Bulacan State University

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City of Malolos, Bulacan
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Unit title: Review of Mathematical Concepts and Fundamentals of Chemistry

Title of the Lesson:
1.1 Algebraic Manipulation in Chemistry
1.2 Systems of Measurements
1.3 The Fundamental and Derived Quantities
1.4 Significant figures and Mathematical Operations
1.5 Conversion of Units
1.6 Physical Quantities
1.7 Precision and Accuracy

Duration: 2 weeks
Introduction
“Chemistry Measurements and Applications” is an introductory concept for Engineering
students taking Chemistry subject. It is crucial in Chemistry that students need to
understand proper measurements. Chemistry measurements are useful in calculations
and analysis of quantitative relationships. It is important to remember that
'measurements' are written with the corresponding number written in correct significant
figures with a physical quantity unit.
In this chapter, the techniques in handling quantities and unit measurements are
essential in Chemistry. It is equally crucial that measurements should be (1) as close
as possible to the accepted value (accuracy), and/or (2) how deviating is a set of
measured quantities (precision).
Chapter Objectives:
After this chapter students, should be able to:
 Identify the physical quantities with corresponding units used;
 Express numbers used in the right significant figures;
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 Convert one unit to another unit;

 Identify the physical quantities used in chemistry;
 Measure quantities the appropriate devices;
 Determine the accuracy and precision of such measurement.

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Pretest:
Name: Chemistry for Score
Course,Year&Section: Engineers MODULE 1

Instructor: Date:

This is an intro to Chemistry. This is to prepare you for taking up other

topics in Chemistry.
1. Write the equation for the unknown quantity
d2h
(a) V = ; h=?
4
Ea (T2 – T1)
(b) ln k2 – ln k1 = ; Ea = ? k2 =?
RT1 T2
2. From the given physical quantities, which of the following are not considered
fundamental quantities: volume, mass, energy, time, temperature
3. Which pair of physical quantities as well as its unit is not consistent? Area-
acre, mass-slug, pressure- torr, temperature- second
4. What is the right unit used to measure the (a) blood pressure of a person? (b)
distance from one country? (c) mass of a person?
5. What is the difference between 4.1 g and 4.10 g?
6. A top-loading balance has a precision of 0.001 g. A sample of copper sulfate
placed on the balance has a mass of about 5 g. For this measurement how
many significant figures should be reported?
7. How many should significant figures be considered as the final answer in the
following operation?
1 kg
a. mass = 2.00 g x ;
1000 kg
 d3
b. V= where d = 2.100 cm ;
6
9
c. TF = TC + 32 where TC = 25.0o ;
5
8. Perform the following calculations. Write the answers in correct significant
figures.
 The height of a particular lighthouse is about 249 ft. Express this height
in miles.
 A volume of a liquid substance is taken as 20.0 cc. Convert this volume
in liters

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9. Which device is the best use to measure the thickness of aluminum foil? ruler,
vernier caliper, micrometer, or measuring tape
Among the four devices mention in number 9, which one has more
10.
significant figures in measuring length.
What device is used to measure the volume displaced by irregular solid?
11.
buret, beaker, graduated cylinder, or test tube
12. Which of the following is a correct unit for density? kg/m 3 , L/g, mL/g, g mL
13. Solve for 7b and 7b
14. What is the density of mercury (13.6 g/cm3) in units of kg/m3?
Which of the following densities tell that the substance will float in water?
15.
0.7 g/mL , 2.2 g/mL , 1.64 g/mL , 1.1 g/mL

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Lesson Proper/Course Methodology

1.1 Algebraic Manipulation in Chemistry

In dealing with chemistry measurements and calculations, basic mathematical
operations are needed. The problems given below are some of the mathematical
chemistry formulas used. Try solving the unknown quantity from the standard chemistry
formula.
Example 1.1 Determine the following unknown quantity from the following equation
a. Given: pH = - log [H+]
Required: [H+] = ?
Solution: [H+] = antilog (-pH) = 10- pH
mass
b. Given:  =
V
Required: V=?
mass
Solution: V=

Given: V=  d3
c.
6
Required: d=?
Solution: d= √ 

Practice Exercise 1.1 Solve for the unknown quantity from the given formula

y2 – y1
a. Given: m=
x2 – x1
Required: x2 = ?

