation.3. Mary, a very
He said,”______” nice girl, came
5. between clauses to visit us
joined with a yesterday.
coordinating 4. “let’s eat first”,
conjunction. she said.
S+v.conj,s+v 5. I was tired , so I
went home.
(:) colon To introduce The first pioneers
explanatory and listed are as follow: Mary
items . ,Mar, and Mark.
(-) dashes and To signal an Another kind of
parentheses interruption in a mistruth-the white
sentence. lie- is both a
popular and often
an acceptable type
of communication.
Apostrophe(‘) 1.to signal a Can’t
contraction Her son’s room
2. to signal possession
or ownership.
Quotation marks To signal the exact She said: “when
(“-------“) words of the speaker. will we travel to
Cairo?”

Practice:-
1- In the following passage , all punctuation , including the end punctuation and
capital letters , has been removed . Indicate where sentences should end.
palestinian flag over the nile
as university students engage in fierce battles to go out on the streets school
children make a game of burning Israeli flags mothers admonish their kinds against
buying American fast-food and theater actors interrupt their performances to

230
 lecture on the Palestinian cause A mother and her son haggle in front of McDonalds
The boy wants a Happy Meal his mother won’t let him have it The money we give
them to buy the hamburger is eventually used to provide the weapons that kill
Palestinian children she explains Strangely enough the boy stops whining and starts
discussing other fast food options
across the nation people are manifesting an unprecedented solidarity with
the plight of the Palestinian people There have been individual acts such as refusing
to buy American products and spontaneous mass demonstrations
(Al Ahram Weekly; 19-25 Oct. 2000)

2. In the following passages, insert commas where necessary:-

-On the national level if a society chooses to go to war it must give up some
consumer goods.
- in the winter of 1988 while Swart was attracting attention in Paris , a young
earnest man left Paris for southern France in search of the intense light and color
of the south. He was Vincet Van Gogh. Van Gogh was born in Holland in 1853 the
son of a vicar.

3. In the following passage , a blank has been left at each spot where a punctuation
mark originally appeared. Which punctuation mark would you insert in those
places?
Although most people would agree that lying to gain advantage over unknown
subject is wrong__another kind of mistruth__the__white lie__ __is both a popular
and often acceptable type of communication__ White lies are defined __at least by
those who tell them __as being unmalicious __or even helpful__

231
4. The following passages from students’ writing contain punctuation errors. What
should the writers do to edit these sentences?
The newspaper report said they were concerned about the problems
You have to do three things to stay health eat sensibly, exercise an sleep well
Although vitamins are sold in a lot of stores ; their value to health has not been
entirely proved

232
 Part Two:
Contextual Analysis
Unit Three: Developing the use of Explicit Contextual Cues:-
Lesson One : Using synonyms in Recognizing meaning.
Lesson Two: Using antonyms in Recognizing meaning
Lesson three: Using examples clues in Recognizing meaning

233
 U
Unniitt tthhrreeee
LLeessssoonn O
Onnee
Using Synonyms Context Clues

By the end of this lesson , you are expected to :

1.define what is a synonym.
2. understand the meaning of a word depending on the use of synonyms
3. give some synonyms of some given words.

Preview:
Read the following list of words and check those you know:
__ adept __ apartheid
__ arbiter __ boutique
__ chaos __ cupola
__ deluded __ disparity
__ entomology __ excruciating
__ gist __ indelible
__ insurrection __ inveterate
__ menace __ mired
__voided __ restitution
__ slammer __ symposium
__ terminations __ vita

234
 Background:
When we read we don’t understand separate words.
We understand whole sentences and phrases. The fact that
we read to understand leads us to think about the Context
of the reading passage. Context means:

A group of words – the phrase, sentence, or paragraph- in

which a word is located. As the context of a word changes,
its meaning can change. .(Kimmelman et al, 305:1984)

Some times when you read, you find a meaning that has been repeated using
different words and expressions.
For example, let’s try to analyze the following sentence;
“ The girl was in great danger, this peril came when she was alone in the forest”
1. Now you don’t know the meaning of Peril.
2. The word this refers to some thing mentioned earlier.
3. This can’t refer to the girl, otherwise we should use she.
4. Here this refers to great danger
5. The rest of the sentence gives the situation of danger.
6. So peril is closer in meaning to danger.

Let’s try another example together:

1. The couple arrived at the party in time to enjoy the social gathering.
2. The telephone operator connected one party, or speaker, with the person on the
other phone.

235
A. In sentence 1, what part of speech is “party”? __________
B. In sentence 1, is there another noun or phrase that has the same meaning as
party?_____________________
C. In sentence 2, what part of speech is “party”?_____________
D. In sentence 2, what singular noun has the same meaning as
“party”?___________________________________

Explanation:
“Party in both sentences is a singular noun. In sentence 1, the phrase that has
the same meaning is “social gathering. In sentence 2, the word that has the same
meaning as “party” is “speaker. Each sentence contains a word or phrase that has
the same meaning and part of speech as “party’ .These words are synonyms for
“party”.

Sentences with difficult words often contain synonyms for those words.
Synonyms are words or phrases that are similar in meaning to other words. You can
recognize some synonyms because they are separated by commas, dashes, or
parentheses. Usually, a synonym context clue appears as the same part of speech as
the new word. A synonym is one type of context clues that helps you determine the
meanings of unfamiliar words. .(Kimmelman et al, 306:1984)

Practice:

In the exercises that follow, the unfamiliar word and its synonym have the
same function or part of speech in the sentence. As you become more familiar with
the skill of identifying synonym clues, you will practice using synonym clues that are
less obvious because they have different parts of speech than the new word.
236
 Work in Groups
Determine the meaning of the underlined word by identifying its part of speech
and by locating its synonym.
1. The job applicant sat in the personnel office and filled out a vita. When she
finished the resume, she gave it to the secretary.
Vita is a (an) _________ Its synonym is _______________
(Part of speech)
2. John led the symposium on job opportunities, and was thrilled to learn that four
hundred people had attended the panel discussion.
Symposium is a (an) _________ Its synonym is___________
3. The teenager was ordered to make full restitution to the owner of the damaged
car. He gently made full payment for damages to the car he had hit.
Restitution is a (an) __________ Its synonym is _____________
4. “Don’t get mired down in details,” said the teacher.” Don’t get stuck writing
every little fact”
Mired is a (an)___________ Its synonym is________________
5.Hala did a good job managing the boutique and was able to attract many new
customers to the specialty store.
Boutique is a (an) _________ its synonym is________________
6.Some political campaigns turn into debacles. Mismanagement, illegal funding, and
serious debts are characteristic of these disasters.
Debacles is a) an) ___________ Its synonym is _____________
7. Adept advertisements attract new customers. These clever advertisements
promise whatever the customer desire and more.
Adept is a (an) _________ Its synonym is _________________

8.persons who have recently left the slammer don’t want to return to prison again.
237
 Slammer is a (an) _________ Its synonym is_____________

Individual Work:
Each of the following sentences contains a synonym clue to help you
understand the meaning of the underlined word. Choose the closes word in
meaning from a, b, or c.
1. The teacher failed the student because of his sporadic attendance record. Few
times of attendance in class was unacceptable to the teacher.
Sporadic means _________
a) Acceptable b) failure c) infrequent
2. The detectives were deluded by all the false evidence. They were completely
deceived and they arrested the wrong person.
Deluded means __________
a) wrong b) arrested c) misled
3. Discomfort suffered from a broken leg can be so excruciating that drugs are often
prescribed to relieve the agony.
Excruciating means _____________
a) painful. C) suffering. c) hurt.

4.Inveterate gamblers are habitual customers at the race track betting widows.
Inveterate means ____________
a) betting b) regular c) gambler.

5. Our plane tickets were voided when the airline ticket agent declared that the
airport was closed . Therefore , all reservations were cancelled .
voided means ___________
a) reserved b) closed c ) eliminated

238
6-Although the insurrection began in the rural areas , the rebellion quickly spread
throughout the cities .
Insurrection means _________
a) spreading b) revolt c) rebel

Pair work
Determine the meaning of the underlined word through its part of speech and
synonym clue:

1.The arbiter in the second murder trial was the same judge as in the first trial.

Arbiter means _____________________________________

2. The disparity between what I thought him to be and what he actually was over
80%. This difference amazed me very much.

Disparity means ____________________________________

3. Research in the field of entomology has resulted in new ideas in the study of
insects.

Entomology means ___________________________________

4. If you understand the gist of the story ,you should be able to tell me the man
idea.
Gist means ________________________________________
5.Drunk drivers are a menace because they are a threat to the safety of other
drivers.
Menace means ______________________________________
6. The building’s roof is in the shape of a cupola , or a dome , and is similar to the
one on the top of the city hall.
Cupola means ______________________________________
239
7.Apartheid- separation of the races- in South Africa is based on a discrimination
between the black and the white.
Apartheid means_____________________________________

practice
Read the following passages and try to know the meaning of the underlined words:
1-The lion
The lion is called the king of beasts; because he is the wildest animal. Lions are
found living wild in the grasslands of Africa. They hunt smaller animals and feed on
them. There are no wild lions in Europe, but there are captive, not free, lions in
European zoos. The male lion is a beautiful animal. He usually has a mane – or a ring
of long hair-around his neck. When the lion is young, the hair of his mane is yellow.
When he is old, the hair is sometimes black. The female lion, or lioness, doesn’t have
a mane. Lions are dangerous animals.

Beasts means_____________________________________
Captive means ____________________________________
Mane means ______________________________________
Lioness means_________________________________
Home work
Read the following passages and try to know
the meaning of the underlined words:
An Interview with Professor Ahmad Zewail
Professor Zewail is the director of the
laboratory for molecular sciences at the
California Institute of Technology. Using laser,
professor Zewail and his team have devised
techniques for studying atoms as they come together to form molecules. ‘These
240
molecular births’ take place in only a millionth of a million of a second. During his
research in 1997, professor Zewail discovered the femtosecond , which is a millionth
of a billionth of a second . Now , femto-chemistry is one of the most intensely
studied topics in science. It was for his work in this field that , in 1999, professor
Zewail was awarded the Noble Prize for chemistry. The Noble Prize is the highest
award that any one can be given , and the professor is the first Arab to have won the
prize for science.
Interviewer : Thank you very much for giving us me the interview , professor Zewail.
Professor Zewail : It’s a pleasure.
Interviewer : You now live in California as an American citizen. But what do you
remember about your school days in Egypt?
Professor Zewail : Well, I went to school in Desouk Government secondary school. I
especially remember the encouragement given to me by my family at that time.
Interviewer : Can you explain that a little more?
Professor Zewail : Yes, my family was proud of my success at school, and they
always encouraged me to do better. I remember on one occasion I got 98% in an
exam. When I told my father , he laughed and said” well done, Ahmad , but what
about the other two percent?”
Interviewer : Is there any thing else that you remember for those days?
Professor Zewail : Yes, One should have a certain aim, or objective, to which all his
life may be devoted. I had a certain objective before my eyes from the very
beginning of his life. To be a professor in the university was my only dream. I used to
write a Dr. Ahmad-sign on my door to see whenever I work. I was a quiet child, away
from quarrelling with other children; I liked sitting with those who were older than I
did. My utmost –or most important- bliss was “listening”. This good quality taught
me to concentrate whenever I listen to a scientific speech. When I was in the
preparatory stage, I made an experiment in my study where I used to sit between
those four walls alone. I got an empty bottle and put some wood in it, heated it on a
241
stove and was so glad while I was burning wood. My happiness came because I saw
with my mere eye how a material turns from the solid into the gas form.”
I also remember my friends . We were all very excited about that we were learning
and we used to discuss our studies. This helped us a lot.
Interviewer : And after secondary school, you studied at the university of Alexandria
, what was the biggest difference between being a student at school and a student
at university?
Professor Zewail : Oh, well. At school, your teachers direct your stu7dies and
organize your learning. It is not quite like that at university , you have a program of
studies of course , but you don’t have lessons like you do at school. You have
lectures and you have to take notes on what the lecturer says and on the books you
read. So you are much more responsible for your own learning than you are at
school.
Interviewer : I see. And what did you after you graduated from Alexandria
University?
Professor Zewail : After I got my master of science degree. I got a place at the
university of Pennsylvania, where I did my Ph.D.
Interviewer : And after that?
Professor Zewail : I came to California to teach and do research at university of
California at Berkeley, and then I came here to the California
Institute of Technology, where I became a professor.
Interviewer : You have received honors, professor . Which ones
are you most proud of?
Professor Zewail : The Noble Prize for Chemistry and the Order of
Merit, which was awarded to me by president Mubarak. Oh , and
the fact that my portrait appeared on an Egyptian postage stamp
in 1998.
Interviewer : Finally, do you have any advice for our readers?
242
Professor Zewail : Yes, whatever else you do , value your education.
Interviewer : Thank you very much indeed, professor.
Professor Zewail : It’s been a pleasure. (Adapted from Don Dallas, Hello 7, 2000 ,
and Al Madah Ahmad Zewail ,2000)
Femtosecond means __________________________________
Femto-Chemistry means _______________________________
Noble Prize means ____________________________________
Percent means _______________________________________
Aim means___________________________________________
Quiet means__________________________________________
Utmost means_________________________________________
Bliss means___________________________________________
Study means___________________________________________
Glad means _________________________________________
Honors means _________________________________________

243
 LLeessssoonn TTw
woo
U
Ussiinngg AAnnttoonnyym
m CCoonntteexxtt CClluueess

By the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1- define what is an antonym.
2- understand the meaning of a word using antonyms
3- give antonyms of some given words.
Preview:
Read the following list of words and check those you know
__ docile __catalyst
__circuitous __ ponder
__ conservative __Contaminated
__ frank __ vigorous
__ vilify __nonchalant
__impeccable __ rote
__reflective __ reckless
__ prominent __improvising
__ inadvertently __ prior to
__indifferent __weary
__indigenous __inordinate
__ penury __ vociferous

Background:
Still another type of context clue is the antonym clue. You learned that
synonym clues provide nearly the same meaning as the new words. Consider the
following example to see how antonym context clues provide the opposite meaning
of the new words.

244
 Example:
Signal antonym

Hoda manages money judiciously while I manage money unwisely.

Opposite of
Explanation:
What does “judiciously” mean? Write the meaning in the box.
The word While signals the antonym “unwisely”. You can reason that
“unwisely” is the antonym or opposite of “judiciously”. Thus, “judiciously” means
“wisely”.

Antonyms are words or phrases that have opposite meanings to other words or
phrases. Recognizing that certain words often signal an antonym clue can help you
to understand new words. Authors frequently use words and phrases, such as, “on
the other hand “, “as opposed to”, “but”, and “while” to signal antonym clues.
.(Kimmelman et al, 319:1984)

Practice :
Group Work
Each of the following sentences contains an antonym clue for the underlined
word. Select the best meaning for this word: -
1- The professor’s attitude showed his care and concern. The students’ attitudes, on
the other hand, were very nonchalant.
a) serious b) careless c) earnest
2- She has a love of rote work, but no fondness for creative jobs.
a) hard b) mechanical c) careless

245
3- Some students were inadvertently late for class while a few were purposely late.
a) purposely b) accidentally c) always .

4-In many nations there are two financial extremes, from penury to great wealth.
a) wealth b) poverty c) middle income.

5-It is better to be reflective about problems than to be thoughtless.

a) thoughtful b) uncaring c) worried

6-Today's teenagers seem to be more liberal in their ideas than their conservative
grandparents.
a) Free-thinking b) traditional c) old

7-Oranges are indigenous to Southern California but foreign to New York.

a) native b) unknown c) alien

8-Rather than carefully planning, the speaker relied on improvising the speech as he
addressed the audience.
a) joking b) making up c) outlining

9-Why did you spend such an inordinate amount of time on the first question ? Ten
minutes would have been more reasonable.
a) big b) difficult c) tiny

Pair work: -
Each of the following sentences contains an antonym clue to help you understand
the meaning of the underlined word. Choose the closes word in meaning from a, b,
or c.
246
1- Medhat was vigorous and able to excel in sports, while his brother Ahmad, was
unenergetic and performed poorly on the sports fields.
Vigorous means ____________________________

2- Before people, Aly seemed indifferent to his schoolwork, but in reality he cared a
great deal about his homework.
Indifferent means ________________________________

3-I will choose my wife prior to travelling abroad, rather than

after my return.
Prior to means______________________________________

4-Today, Mohammed Henady is a prominent movie star, but only a few years ago he
was unknown.
Prominent means___________________________________

5- Most people liked Hoda because they know she is frank with them .On the other
hand; they distrust her sister because she is always secretive.
Frank means ________________________________________

6- Even though he was usually a careful driver, he was arrested after yesterday’s
party for reckless driving.
Reckless means_______________________________________

7-Most members of the family pondered the serious news, while a few ignored it
completely.
Pondered means______________________________________
247
 8- Yesterday, Yaser became weary after walking only one mile, but today after
walking two miles, he still feels energetic.
Weary means________________________________________

Individual Work:

Read together each sentence and circle the word or phrase that signals an
antonym clue. Then define the underlined word.

1- After weeks of training, the aggressive and dangerous dog became docile.
Docile means_______________________________________

2- Product rate was not progressing until anew boss acted as a catalyst to increase
productivity.
Catalyst means_______________________________________

3- Clean storage and cooking conditions rarely result in foods becoming

contaminated.
Contaminated means ________________________________

4- The pertinent facts were discussed while the less important details were
hardly mentioned.

Pertinent means _____________________________________

5-They took a circuitous route to school rather than a direct path.

248
 Circuitous means_____________________________________

6-During her office hours her work was impeccable, but when she was at home, her
work was full of errors.
Impeccable means_____________________________________

7-Please speak in whisper while you are in the hospital room, any vociferous
complaints will disturb the patient.
Vociferous means____________________________________

8- You have to praise your wife occasionally instead of vilifying every thing she does.
Vilifying means______________________________________

Homework:

Read the following passages and try to know the meaning of the underlined words:
University Life
At the present time you are in the second year in your university life. Of
course you have noticed through the whole last year that university life is quite
different from life in the secondary school. However one needs to be fair in judging
such a life. Sometimes you find some students who are reluctant to involve in any
activity , on the other hand there are students are very active , participating in any
activity thinking they were born to work and lead. Some professors give counseling,
while others refuse to present any guidance.
It is a life of contradictions and paradoxes; some girls may be extrovert to the
degree that they are ill reputed, others may be so shy to the extent that they are

249
avoided. You may find some colleagues who are hard workers in their study , on the
other hand some others are careless even if working for themselves.
On the other face of the coin , universities are wonderful places for making friends ,
learning true science , and deciding one’s future plans. Consider the following
account told by a university student who is now a professor about a situation that
happened to him in university 25 years ago.
“College and university life is full of stories, events and dramatic experiences. With
the wide range of student personalities and styles of life and learning: the hard
working, the easy going, and the life lovers all co-exited in a three or four building
site. I can not even remember how many because this was many years ago, not less
than 25. Unfortunately, I was and still am one of those students who belong to the
first type: the hard working, always busy persons. This being so I did very well in my
classes and won the respect and admiration of my professors who trusted me to
help them translate material from English into Arabic. One day, one of my
professors handed me a book while we were walking along the corridor. He was so
busy at the time he didn’t even stop to show me what I had to do with it. “Translate
chapter five of this book and have your translation ready next week”, said my
professors and disappeared immediately. Because I was over with classes for that
day, a friend of mine accompanied me to go home on his bike. As soon as I got off
the bike I found out that my professor’s book was gone. What book was it? Who
was the author? What color was it? Those were unanswerable questions. My friend
and I returned back the same road we took on our way home asking every person
we happened to meet about a “book” we had lost. We asked the butcher, the
grocer, and the hairdresser. “No, look somewhere else,” said the butcher, said the
grocer, said the hairdresser. We headed home again with enormous feelings of
disappointment, depression, and sadness. Two days of this went extremely slowly.
This was how my weekend for that week was: gloomy. Two days after, I went back
to college with no better feelings than those I had before did. In the middle of a
250
circle of very loving and sympathetic colleagues, I was telling them the tragic story of
losing my professor’s book when a girl classmate rushed all of a sudden to us saying:
“who lost Dr. Mostafa’s book?” A student at the school where I’m having my
teaching practice gave it to me,” she said. At that moment, I wasn’t one of the
livings, but one of the daydreaming dead.
(Adapted from Atta Zidan, “Lost and Found” in An Anthology of Writing form
Creative Reading and Writing, E-POET Institute, Summer, 1999)

Reluctant means ___________________________________

Involve means _____________________________________
Counseling means __________________________________
Extrovert means ___________________________________
Careless means______________________________________
Daydreaming means_________________________________
There are three kinds of university students; they are:
1._________________________________________________
2._________________________________________________
3._________________________________________________
When the writer went home he felt three feelings, they are:
1.________________________________________________
2.________________________________________________
3.________________________________________________

251
 LLeessssoonn TThhrreeee
U
Ussiinngg EExxaam
mppllee CCoonntteexxtt CClluueess..

By the end of this lesson , you are expected to :

4- recognize how to give explanation or description to new words in English.
5- understand the meaning of new words depending on the provided explanation
or description in the context.
3- explain / describe some given words
Preview:
Read the following list of words and check those you know:
__Devastation __Ancestry
__Needle __Breeding
__Disposition __Unethical
__Protagonist __Agony
__Erratic __Hierarchy
__Fury __Destitute
__Self actualized __Alienation
__Interval __modes

Background
Using example context clues is another method of understanding new words.
Example context clues are words or phrases that illustrate the meaning of a new
word. They should not be mistaken for synonyms or definitions. Read the following
carefully to see how example clues provide illustration of the meaning of the new
word.