Cc Dd
b. Given: Q =
Aa Bb
Required: a = ?
Answers:

y2 – y1 + m x1
a. x2 =
m
Cc Dd
log b
b. a= B Q
log A

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1.2 Systems of Measurements

Making observations is essential to all sciences. A quantitative observation, or
measurement, always consists of two parts: a number and a unit. A number expresses
the right amount, and a unit provides a standard of comparison for a measurement.
Both parts must be present for the measurement to be meaningful.
The universally accepted system of measurement, the International System, was
initially adopted in France and has undergone continuous improvement since the early
nineteenth century. This system is based on the Metric System of measurement.
In SI (International System), measurements may be expressed as fractions or
multiples of ten times the base unit. Prefixes are added to the base units to obtain
different units of a convenient size for measuring larger and smaller numbers. The
prefixes and their symbols denoting the powers to which ten is raised are given in Table
1.1. Examples in each form are also illustrated.
Table 1.1
Commonly Used Prefixes and Numerical Values for SI Units

Prefix Symbol Value EXAMPLE

-9
nano- n 10 1 nanogram (ng) = 1 x 10-9g
micro- µ 10-6 1 microampere (A) = 1 x 10-6A
milli- m 10-3 1 millisecond (ms) = 1 x 10-3s or 0.001 s
centi- c 10-2 1 centimole (cmol) = 1 x10-2mol or 0.01 mol
deci- d 10-1 1 deciliter (dL) = 1 x 10-1L or 0.1 L
deca- da 101 1 decavolt (daV) = 1 x 10 V = 10 V
hecto- h 102 1 hectometer (hm) = 1 x 102 m
kilo- k 103 1 kilojoules (kJ) = 1 x 103J or 1000 J
mega- M 106 1 mega-electron volts (MeV) = 1 x 106 eV
giga- G 109 1 gigabyte (GB) = 1 x 109 B

1.3 The Fundamental and Derived Quantities

Fundamental quantities are basic measurable quantities that have no connection with
each other. The seven fundamental quantities with its symbols and SI units are shown
in Table 1.2, given below.

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Table 1.2
Seven SI Fundamental Quantities

Quantity Symbol Unit

Length l meter (m)
Mass m kilogram (kg)
Time t second (s)
Electric Current I ampere (A)
Temperature T Kelvin (K)
Amount of substance n mole (mol)
Luminous Intensity Iv candela (cd)

Derived quantities are quantities that are expressed as a combination of the

fundamental quantities. Some of the commonly derived quantities, its symbols, and SI
units are given in Table 1.3

Table 1.3
Some SI Derived Units

Quantity Symbol Unit

Area A square meter, m2
Volume V cubic meter, m3
Density ρ kilogram per cubic meter,
3
Electric kg/m
Q coulomb, C (A-s)
charge Electric Ɛ volt, V (J/C)
potential Pressure P Pascal, Pa
Energy E Joule, J
Force F Newton, N (kg∙m/ s2)
Velocity v meter per second (m/s)
acceleration a meter per square meter
2
Work (m/s
W ) Joule, J (kg∙m2/ s2)
Power P Watt, W (J/s)

1.4 Significant Figures and Mathematical Operation

To determine the right significant figures, one must know the difference between exact
numbers and inexact numbers.