Example:-

252
 After the tornado, there was devastation everywhere. Houses were destroyed,
roads were cracked, and cars were wrecked.

In this sentence you notice that there are some examples describing the word
Devastation,
What are these examples (illustrations)?
1- -------------------------------------------------------------------
2- -------------------------------------------------------------------
3- -------------------------------------------------------------------
What do you think devastation means?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

An example context clue is a word or phrase that illustrates a difficult word rather
than defines the word. You can use the examples to derive the correct meaning
of an unfamiliar word. .(Kimmelman et al, 313:1984)

Let’s try another example :

I can trace my ancestry through my parents , grandparents, and even to my great-

grand parents.

Here you notice that there are other examples that help you indicate the meaning of
ancestry:
There are three examples mentioned to tell you the meaning of ancestry, what
are they?
1--------------------------------------------------------------
2--------------------------------------------------------------
3-------------------------------------------------------------
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 Now what do you think ancestry means:
--------------------------------------------------------------

Group work :
Each sentence contains examples of the underlined word . Mark the example clue
and write the meaning of the word on the line.

1- I liked to needle him by telling every one about the time he was thrown out of
class and about the awful name we gave him.
Needle means _________________________________

2-The child's fine breeding was apparent in his perfect speech , his excellent
manners, and his appreciation of arts.
Breeding means_________________________________

3- Her delightful disposition was evident in her cheerful mood and her easygoing
manner. She always smiled and said pleasant things to everyone.
Disposition means ________________________________

4- It is unethical for politicians to take bribes, students to cheat on exams or

teachers to oppress their students .
Unethical means ______________________________________

5- I’m puzzled by your classwork. You do well on the home exercises , yet you failed
most of the tests. At times , your attendance is perfect, but sometimes you miss a
whole week. Your erratic behavior indicates that you need guidance.
Erratic means____________________________________

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 Pair work :
Each sentence contains examples of the underlined word . Mark the example clue
and write the meaning of the word on the line :

1- In the American government , the hierarchy of power starts with the president,
goes to the vice president , and moves down to the Speaker of the White House.
Hierarchy means ___________________________________

2- After the accident , the woman felt great agony, her head was bleeding , her
arm was hurting , and a slight touch to her body would cause much pain.
Agony means _____________________________________

3- He was the protagonist of the play , he was one who shoots fire , runs from the
police , and marries the beautiful girl at the end.
Protagonist means_________________________________

4- In the middle of his fury, he would say words h doesn’t know, kick his dog ,
smash windows, and even slap his wife.
Fury means ______________________________________

5- With no source of income and no place to sleep , the destitute man begged for
food on the street and slept in cold doorways.
Destitute means ______________________________________

Individual work:

Try to indicate the meaning of the underlined words using the example context
clues provided:
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1- Alienation is a normal thing these days ; there are many member of the
society who become strangers even for themselves, who feel separated
from one’s own activity , like a robot, just going through the movements of
living.
Alienation means __________________________________

2- Self-actualized persons are not frightened by the unknown, they know

themselves quite well, they know their abilities and practise them , they don’t fear
themselves because they know there is nothing to fear.
Self-actualized means ______________________________

3-During the two-hour interval between my first and second class, I either spend
time in the library , eat my lunch in the cafeteria , or complete my homework..
Interval means _____________________________________

4- Travelling by camel , by horse , or on foot were the usual modes of

transportation for the early pioneers.
modes means ______________________________________

practice 4 :
The great ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle distinguished two kinds of
drama – the inherent instinct in man to act . These kinds are tragedy and comedy .
Tragedy is always a play that ends sadly with the destruction or death of a great
figure ; such as king Oedipus, Hamlet, Macbeth , or king Lear. Whereas , comedy is
always a play that ends joyfully with happiness or marriage ; such as the Tempest ,
As you like it , and Measure for Measure. Nevertheless, drama in modern times is
quite different ; nothing is pure misery or pure happiness. The two feelings are
256
 mixed in our daily life . Melodrama is the term used to express this strange mixture
of feelings dealing with the common people and every day life incidences.

According to the passage :-

a) Who is Aristotle ?
---------------------------------------------------------------
b) What is drama ?
---------------------------------------------------------------
c) What is comedy ?
---------------------------------------------------------------
d) What is tragedy ?
--------------------------------------------------------------
e) What's melodrama?
-----------------------------------------------------------------
The Intifada this time
One month after the outbreak of Al-Aqsa Intifada, one has to analyze its
results and how the revolt reflects Palestinian anger and frustration over the failure
of the peace process. The Al-Aqsa Intifada has already become the most sustained
Palestinian revolt in the occupied territories since the Palestinian uprising of 1987-
1993. And there is no dispute –at least among Palestinians –that the outbreak of the
uprising was overwhelmingly spontaneous., driven more by the enormous
frustration of the Oslo generation of Palestinian youth than by any strategic decision
by the Palestinian leadership.
This generation took to the street in thousands, not so much because of the
intended visit of Sharon to the Islamic holy sites in Jerusalem’s Old City. The spark
rather was the killing of seven Palestinians by Israeli border police on the Haram Al-
Sharef [the temple mount], and above all the televised murder of 12-year old
Mohammed Al- Dorra by continuos Israeli fire. ( Al Ahram Weekly, Oct.2000)
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What do the underlined words mean?
1------------------------------------------------------------------
2-----------------------------------------------------------------
3-----------------------------------------------------------------
4.-----------------------------------------------------------------
Homework:
Read the following passage and then answer the questions that follow:
Do you know any foreign words in Arabic
Most languages borrow words from other languages. Ver many English words
have come from French, Latin and Greek. Words like beef and marriage have come
directly from French, but with a change in pronunciation. Many scientific words
have been borrowed from Latin, for example what scientists wanted to describe a
speed greater than that of sound they took the Latin prefix super and the Latin word
for sound and made the adjective supersonic.
English words have also been borrowed from Arabic. Which Arabic words do
these English words come from: chemistry, Algebra? There are other words such as:
gazelle, giraffe, sugar, jar, café, and cotton. What are these words in Arabic? A few
other words and place names have come from Arabic. The English word admiral
means a very high ranking officer in the navy. From which Arabic word did the
English borrow that word?
Over the years, many English words have come into the Arabic language.
Most of them are used with a slight change of pronunciation, but they nearly always
have the same meaning. Write these words in Arabic and notice how the
pronunciation has changed from English to Arabic: cigarette, taxi, passport, battery,
bicycle, and chocolate, parachute.
(Don Dallas, Hello7 for Second Year Secondary Schools, 2000)

258
Give examples of Greek words in English :
_____________ _______________ _____________
Give examples of Latin Words in English:
______________ ________________ ______________

Give examples of English words in Arabic:

______________ _______________ ________________
Give examples of French words in English:
______________ _______________ _______________

259
 Unit four: Developing the use of Implicit Contextual Cues:-

Lesson One: Using sense-of-the-sentence-context-clues in recognizing meaning(

word in context)
Lesson Two: Using sense-of-the-sentence-context-clues in recognizing meaning(
phrase in context)
Lesson Three: Using well-known expressions and proverbs in recognizing meaning

260
 Unit 4
Lesson one
Using Sense of the sentence
context clue (word in context)
By the end of the lesson , you are expected to :
6- mention the meaning of a word depending on the proceeding words.
7- mark the context in which a new word occurs.
8- recognize the meaning of a word depending on the preceding
sentences following the sentence in which that unfamiliar word appears

Preview:

Read the following list of words and check the words for which you know more than
one meaning
__ Cane __Fire
__ Concerted __ Chair
__ Staple __ Log
__Medium __ Sensation
__ Star __Banned
__ Stuff
Background: -
Suppose that during your readings, you come across an unfamiliar word, you
search for synonyms, antonyms, definitions, examples, prefixes, suffixes, roots,
contractions, or punctuation, but still you cannot unlock the meaning of the new
word in the reading text, and you don’t have a dictionary available!! Here comes the
role of sense- of- the – sentence- context – clue. Your own linguistic sense will guide
you into the correct meaning .In this lesson, we will discover this sense together,

261
with words in context, and in the next lesson, we will discover it with phrases in
context.
Examples: -
The soldier gave the order to fire at the enemy.
1. What part of speech is “ fire “? ______________________
2. Does the sentence talk about business, war or a blaze?
_________________________________
3. What words in the sentence helped you to answer question 2?
_____________ And _______________
4. “Fire” means ________________
i. To let some one go from a job.
ii. To shoot at.
iii. Red-hot flames.

The sentence contains two clues to the meaning of “fire”. First, “fire” is a
verb, second the sentence talks about war; the words “ soldier’ and “enemy’ help
you to understand this. You can immediately eliminate the choice “red-hot flames”,
since it is a noun answer that refers to a blaze. Although the choice “ to let some
one go from a job” is a verb answer, it refers to business, and should be eliminated.
The choice “ to shoot at “ is a verb answer that talks about fighting; it is the correct
answer.

Example:
The boy scouts lit a fire using only flint and wood.
Questions: -
1. What part of speech is “fire”? __________________
2.does the sentence talk about business, war or a blaze?
_________________________________
262
 3.what words in the sentence helped you to answer question 2? _____________
And _______________
4.“Fire” means ________________
iv. To let some one go from a job.
v. To shoot at.
vi. Red-hot flames.

In this example “fire” is a noun in a sentence that talks about a blaze .You can
immediately eliminate choices a) and b); verb answers that talk about business
and fighting. Choice c) “red-hot flames “ is a noun answer that refers to a blaze; it
is the correct answer.

The meaning of a word can change as it is used in

different sentences .The phrase, sentence, or paragraph
in which a word is located and its part of speech in that
location are called the context of the word. You can
determine the meaning of a new word by looking at its
context, that is, what part of speech it is and what the
sentence or paragraph talks about. (Kimmelman et al,
298:1984)

Practice: -
Group work
Consider the context of each underlined word. First, write its part of speech on the
line, then, choose the best meaning for it: -

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1. The fire blazed for hours and nearly destroyed the old house.
In this sentence “fire” is a (an) ______________. It means
i. To shoot at
ii. A match
iii. Red-hot flames
iv. To let some one go from a job
2. The workers gathered cane in the fields.
In this sentence “cane” is a (an) ______________. It means
i. A stick used as a support in walking
ii. A sugar stalk
iii. To hit with apiece of wood
iv. To weave wood pieces, as in a chair
3. The supervisor asked every one to make a concerted effort to maintain
company production goals.
In this sentence “concerted” is a (an) ______________. It means:
a. to act some thing
b. bodies
c. a musical performance
d. unified
4.the chair recognized each speaker at the meeting.
In this sentence “chair” is a (an) ______________.it means:

i) apiece of furniture
ii) sitting
iii) a leader
iv) to direct a session
4. Rice is considered a staple in many countries .
In this sentence “staple” is a (an) ______________.it means:

264
 a)a basic food substance b) to fasten
c) a metal clip used to attach items d.)to supply with food

Practice:-
Pair work
Read each sentence carefully and write the part of speech for the underlined
word, then write the meaning of the word.
1.Sam was fired because he couldn’t fulfill the requirements of his work.
In this sentence “fired” is a (an) ______________.it means__________

2. The elderly patient used a cane to help her walk.

In this sentence “cane” is a (an) ______________.it means__________

3. Major Arnold cancelled the concert when the band failed to arrive .
In this sentence “concert” is a (an) ______________.it means__________

4. new materials gave the chair a refreshing look.

In this sentence “chair” is a (an) ______________.it means__________

5. Randy ,can you staple these papers so they won’t fall a part?”
In this sentence “staple” is a (an) ______________.it means__________

Practice:-
Individual work
Use the context of the underlined word to help you determine its meaning .
Don’t use a dictionary.
1. Captain Edwards logged the ship’s speed in his book and added a
description of the weather conditions.
In this sentence “logged” is a (an) ______________.it means__________

2. The newly cut log burned brightly in the fireplace.

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 In this sentence “log” is a (an) ______________.it means__________

3. How can you be so base as to kick a blind person?

In this sentence “base” is a (an) ______________.it means__________

4. the company of soldiers left their base to occupy the countryside.

In this sentence “base” is a (an) ______________.it means__________

5. In the clear mountain sky, you can see hundreds of stars each night.
In this sentence “star” is a (an) ______________.it means__________

6. At the opening of the new movie , you will see hundreds of stars .
In this sentence “star” is a (an) ______________.it means__________

Practice :-
Home work
Consider the context of each underlined word. First , write its part of speech on the
line , then , choose the best meaning for it:-
1. Thousands of products have been banned because government
officials judged them to be dangerous.
In this sentence “banned” is a (an) ______________.it means:

a. offered b. supported c. flags d. prohibited

2. Do we need laws that prevent us from running risks with our lives?
In this sentence “risk” is a (an) ______________.it means:

a. unwise b. taking chance c. moving quickly d. dangerous

3.the government once passed a law closing all liquor stores, bars and breweries
in this country.

In this sentence “breweries” is a (an) ______________.it means: a. places

where liquor is made

266
 b. a factory of refreshments

c. alcohol bottles

d. wine plants
4.The boys quickly hid the stuff under the seats of the car.
In this sentence “stuff” is a (an) ______________.it means: a. items b. a
thief c. selling markets

d. some thing dangerous

6. If you eat food that is crudely prepared, you may become very ill.
In this sentence “crudely” is a (an) ______________.it means: a. without
manners b. poorly

c. finely d. floating

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 Unit 4
Lesson Two
Using Sense-of-the-Sentence
Context clue( phrase in context)

By the end of the lesson , you are expected to :

7- recognize the meaning of a phrase depending on the following words.
8- mark the context in which a new phrase occurs.
9- recognize the meaning of a phrase depending on the proceeding following the
sentence in which that unfamiliar phrase appears.
Preview :
Read the following list of phrases and check those you know:-
__bear in mind __Come around to see me
__Point out __Stick to the topic.
__Face the music __far – fetched
__ talk in circles __Get to the point
__work it out. __go on
__how come __in the long run
__ fill me in __ give it you best shot .
__on the tip of one's tongue __think it over

Background :-
Comprehension of a passage is built upon understanding the vocabulary in
that passage. Writers select words and phases to express special modes, ideas, and
images. Word or literal definition of these phrases usually doesn’t make sense . So
the best way of recognizing the meaning of such phrases is through you own
linguistic sense of the sentence.

268
 You have been trained in the previous lesson on how to unlock the meaning
of a word in context depending you sense of sentence-context- clues. This time , we
will hold the same rule with phrases . Consider the following example :

Examples: -
When ever professor Andrew wants his students to remember an important
grammar rule , he begins by saying " class , take this down "

Questions: -
1- If you define each of the underlined words literally, what is professor Andrew
asking his students to do?
2- What in fact does professor Andrew want his students to do?

To understand the phrase, it is useless to define " take “, and " down” separately .
The phrase " take this down " is an idiom that means " copy on paper what I am
about to tell you "

Practice (1)
Here are some phrases , try to locate them in the correct place in the following
passage:

At length
Get to the point
Take a seat
Talk in circles
Work it out

269
 As the class entered the lecture hall , the instructor said , " will every one
please__________________________________
____ " He then began his talk. One student found the lecture difficult to understand
and asked the instructor to repeat what he had said . After the instructor explained,
he then decided to allow the students time to work in some problems. He told them
to listen carefully . " Turn to page twelve and look at the example consider it
carefully and then ____________________” one student was confused and talked
________________about the problem. The instructor said
"____________________________” I can only help you if you are specific , Till now
all you've done is _______________________________________ "

Practice (2)

Are you with me

How come
Skip
Think it over
The bottom line

1- Be sure to study chapters one and two . you can__________________ chapters

three and four which contain unimportant material , and continue your studies with
chapter five .
2-My explanation of the new theory has been complex______________________ .
Should I repeat what I’ve Said ?
3- ______________________your instructor takes attendance and mine doesn’t ?
4- Don’t write about every argument for and against the sale ; just get
to________________

270
5- voting for this tax bill requires that you understand every aspect of the new
law__________________ before you vote .

Practice (3)

Consider each classroom Situation and select the letter of the phrase that best
describes it .
Then based on your understanding of the phrases, write a sentence for each

a. come around to see me

b. fill me in
c. fill out
d. take it for granted
e. turn in ( hand in )
Situations:
_______1- " I missed the first half of the lecture " said Anna to Rachael. " Please let
me Know what the professor has been talking about "
_______2- Ali earned a poor grade on his paper and asked for conference with
professor Smith . The instructor told Ali that he is available for an office conference
at noon .
_______3- The instructor announced the date of the final exam and asked if anyone
had a question. Since no one raised a hand, the instructor was certain that every
one understood the work and would do well on the test.
_______4- the School administrators need academic and personal in formation
about all entering college freshman . They send forms to each applicant and include
instructions to answer all questions on the surrey .
________5-As each of you finishes the exam , I want you to Place the answer
booklet on my desk , " announced professor Dale .
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Practice (4)
Read the following phrases and trey to match them with the situations below
according to the context:

Situation 1
Face the music
Bear in mind

Amal : Aly .you’ve been with the company for two years . How could you make such
a terrible mistake ? Because of your error , the entire shipment may be defective .
Aly : You 're absolutely right . But, ________________ , I’ve been doing the same
job day after day " and thought I had the entire routine memorized .
Amal : you’d better tell the boss before the shipment is sent .
Aly : why ? May be it won’t be too bad.
Amal : It’s better to_______________ now so that we can correct the problem . If
we don't we'll be in real trouble later .

Situation 2
Child's play ( some thing easy to do )
Get around it ( avoid doing some thing )

Sandy : can you believe that all freshman must enroll in a basic swimming course ?
Larry : Actually , you can________________ by taking a swim test . If you pass, you
are excused from the course.
Sandy: Great ! A swim test will be ______________, In high school , I was captain of
the swim team and earned an advanced swimmers certificate .

272
Situation 3
Far – fetched (unbelievable ; exaggerated )
First hand ( from personal experience )

A policeman arrived at crash scene within minutes of the accident. After

making sure that no one was injured , he began to take notes for his report . several
witnesses offered reasonable accounts of the accident . The driver at fault, however
, made wild statements and accusation that what the officer Knew were
too__________________ to be true . He recognized that______________
________________account by witnesses at the scene would prove more reliable in
court .

Situation 4
In the long run (eventually ; later )
Make – up ( substitute )

Because of the snow storm , half the class missed the first quiz " would it be
better " asked the teacher " to assign each students a short paper or to schedule on
extra session with a ___________________exam ? " she decided that it would be
easier to write anew quiz than to grade twenty papers .