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Exact numbers (constant number) are numbers that have defined values and are
obtained by definition. This number is not counted in determining the number of
significant figures. For example, there are exactly 1000 g in a kilogram, 12 eggs in a
dozen, and 2 pieces in a pair. Another example, numbers are written in a formula is an
exact number. Like in the formula for the (a) area of a solid rectangular box, A = 2( lt +
lw + wt), 2 is considered exact number; (b) V = r2h,  is an exact number, and all
others are called inexact numbers or variable numbers.
Inexact numbers (variable numbers) are numbers obtained by measurement and
must be expressed in the right significant figures. The number of significant figures must
depend on the sensitivity of measuring devices used.
 Significant figures are those digits in a number with
known certainty plus the first digit that is uncertain.
Example: the value 2.35 cm represents the reading on
the scale of an ordinary ruler of a nail. It contains the
correct number of significant figures because the digit
5 is already uncertain, having been obtained by
approximation.
Specific rules govern the use of significant figures. These rules are applied for
measured values such as taking the mass, measuring length, getting the time, etc.
Among these rules are:
Rule 1 All nonzero digits are significant. Thus, 34.6 mi has three significant figures,
1251 m2 has four significant figures, and so on.
Rule 2 Middle zeros (zeros between two nonzero digits) are significant. For example,
101.5g contains four significant figures; 3.02m contains three significant
figures.
Rule 3 All zeros are written to the right of the decimal number count as significant
figures. Thus, 1.500 L has four significant figures; 3.20 g has three significant
figures.
Rule 4 Leading zeros (zeros to the right of the decimal number less than one and
preceding a nonzero digit) are not significant. Meaning, that 0.005 atm
contains one significant figure; 0.00021 kilometers has two significant figures;
0.010 has two significant figures.
Rule 5 Trailing zeros (zeros at the end of a nonzero digit) is significant if a decimal
point or a bar on top is indicated, for example, 300. kW has three significant
figures; 10Ō0 has three significant figures, and so on.
Trailing zeros may or may not be significant if the number does not
contain a decimal point, meaning that 100 kg may have one significant figure
(1), two significant figures (10), or three significant figures (100). The use of
scientific notation avoids the ambiguity of whether trailing zeros are significant;
for example, 100 kg can be expressed in scientific notation showing one, two,
or three significant figures. Such as 1 x 10 2 (one significant figure); 1.0 x 102

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(two significant figures); or 1.00 x 102 (three significant figures). In these

numbers, all zeros written to the right of the decimal point count as significant
figures (rule 3).

 Scientific Notation. Scientific notation is a convenient way of expressing a very

small or a very large number. It simplifies the use of significant figures. In scientific
notation, a number is written by moving the decimal point in the original number so
that it is located after the first nonzero digit. This new number is multiplied by ten
raised to a certain power. The power of ten is equal to the number of places that
the decimal point has been moved. It has the form M x 10n, where M represents all
the significant digits between 1 and 10, and n is a positive or negative whole
number. Examples, to express (a) 0.002854 in scientific notation, place decimal
point between 2 and 8. Since the decimal point was moved to three places to the
right, the power of 10 will be –3, and the number 2.854 is multiplied by 10-3 (2.854 x
10-3); (b) to 12,000,000 in proper scientific notation, place decimal point between 1
and 2. Since the decimal point was moved seven places to the left, the power of
ten will be 7, and number 1.2 is multiplied by 107 (1.2 x 107).

 Computational Rules
Rule 1 In addition or subtraction, the number of decimal places to the decimal
point's right in the final sum and difference is determined by the lowest
number of decimal places to the decimal point's right in any of the original
numbers. The following examples illustrate this rule.
Example 1.4.1
0. 0521
1. 3456
+
3. 56
4. 9577 (4.96)

The number with the smallest number of decimal places is 3.56. Therefore, the
answer should be rounded off to 4.96.

Example 1.4.2
156. 23
- 4. 5
151. 73 (151.7)
The number with the least number of decimal places is 4.5. Therefore, the
answer is rounded off to 151.7.

Rule 2 In multiplication or division, the result must contain the same number of
significant figures as in the original number having the smallest number of
significant figures. Consider the following examples:

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Example 1.4.3

27.3 x 1.2 = 32.76 (33)

The value 32.76 was obtained using a calculator. The answer should have
two significant figures, because 1.2, the number with the least significant figures,
has only two significant figures. Thus, 32.76 rounds off to 33.