Practice
The following idioms express instruction a teacher might want you to note how each
is used in the paragraph and answer the questions that follow :

Back it up support an idea with appropriate examples

Deal with discuss
273
Give it your best shot try to do the best you can
Keep at it continue to do something
Look up search for in a reference book
Plan on depend on : assume that some thing
will happen
Point out emphasize ( an idea )
Stick to the topic stay with on idea
Within reason sensibly

Ismael Presented his first assignment, on informative speech. He began the class
that he would Point out the important study habits necessary for success in school .
Next , he told the class to plan on nothing the three major study techniques he
would develop . The first technique he dealt with was the ability to Keep at it . Lewis
related several amusing stories about his experiences as a beginning traveler . He
used many technical terms and repeatedly told the group that the terms were
unimportant . Because he was enjoying himself , he did not realize how little time
remained . Before he could talk about the second technique , he realized the class
was nearly over , Ismael hurriedly told the class to look up the other techniques .
1- In your opinion , did Lewis give it his best shot ?
2- Did Lewis stick to the topic ?
3- Did he back up the major ideas ?
4- Did he plan his time within reason ?
5- Did he adequately deal with his topic?

Practice :
Read each of the following job – related sentences carefully . Determine the
meaning of each phrase and write its letter on the line .

274
 1- Mr. Stevens , you’ve been working at your desk for three hours with out even
drinking a cup of coffee . Don't you think it's time to take a break ?
Take a break means
a) relax for several minutes .
b) continue working .

2- " Khalid , I have to leave my desk for ten minutes in order to check on the sales
reports . Can you keep an eye on things while I'm gone ?
keep an eye on means .
a) leave the room . b) take care of .
3- Ever since we advertised the special discount sale on stereo equipment . we've
been swamped with customers . We had to hire four extra sales people to help .
swamped means
a) over loaded .
b) in need of .

4- I don't think this engine design will ever work properly . We've tested it for more
than six months and have never been successful . This project is hopeless ; why
don't we just call it a day ?
call it a day means
a) stop work completely .
b) work even harder .

6- Marilyn and Janet are the two who have worked for months on this presentation
. It's too had that Marilyn is ill. Still, the presentation must be made to day . Janet
will have to carry the ball for both of them.
carry the ball means:
a) work as a team member .
275
b) not be responsible for .

practice :-
Each of the following situation contains an idiom . Determine the meaning of each
phrase and write its letter on the line .
1- I have been with this company for six years . During that I have been called upon
to leave my family to take extended business trips , to work late hours , and to do
the work others cannot complete . I draw the line at canceling my vacation plans
so that the owner's son can have an extended holiday .

Draw the line means

a) set a limit .
b) be happy .

2- Billy recently completed a course in photography . When he read an

advertisement for work as a photographer’s assistant , he immediately decided
that he was suited for that position .
Suited for means .
a) well – dressed .
b) qualified .
3- we have twelve applicants for this position " stated Mr. . Mark , " we must read
all the resumes and weed out those with the least experience "
weed out means
a) congratulate .
b) eliminate the least desirable .

4- Joan decided to apply for the position of store manager.

276
 Although she had little experience , she believed that she could work hard and learn
the duties quickly . Certainly , she would do her level best in the job .
Level best means .
a) a fine effort .
b) making no attempt to improve .

4- Tony very much needed this job and was anxious to do well at the interview . up
till now , however , nothing was going right . he had over slept , had missed his
bus , and had gotten caught in traffic . By the time he arrived at the office , he
knew he would have to get his act together in order to impress the interviewer
Get his act together means .
a) remain calm and concentrate on the situation .
b) make excuses for being late for an appointment .

Home work:
Read the following passage and try to give equivalents to the phrases underlined
depending on the context.
Untitled
One of my friends said he was called for by the state security police, the most
powerful police authority in Egypt. A few days later, one of the sentry guards in my
village told me that I had to visit a major in the Supreme State Security Police
Department in my city. I was scared to death. “I did nothing to do with their
business!” I said to my self. I tried to contact some acquaintances to find about that
(off the record!), and to find out how far I might have been implicated in some work
at variance with their interests. But deplorably enough, nobody told me any thing
that could possibly soothe my jitters. Then I said to my self, “ you have to face the
music yourself!” And I did. I went to the Headquarters of the State Security Police
almost dying of fear. The receptionist kept me waiting for four hours making me
277
think in different ways how my lot would be shaped after the interview. In the
meantime, I did utter no word lest the place should have been bugged. Afterwards, I
was let in to meet that major. He was, unexpectedly, a very nice man. He kindly said,
“you are here because you are to vetted for work at the university. These are but
bureaucratic procedures to know you closely.
(Adapted from Mohamad Amin , “Untitled” in An Anthology of Writing form
Creative Reading and Writing, E-POET Institute, Summer, 1999)

278
 lesson Three
Using knowledge of well-known
Expressions to recognize meaning in context.
By the end of the lesson, you are expected to :

4- mention some commonly used expressions and idioms

5- recognize the meaning of words depending on the meaning of some commonly
used expressions and idioms.
3- mention the meaning of some given expressions and idioms

Preview:-

Read the following expressions and proverbs and check those you know:

__beauty is only skin deep __a wolf in sheep’s clothing

__not all that glitters is gold __all is well that ends well
__never too old to learn __better late than never
__second to none __what on earth is that !!
__haste makes waste __curiosity killed the cat
__a bad penny always turns __like father like son
up.
__let sleeping dogs lie __Rome was not built in a
day
__look before you leap __Heaven forbid !

Back ground: -

Every language has a set of proverbs and well-known expressions that are
used in certain situations . If you get acquainted with most of these , you can be
able to recognize the overall meaning of a reading text. A proverb or an
expression works like the key to the situation involved. Since people know what

279
the proverb means . they can expect similar situations related to the original
occasion. Consider the following examples:-

A Friend in need is a friend indeed.

1. This proverb is used to refer to the

quality of good friendship; that a true
friend is the one who helps you when
you are in trouble, not the one who
accompanies you only in your good
times.

Practice

Here is a list of some well-known expressions and proverbs;

Expression Example , illustration

1.a bird in the hand is worth Some thing you
two in the bush possess now is better
than many things out
of your hand
A word to the wise is sufficient. You don’t need to use
force with wise people
Actions speak louder than Instead of speaking all
words the time , try to make
an action that can be
seen.
Appearances are often Don’t be deceived by
deceiving the outer appearance
of things and people
Beauty is only skin deep Beauty is not only in
the face , but also in
manners and
behaviors
Better late than never Don’t regret being late,
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Expression Example , illustration
you are still better
than some one who
hasn’t come.
Better safe than sorry. Don’t regret having
bad luck, at all you are
still safe, it better than
being harmed.
Cleanliness is next to godliness. To be clean is to obey
God, and it is a good
quality
Don’t count your chickens Take care of what you
before they’re hatched. have , not what you
expect to have.
Every thing comes to those Be patient
who wait
God helps those who help Be a hard worker, and
themselves. God will help you.
Handsome is as handsome The beauty of a man is
does. only in his behavior
Honey catches more flies than Don’t be angry that
vinegar. people criticize you ,
this is only because
you are good.
In the kingdom of the blind , You are a king
the one-eyed man is king. compared to others
inferior to you.
Keep your eyes open before Choose a good wife,
marriage ,and half-shut but once chosen,
afterwards forget about her
mistakes
Like father like son Your son is like you
Life is not a bed of roses Life is hard , so work
for it
Make hay while the sun shines Work for your day and
never postpone it
281
 Expression Example , illustration
Misery loves company If you are miserable,
you will find relief in
accompanying other
miserable people.
Necessity is the mother of Your need for
invention something makes you
invent that thing
The act of kindness is never Your favor will never
wasted be forgotten.
No news is good news. This means there is no
bad news at least.
Oil and water don’t mix People of different
tempers contradict
People in glass houses Don’t criticize people
shouldn’t throw stones of errors which you
make
Rome was not built in a day Be patient
Speech is silver , but silence is Some times silence is
golden very important
Strike while the iron is hot. Take the chance
You can’t tell a book by its Don’t judge by
cover. appearance.

Practice (1) :

Read every situation and choose the best answer:-

1. That new girl sure is pretty ," Jack said.

" Yeah , but I wonder if she's nice too ." Carol said.
" After all , beauty is only skin deep ."

282
 This means , a) a person is judged by his/her
appearance.
b) a person is known by his/her skin.
c) a person is not judged by how he/she looks.

2. Those boys always eat lunch together , " Jenny said , nodding toward the small
group of boys at the other end of the cafeteria . Janne said :" well , birds of a
feather flock together ."
This means ,a)some people like to have birds.
b) people of similar interests like to be with
each other.
c) people of similar types take the feather of
birds .

3. Every day while Mr. Tony was sick , his neighbor Charles went to his house to
cook for him and read to him . Charles really proved that a friend in need is a
friend indeed."
This means , a) Your true friend is the one who needs
you
b) Your true friend helps you when you are
in need.
c) Your true friend Avoids you when you
are happy.

4.I can't believe Jack took my idea for his history report. He said he was just
interested in hearing about what I was working on . What a wolf in sheep's
clothing."
283
 This means , a) Jack is a true friend.
b) Jack is untrustworthy.
c) Jack is always bad.

5.Hoda dislikes playing tennis . All of her friends insisted that she come with them
to the playground . When they arrived , she said , " just because you got me to come
with you doesn't mean I'm going to play. You can lead a horse to water , but you
can't make it drink."
This means , a)She likes to ride a horse, but she does not
want to.
b) She doesn't want to drink, but her friends
say it is important to do.
c) Although she is in the playground, still
she doesn't like tennis.
Practice(2):-

Read the following passages and try to know the meaning of the underlined
phrase.

1.The game ended and the fat man won the prize that was a car. ”And now,” said
the host, ”you can keep the car, or you can give it back and turn the wheel again
to try for an even bigger prize!” “Thanks” said the fat man,” a bird in the hand is
worth two in the bush”

what is the meaning of the proverb here ?

a)to have this prize now is better than wish for another.

b)to have a bird is better than having a car.

284
 c)if you drive a car , birds will fly from the bush.

2. The first time Noah got paid for cutting the grass the neighbors’ yard, he
wanted to rush out and buy something-any thing ! But he remembered his
big brother saying that a fool and his money are soon parted, and he decided
to save his money for something worthwhile.

what is the meaning of the proverb here ?

a) Noah is a fool because he wastes his money.

b) Noah is a fool because he is younger than his brother.
c) Noah will be departed because he has no money.

3.”Ali borrows so many books from me that I can’t find my own books when I
need them” said Ahmad.” You know ,” said his father , “ good fences make good
neighbors. Why don’t you tell Ali he can only borrow one book at a time ?then
you’ll know what he has , and won’t feel so angry with him.”

what is the meaning of the proverb here ?

a)Ahmad will build fences around his library.

b) Ahmad will not give any book to Ali but on conditions.
c) Ahmad will not give any book to Ali at all.

4. “ I wish I had a million dollars, “ said Ismail .” Sure, “ said Ahmad, “ and if
wishes were horses, beggars would ride”.

285
 what is the meaning of the proverb here ?

a) Every one can wish as long as he pays nothing.

b) If you dream of a million $ , you will be a beggar.
c) If you dream of a million $, you will buy a horse.

5.”I can’t believe this film” whispered Amal to Anwar.” The forces of evil are
going to win. There is no way the hero can survive in a cave full of poisonous
gases”. “ Wait and see. I bet he finds a way out ,” said Anwar,” It’s not over till
it’s over !”

what is the meaning of the proverb here ?

a) They cannot tell what will happen till they get over the stage.
b) No one can predict what will happen till it happens.
c) The hero will die in the cave.

6. “Why didn’t Fatma enter the science fair?” asked Asmaa. “ The volcano she
made last year was great.”

“Once bitten, twice shy,” said Iman. “ She heard some kids making fun of her last
year, so she wouldn’t enter this year.”

what is the meaning of the proverb here ?

a)Once a critical situation happens to you, the next time you will be careful.
b) She didn’t enter the fair because a dog bit her.
c) She didn’t enter the fair because she is very shy.

286
 7.Mona looked up from the rows of seed she was planting .”Oh, the garden will
never be finished !”

“Cheer up ,” her uncle said .”After all , Rome wasn’t built in a day. By August
you’ll have the best beans, tomatoes, and mangoes you’ve ever tasted.”

what is the meaning of the proverb here ?

a)If she goes to Rome, she will find the best beans, tomatoes, and mangoes.
b) If she waits for August , the seeds will be wonderful vegetables and fruits.
c) Her uncle lived in Rome for sometime so he knows when the seeds will
flourish.

8.When I read that the same couple had been married three times, once in an
airplane, once in a hot-balloon , and once in an elevator , I decided that truth
really is stranger than fiction!

what is the meaning of the proverb here ?

a)Sometimes a real thing may be even stranger than imaginative stories.

b) Truth cannot be reached but through strangers.
c) The couple will not marry again because they are writing fiction.

9.”The professor sure is in a good mood today ,” thought Zeinab, “ I think I’ll
strike while the iron is hot and ask her if I can borrow her big book of linguistics”

what is the meaning of the proverb here ?

287
a)Zeinab will take the book of linguistics from the professor because she left the
iron hot.
b) Zeinab will take the book of linguistics from the professor because there is a
good chance to do so.
c) Zeinab will take the book of linguistics from the professor because she is
moody.

Practice Three:

Homework:

Now you have to read the following short passages and decide the meaning of
the proverbs depending on the context and your knowledge of idioms and
expressions.

1. I can’t wait to listen to the last three tapes of Amr Diab I’m getting for my
birthday” Shiama said.

“Are you sure some one is giving you these three tapes? Asmaa asked.

“Not exactly ,“ Shiama replied.

“ Well I hope you get one for yourself,” Asmaa said.” But don’t count your
chickens before they hatch”

what is the meaning of the proverb here ?

________________________________________

2. “Here is a picture of Ayman after he won his diving medal.” Soaad showed
Mrs. Hassan the photograph.

288
“ Goodness!” Mrs.Hassan said.” Wasn’t he happy and proud !”

“Yes, he was “ Soaad said.” Just look at his face . The picture is worth a thousand
words!”

what is the meaning of the proverb here ?

________________________________________

3. “My dad has to work overtime almost every night , and lately he works on
weekends , too. He says it’s what he has to do to make ends meet.”

what is the meaning of the proverb here ?

________________________________________

4. “ A lot of people gave me tips for Christmas ,” Andy said “ I’m rich!” “ So why
don’t you open a saving account and start putting your money in the bank?”
Andy’s big sister Mary said .”Otherwise , that money’s just going to burn a hole
in your pocket !”.

what is the meaning of the proverb here ?

________________________________________

289
 References and Resources used in the Program

Al Ahram Weekly; 19-25 Oct, 2-8 Nov. 2000

Al Madah , Mahmoud, (2000), Ahmad Zewail, Cairo : Amado Publishing

Company.

Atta Zidan, “Lost and Found”. Linda Sasser, Editor, An Anthology of Writing form
Creative Reading and Writing, E-POET Institute, summer, 1999

Bander, Robert, g, (1982), Sentence Making, New York :Holt , Rinehart and
Winston Publishing Company.

Brownstein et al, (1999), Barron’s How to Prepare for the GRE , 13th edition,New
York: Library of Congress Catalog Publication.

Don Dallas , (2000), Hello 7 for the second year secondary schools, London :
Longman.

E.D.Hirsch ,J.R, (1997), What your Fourth Grader Needs to Know ,Los Angeles: The
Core Knowledge Press.

E.D.Hirsch ,J.R, (1999), What your Sixth Grader Needs to Know ,Los Angeles: The
Core Knowledge Press.

Hajjaj, Ali and Kharma, Nayef,(1989), Errors in English Among Arab Speakers Analysis
and Remedy, London: Longman Publishing Company.

Helman et al, (1998) Principles and practices of teaching reading, 9th edition,
London :Macmillan publishing company.

290
Kimmelman et al ,(1984), Reading and Study Skills, London : Longman.

Malkoc ,Anna Maria, (1990),Fun with English, English, Washington: Language

Program Division.

Meagher, Linda,and Thomas , G. Devine, (1997), The Reading Connection,

Chicago: Irwin Mirror Press.

Mohamd Amin, “Untitled”. Linda Sasser, Editor, An Anthology of Writing form

Creative Reading and Writing, E-POET Institute, summer, 1999

Murphy, Antony, (1989), English Grammar in Use, Cambridge : Cambridge

University Press.

Raimes, Ann ,(1994), How English Works, New York: library of Congress publications.

Tames, Richard, (1982), Approaches to Islam, London: Chaucer Press.

www.alw-elt.org

www.Englishzone.com

www.maxpages.com

291
 Members of the jury
No. Name Position
1 Prof. Dr. Zeinab Al Professor of Education and TEFL
Naggar Methodology and Director of the Center
for Developing English Language
Teaching CDELT, Ain Shams Univeristy
2 Prof. Dr. David Eskey Professor of Education And Director of
the Center for American Language,
University of Southern California.
3 Prof. Dr. Eleanor Black Professor of Education and Director of
Eskey Los Angeles- MA TESOL Program,
California State University.
4 Prof. Dr. Hayat R. Ali Professor of Education and TEFL
Methodology , Minia Faculty of
Education.
5 Prof. Dr. Kawther Qutb Professor of Education and TEFL
Methodology and Vice Dean of Minia
Faculty of Education.
6 Dr. Ahmad Sokarno Associate Professor of Linguistics and
Head of the English Department, Qena
Faculty of Arts, South Valley University.
7 Dr. Mary Lou Adjunct professor , Dept. of Applied
MacCloskey Linguistics and ESL , Georgia State
University.

8 Dr. Kamal Fouly Associate Professor of Curricula and EFL

Methodology, Minia Faculty of
Education.
9 Dr. July Quinn Assistant Professor of Education,
California State University.
10 Dr. Barabra Thornton Lecturer in Education, University of
Leicester
11 Dr. Gamal Shehata Lecturer of TEFL Methodology , Minia
Faculty of Education.
12 Dr. Bahaa Mezid Lecturer of Linguistics , Sohag Faculty of
Arts, South Valley University.
13 Mr. Robert Bruch Consultant Co-ordinator at the
Integrated English Language Program 2
(IELP II)
14 Ms. Linda Sasser Principal of Alhambra School District and
Classroom Observation Instructor.

292
 A pre-post
Test in Basic Reading Skills for Primary Preservice Teachers
Directions:
-This test is designed to assess your use of some basic reading skills
- It is divided into two main parts: structural analysis and contextual analysis.
- Read the instructions thoroughly before you answer the questions.
- Try to answer all the items.
- Time allowed is TWO hours and total score is 60 points.
___________________________________________________
Part I
Structural Analysis
A . Morphemic Cues
Question No. 1 Prefixes
Add a prefix to change the meaning of the words below :

Example:
Not happy unhappy
Read again reread

Add a prefix that means Word formed

1- exist together _____ exist
2- not coherent _____coherent
3- small computer _____ computer
4- a wrong understanding ____ understanding
5- many facets. ____ facets
Question No. 2 Suffixes
Add a suffix to change the part of speech of the words in the first column to the part
of speech indicated in the second column.
Example:
Bad Adverb : badly
Simple verb: simplify
293
WORD NEW WORD
1- Wonder adjective ______
2- Memory verb _________
3- Marry noun __________
4- Happy noun __________
5- Active adverb_________

Question No. 3 Roots

Write down two words for each of the root words below :

Example:
Demo : Demonstration Democracy

1- Psych 2- Port 3- graph 4- bio 5- anthro

______ ______ _______ ______ ______
______ ______ _______ ______ ______

B. Syntactic Cues

Question No. 1 Sentence Patterns

Choose the right pattern of the sentences from these between brackets:
1-Open the door! (Statement – request – order).
2-Can I help you? (Order – offer – request).
3-Can you help me? (Statement – request – offer).
4-Fill in the gaps. (Instruction- statement -offer).
5-He is very lazy. (Offer- instruction – statement).

294
Question No. 2 Word Markers:

Fill in the gaps with a suitable word:

I prefer cleaning my shoes -------- because this doesn't take long. I can do it -------
--- than a machine can. It's an easy ----------. Only lazy people ----------- their shoes
cleaned by a machine. Try to ……….your shoes yourself and you will get wonderful
results.

Question No. 3 Punctuation:

Punctuate the following sentences:

1- how d you do
--------------------------------
2-i like to go to england every year
---------------------------------------------------
3-oh my god
--------------------------------------------------
4-i bought oranges apples and tomatoes
------------------------------------------------
5-can you phone anne
------------------------------------------------
___________________________________________________

295
 Part II
Contextual Analysis
I . Explicit Cues
Question No.1 Synonyms:
Choose the correct answer :
1- The detectives were deluded by all the false evidence . They were completely
deceived and they arrested the wrong person.
Deluded means __________
a) convinced b) arrested c) misled
2-Discomfort suffered from a broken leg can be so excruciating that drugs are often
prescribed to relieve the agony.
Excruciating means _____________
a) painful. b) wonderful c) hurtful
3-Inveterate gamblers are habitual customers at the race track betting widows.
Inveterate means ____________
a) ancient b) regular c) casual
4- Our plane tickets were voided when the airline ticket agent declared that the
airport was closed . Therefore , all reservations were cancelled .
voided means ___________
a) reserved b) stolen c ) not valid
5-Although the insurrection began in the rural areas , the rebellion quickly spread
throughout the cities .
Insurrection means _________
a) elections b) revolt c) journey.

Question No. 2 antonyms

Choose the correct answer :

296
1- Some students were inadvertently late for class while a few were purposely late.
Inadvertently means ___________
a) purposely b) accidentally c) regularly
2- In many nations there are two financial extremes , from penury to great wealth.
Penury means __________
a) wealth b) poverty c) luxury
3-It is better to be reflective about problems than to be thoughtless.
Reflective means __________
a) thoughtful b) uncaring c) supportive
4- Today's teenagers seem to be more liberal in their ideas than their conservative
grandparents.
Conservative means _______________
a) Free-thinking b) traditional c) old
5-Oranges are indigenous to Southern California but foreign to New York farms.
Indigenous means ______________
a) native b) unknown c) alien

Question No. 3 Using Examples

Complete the following :
1- After the tornado , there was devastation everywhere. Houses were destroyed ,
roads were cracked, and cars were wrecked.
Devastation means __________
a) death b) destruction c)mourning
2- I can trace my ancestry through my parents , grandparents, and even to my
great-grand parents
Ancestry means ____________
a)family position b) family tree c) family books
3- The child's fine breeding was apparent in his perfect speech , his excellent
297
manners, and his appreciation of arts.
Breeding means____________
a) playing b) talent c)education
4- Her delightful disposition was evident in her cheerful mood and her easygoing
manner. She always smiled and said pleasant things to everyone.
Disposition means ____________
a) character b) job c) problem
5- It is unethical for politicians to take bribes, students to cheat on exams or
teachers to oppress their students .
Unethical means ______________
a) not important b)not legal c) not harmful .

II. Implicit Cues

Question No. 1 Word in Context:
Read the passage and answer the questions :
" Language is the expression of human personality in words , whether written or
spoken . It is the universal medium alike for conveying the common facts of
everyday life and the philosophers' searching after truth , and all that lies between.
Thus thinkers have always assumed that language can be the bearer of all kinds of
truth and the image of every sort of reality ; nor can mathematical or other
incomplete form of scientific symbols take the place of language among any but
highly technical group of specialists.”
Choose the word or phrase from the alternatives given which is closest in meaning
to the blackened word
1-Universal: a. worldly b. earthly c. restricted
2-Incomplete: a. perfect b. imperfect c. inadequate
3-Symbols: a. signs b. flags c. stones
4-take the place: a. move b. detach c. replace
298
5-assumed : a. denied b. concluded c. refused

Question No.2 Phrase in Context :

Read the passage and answer the question ,
" To be a good teacher ,you need some of the gifts of the good actor; you must be
able to hold the attention and interest of your audience , you must be a clear
speaker, with a good , strong , pleasing , voice which is fully under your control , and
you must be able to act what you are teaching in order to make its meaning clear.
Watch a good teacher, and you will see that he doesn't sit motionless before his
class. However, there are some differences between a teacher's work and a n actor's
work. The actor has to speak words which he learnt by heart, he has to repeat the
same words each time he plays a certain part, even the movements and the way in
which he uses his voice are usually fixed before."
Choose the items that express the meanings of the blackened phrases :
1- Hold the attention :a. catch them b. attract them
c. touch them
2- fully under your control : a. you master your voice
b. you raise it c. You lose it
3- sit motionless: a. without moving b. without acting c. without any
expression
4- learnt by heart : a. developing loving emotion
b. causing heart disease c. memorized completely.
5- fixed before : a. pre determined b. written afterwards
c. mended before.

Question No. 4 Idioms and Expressions:

Read the following passages and answer the questions :-

299
 1- That new girl sure is pretty ," Jack said.
" Yeah , but I wonder if she's nice too ." Carol said.
" After all , beauty is only skin deep ."
This means , a) a person is judged by his/her
appearance.
b) a person is known by his/her skin.
c) a person is not judged by how he/she looks.

2- Those boys always eat lunch together , " Jenny said , nodding toward the small
group of boys at the other end of the cafeteria . Janne said :" well , birds of a
feather flock together ."
This means ,a)some people like to have birds.
b) people of similar interests like to be with
each other.
c) people of similar types take the feather of
birds .

3- Every day while Mr. Tony was sick , his neighbor Charles went to his house to
cook for him and read to him . Charles really proved that a friend in need is a
friend indeed."
This means , a) Your true friend is the one who needs
you
b) Your true friend helps you when you are
in need.
c) Your true friend avoids you when you
are happy.

4-I can't believe Jack took my idea for his history report. He said he was just
300
 interested in hearing about what I was working on . What a wolf in sheep's
clothing."
This means , a) Jack is a true friend.
b) Jack is untrustworthy.
c) Jack is always bad.

5-Hoda dislikes playing tennis . All of her friends insisted that she come with them
to the playground . When they arrived , she said , " just because you got me to come
with you doesn't mean I'm going to play. You can lead a horse to water , but you
can't make it drink."
This means , a)She likes to ride a horse, but she does not
want to.
b) She doesn't want to drink, but her friends
say it is important to do.
c) Although she is in the playground, still
she doesn't like tennis.

301
302
The Needs Assessment Inventory

303
304
 Part (A) Part (B)
Skills and Subskills of Basic Reading for Yes No Needed
Primary Preservice teachers Mostly Moderatel Never
needed y needed needed
1- Structural Analysis:
(A) Morphemic Clues
1.To be able to identify prefixes in
order to unlock the meaning of a new
word i.e (un-, pre-,post-, …etc)

2. To identify suffixes to know the

meaning of new words in a reading
passage i.e ( -ment, -ness, -able ,…etc)

3. To be able to identify roots of words

in a reading text.

4. To identify inflections, i.e

( plurals, possession, verbal inflections,
adjective inflections, ..etc)

5. To identify compound words, i.e (

truthwise, playground, sidewalk,..etc)

6. To identify contractions, i.e (I’m,

he’ll, we’ll, they’re ,. .etc)
Comments and Suggestions
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________

(B) Syntactic Clues:

1.To identify sentences patterns in a
reading text, i.e (statements,
questions, commands, requests,
instructions, ..etc)

2.To be able to predict what kind of

words will most likely precede or
follow certain other words due to word
order ,i.e “ the---- clouds(adj.)a funny---
(n)..etc)
305
 Part (A) Part (B)
Skills and Subskills of Basic Reading for Yes No Needed
Primary Preservice teachers Mostly Moderatel Never
needed y needed needed

3.To be able to indicate kinds of words

on the basis of word markers ,i.e(
noun markers: articles, possessive
pronoun, demonstrative… etc)

4.To be able to comprehend written

materials using punctuation rules, i.e
(apostrophes, hyphens, question
marks,… etc)
Comments and Suggestions :
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
2- Contextual Analysis:
( A) Explicit Clues:
1. To recognize the meaning of a
word depending on the use of
synonyms, i.e ( ex. He was
reliable , or dependable , in
every thing he did)

2. To recognize the meaning of a

word using antonyms ,i.e (ex.
Both the rich and the destitute
were welcome in his house.)

3. To recognize the meaning of a

word depending on definition
and explanation, i.e ( ex. I saw a
macaw ; it is a large , colorful
bird that is a member of the
parrot family.)

4. To recognize the meaning of a

word depending on description
,i.e(ex. Citrus fruit , for example,
306
 Part (A) Part (B)
Skills and Subskills of Basic Reading for Yes No Needed
Primary Preservice teachers Mostly Moderatel Never
needed y needed needed
oranges and grape fruits should
be included in every one’s daily
diet
Comments & Suggestions:
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
(B) Implicit Clues
1. To infer the overall meaning of
the reading text from the topic
title.
2. To recognize the meaning of
an unfamiliar word depending
on the preceding words.
3. To recognize the meaning of a
word depending on the
preceding sentences following
the sentence in which that
that unfamiliar word appears.
4. To recognize the meaning of
some commonly used
expressions, i.e( flesh and
blood, cats and dogs,.. )etc

Comments and Suggestions:

______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________

307
308
English Proficiency Examination for Egypt.
Form (A)

Booklet Number:____________

DO NOT MARK IN THIS BOOKLET

CHOOSE THE BEST ANSWER FOR EACH ITEM
MARK YOUR ANSWERS ON THE SEPARATE ANSWER SHEET
WORK QUICKLY AND CAREFULLY

Stop !
DO NOT TURN THE PAGE UNTIL YOU ARE TOLD TO DO SO !

309
 Part I. Grammar and Vocabulary
Part IA. Grammar

Directions : Complete each sentence.

Make an X over the letter of the
best answer on your answer sheet
Example: Look at _________houses over there.
a) that c) these
b) this d) those
The correct answer is : d) those.
This is marked on your answer sheet.

1. They _____ at the taxi driver this morning.

a) shouted c) shouting
b) shouts d) shout
2. I ________ to see you tomorrow.
a) have come c) will come
b) am come d) come
3. She waved hello as she _____ by.
a) has driven c) will drive
a. b) drives d) was driving
4. He was _______ to the radio.
a) listen c) listens
b) listening d) listened
5. The telephone _____ many times yesterday.
a) ring c) rang
b) rung d) ringed
6. He should ______ for help.
a) asked c) to ask
b) ask d) asking
7. My mother is _______ in our family.
a) the more fast reader c) the faster reader
b) ask d)the most fast reader
8. He learns his lessons by ___ very carefully.
a) listened c) listens
b) he listens d) listening
9. _________ his car, he had an accident.
310
 a) drive c) driven
b) drove d) driving
10.They don’t like me , ______?
a) have they c) are they
b) do they d) will they
11.He has ______ since 7 a. m.
a) have they c) study
b) studying d) studies
12.The child _____ was crying broke the toy.
a) who c) she
b) it d) whose
13.That book is one ____ we read.
a) from nicer c) of the nicest
b) the nicer d) nicest
14.You didn’t explain ______.
a) me this word c) this word me.
b) this word to me d) to me this word
15.________ for his work , the servant went home.
a) he was paid c) having paid
b) this word to me d) to me this word
16.The girls _______ marks are highest will come to our university.
a) which c) whom
b) whose d) who
17.She ______ all the work by the time he returned.
a) does c) had done
b) has done d) will have done
18.He had ________ the clock.
a) wound c) winded
b) wind d) wounded
19.Our house is _______ painted.
a) being c) will
b) be d) having been
20.We _____ been asked for help.
a) were c) will
b) had d) are
STOP ! DO NOT TURN THE PAGE UNTIL TOLD TO DO SO
311
 Part I. B. Vocabulary :

Directions : Complete each sentence.

Make an X over the letter of the
best answer on your answer sheet
Example: A cat has four _____.
a) eyes c) teeth
b) tails d) legs
The correct answer is : d)legs.
This is marked on your answer sheet.

1. The house is huge. It ________

a) is old and broken down c) is of great size
b) is ready to be occupied d) is warm and cozy
2. The projector _________
a) had many good projectsc) was used to show films
b) liked Egyptian food d) played on the team
3. The kitchen____________
a) tried very hard c) was unkind
b) was very roomy d) came too late
4. My friend is emotional. She __________
a) shows strong feelings c) lives in a cottage
b) seldom does her homework d)belongs to the sporting club
5. The men were guarding him. They ________
a) did not let him escape c) permitted him to leave
b) wanted him to pray d) said goodbye to him
6. Now let’s pretend. We_________
a) will do our work quickly c) must tell the truth
b) can say untrue things d) will make something to eat
7. The driver ________
a) was putt back in the box c) was easy to turn
b) was good at parking d) baked bread all day
8. A cure ________
a) shows love and concern c) is desired by sick persons
b) understands different customs d) can separate goods
9. He is satisfied with it. It_________-
a) was manufactured c) can speak rapidly

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 b) is good enough d) is beautiful to see
10.The cat smiled contentedly. It _________
a) seemed unhappy c) was very pleased
b) was hungry d) seemed very tired
11.He reviewed the book. He _______
a) looked for its weaknesses c) read a few pages
b) changed part of the book d) looked at the pictures
12.He had no alternative. He _____
a) had to do it c) had lost his old one
b) had too many to choose from d) had never been to school

13.The entertainment.________
a) was painted recently c) was exciting to watch
b) ate small insects readily d) served as a door
14.He was bald. He ______-
a) had no hear c) was hit by a ball
b) was very brave d) was nearly white and looked ill
15.The wages_____-
a) fell off his head c) showed the dog was happy
b) were L.E 20 a month d) washed along the sand
16._______ was in a sling.
a) The child c) The shop
b) My arm d) The boat
17.He disclosed the value of the painting. He ______
a) kept it a secret c) discovered it
b) tried to find it out d) told it to every one
18.The horse was galloping. It __________.
a) drank quickly c) jumped magnificently
b) ran beautifully d) rode pleasantly
19.The children were waiting impatiently. They were________
a) resting and sleeping c) busy studying
b) quiet and peaceful d) eager to go
20.He is confident . He ______
a) will not be afraid c) will be clever
b) will not be faithful d) will be fooled

STOP ! DO NOT TURN THE PAGE UNTIL TOLD TO DO SO

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Part II . Listening
Part II A. Listening Comprehension

Directions : Complete each sentence.

Make an X over the letter of the
best answer on your answer sheet
Example: ( listen)
a) yes, he went home.
b) yes, they are in the other room.
c) no, she hasn’t been here all day.
d) no, not since he left yesterday.

The correct answer is :

c) no, she hasn’t been here all day.
This is marked on your answer sheet.

1. a) Yes, she could. 6. a) no, Julia

b) Yes, I could. b) no, a red dress
c) Yes, he could. c) no, a yellow one
d) No, I’m not called Tommy. d) no, yesterday
2. a) Did you? Was it nice? 7. a) I know she is.
b) Why wouldn’t we? b) No, in the Hilton.
c) Why weren’t you? c) Aren’t you
d) Why won’t we? interested?
d) Yes, she is.
3. a) Oh! Yes, please. 8. a) what’s so surprising?
b) She’d love to! b) Yes, please.
c) No, she didn’t see a thing. c) oh , all right
d) Yes, but my name’s not d) Two kilos please.
Johnny.
4. A) Why do you think I do? 9. a) I hope so.
b) Well, what does she want? b) Next week, I think.
c) I don’t want any thing. c) For English.
d) Ok, then, which? d) every year
5. a) Did all of them go? 10.A) Yes, I think so.
b) When did he go? b) About an hour.
C) When will he leave here? c) about nine o’clock
d) When will they go? d) soon

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Part II B. Listening Recall

Directions:
The passage below will be read to you two times at a
normal speed. Look at the passage while the examiner reads it.
Try to remember the word that goes in each blank. You will
have one minute after the first reading to write the word for
each blank on your answer sheet. You will have two minutes
after the second reading to write the words.

It was a____!_______ day when I visited the _______2_____. I saw many

______3_____ from varoius parts of the _____4_____. Most interesting to me
were ____5____ elephants. Their great ears and _______6______ were
beyond description. The _____7___ elephant was giving its baby a
______8_____. When I stopped to ______9____ them, the _____10____
elephant looked at me as if to say, “ please _____11____ me some
_____12____ .” I went to a small _____13____ and bought ____14____ bags
of peanuts. The elephants quickly ate _____15_____ and wanted more.

STOP ! DO NOT TURN THE PAGE UNTIL TOLD TO DO SO !

Part III. Reading

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 Part IIIA. Reading Section One

Directions: Read the passage below.

Write One word in each blank on the answer sheet.

Books are your keys to knowledge, and there is no limit to the kinds of things
you can learn from books. So don’t worry if the______ you’ve taken an interest
in is ___. Only you seem to care about. ___ are written on almost every subject
______ person could hope to think of. _____ learn about new things , just visit
favorite book store.
When you buy ______ book , you read it whenever you _______. Read about a
far-away place ________ pretend you are having an adventure, _________ study
something you heard about in ______. You might wish to study a ________ or
learn to cook different kinds _____ food.

Reading a book can mean _______ differences between learning about things
and _______ to wonder about them. It’s economical _____ convenient to read
books. You have ________ freedom to study whenever you like. ________ from
books is very easy because ______ can simply go back to a _________ if you
forget something you’ve read.

Part IIIB. Reading Section Two

Directions: Read each passage below carefully. Then

complete each sentence. Make an X over the letter of the best
answer on your answer sheet.
Example :
George is a student. He has many books.
He likes his English books best.
George has…
a) no books. c) several big books.
b) more than two books. d) no English books.
The correct answer is: b) more than two books.
This is marked on your answer sheet.

Passage 1.

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 In the past , readers were apparently more patient than today’s readers.
They had few entertainment opportunities, so they did not mind spending
many hours in the reading of lengthy novels. Such novels seem unreasonable
to us today. Also we find the digressions and irrelevancies intolerable. But
these defects are found in some of the greatest writings and did not seem to
irritate earlier readers. It is deplorable that for these reasons those writings
are less frequently read today.
1. The author says that…………
a) great writings are usually long.
b) great writings usually have frequent digressions.
c) modern novelists write lengthy novels.
d) people today tend not to read lengthy novels.

2. The author thinks that digressions and irrelevancies ……

a) are not important to modern readers.
b) Are a sign of greatness in a novel.
c) Were intolerable to the readers of the past.
d) Should not prevent the reading of novels.

3. The worst problem is that……….

a) past readers had few entertainment opportunities.
b) Present readers avoid past novels.
c) Digressions are intolerable.
d) Some novels are unreasonable.

4. Those writings are less frequently read today because ……..

a) past readers spent hours reading them.
b) No one realizes their value.
c) Today’s readers are impatient.
d) The defects of modern writings are more serious.

5. A principal defect of past novels is that they………

a) provided limited entertainment.
b) Were long and elaborate.
c) Were too hard to understand.
d) Were not read at all.

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 Passage 2.
Usually you can transplant a tree easily, regardless of the season, if you follow
the same instructions for planting a tree. The main thing to remember is to dig
out enough roots, and this is only difficult when the tree is too large. In such
cases you should probably call in a tree specialist.
As you dig out the tree, the earth around the roots should measure a foot in
width for every inch of the diameter of the tree trunk. Of course, this will vary
with thew kind of tree. Avoid cutting too many tap roots.

6. Transplanting a tree is…….

a) quite different from planting a tree.
b) Too difficult for anyone but an expert.
c) Similar to planting a tree.
d) Easy if done at the right time.
7. The best time for transplanting is ……..
a) fall.
b) Spring.
c) Winter.
d) Any time.
8. A tree one foot in diameter requires………
a) a one-inch ball of earth.
b) A one-foot ball of earth.
c) A ten-foot ball of earth.
d) A twelve-foot ball of earth.
9. How much earth is removed depends on……..
a) the season and the tap roots.
b) The tree specialist.
c) The depth of the soil around the tree.
d) The variety and diameter of the tree.
10.A tree specialist should be called in if……..
a) there are too many tap roots .
b) the season is not right.
c) The tree trunk is too thick.
d) You can afford his fee.

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 Passage 3.
Fatma Helmi was born in Port Said in 1922, where she also attended
preparatory and secondary school. She graduated from Alexandria University
with a B.A in English in 1949, and took a job as a secretary for a travel agency
and in 1950 decided to invest in other travel and tourist agencies throughout
Egypt and the Middle East. Today She owns more than 40 agencies in over 5
countries. She has many plans for the future, but most of all she wants to
return to some university and study to become a doctor.
11.Fatma has not held the position of……..
a) Student.
b) travel agent.
c) secretary.
d) doctor.
12.Fatma most desires……..
a) travel abroad.
b) university study.
c) making more money.
d) making plans.
13.Fatma finished her university education……….
a) in 1922.
b) in 1949.
c) in 1950.
d) after 1950.
14.Fatma owns travel agencies ………
a) in more than 40 countries.
b) in less than 5 countries.
c) all over the world.
d) in Middle Est countries.
15.Fatma probably…………..
a) knows English.
b) has written a lot about university life .
c) has little money left.
d) has very few friends.
End of Test

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