Example 1.4.4

70.05 x 31.5
= 147.105 (150)
15
The value 147.105 was obtained with the use of a calculator. The answer
must contain two significant figures because among the given numbers, 15 have
the fewest significant figures. The correct answer must be 150 or 1.5 x 10 2.

Practice Exercise 1.2 – 1.4. Answer the following

a. How many significant figures are there in the following linear measurement?
2.355 mm, 0.40 cm, 0.125 in

b. Perform the indicated operation

2.5 m - 0.31m
3.583 s
Answers: a. 4, 2, 3; b. 0.61 m/s

1.5 Conversion of Units

Many problems in chemistry require a change of units. Dimensional analysis, or factor
unit method, is used to convert a unit to another unit, a numerator and a denominator
representing a relationship are used. Table 1.4 shows some common conversion
factors.
The final answer must be expressed in a significant figure based on the number of
significant figures of the given values. To convert one quantity to the other, follow the
given steps:

Step 1: Write down the given quantity with the proper units.
Step 2: Multiply the given quantity by one or more connecting conversion factors such
that the units of the factors cancel the units of the known quantity and
generate the units of the desired quantity.
Step 3: The answer must be based on the given data to be converted since the
conversion factor is constant.

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Example 1.5.1 The height of a building is 100.0 feet. Find the height in meters in
the right significant figures.

To express the height, h, in meters, multiply the height in feet by the conversion
factor that converts feet to meters, that is

1m
h = 100.0 ft x = 30.48 m
3.281 ft

Example 1.5.2 : Convert 125 mm2 to cm2

(1 cm)2
A = 125 mm2 x = 1.25 cm
(10mm)2

Example 1.5.3: Convert 5.0 L to cm3 ( 1mL = 1cm3)

1000 mL 1 cm3
A = 5.0 Lx x = 5.0 x 103 cm
1L 1 mL

Table 1.4
Common Conversion Factors
1 m = 3.281 ft = 1.094 yards (yd)
1 inch (in) = 2.54 cm
LENGTH 1 foot (ft) = 12 in
1 mile (mi) = 1.61 km
1 square meter (m2) = 10.76 square feet (ft2)
1 ft2= 929 square centimeter (cm2)
AREA
1 hectare = 10,000 m2 = 2.471 acres
1 acre = 43,560 ft2
1 mL = 1 cubic centimeter (cc or cm3)
1 L = 1000 mL = 1.057 quarts (qt)
VOLUME
1 cubic meter (m3) = 1000 L
1 gal = 3.7854 L
1 earth year = 365.25 days
1 week = 7 days
TIME 1 day = 24 hours (hr)
1 hr = 60 minutes (min) = 3600 sec
1 min = 60 seconds (s)
1 kg = 1000 g = 2.2 pounds (lb)
1 g = 1000 mg
MASS
1 metric ton = 1000 kg
1 pound = 454 g
Practice Exercise 1.5
a. Add the following units of mass measurement and express answers in g.
0.456 kg, 965 mg, 1.83 dg, 0.537 g.
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b. The deepest part of the Pacific Ocean is 5968 fathoms deep, what is this
depth in meters? One fathom is exactly 6 feet.
Answers: a. 458 g; b. 1.091 x 104 m

1.6 Physical Quantities

Many years ago, the length was measured using finger (inch), foot (foot), forehand
(yard), and that time was measured by the periods of sun, moon, and other heavenly
bodies1. The platinum-iridium cylinder was kept in a vault at Sevres, France, for future
use in defining other quantities.
 Mass and Weight. Mass is the quantity of matter that it contains. It is a constant
quantity. The weight of a body is the force that gravity exerts on the body. It is
variable since the attraction depends on the distance from the planet's center of
gravity. The standard SI unit of mass is the kilogram, but a smaller mass unit, gram,
is more convenient in chemical work.
The instrument used in science for determining the mass of an object is called a
balance. The choice of balance depends on the accuracy required and the amount
of material. Different types of balance are:
Triple Beam Balance. A moderately accurate measurement is done. It is sensitive
to 0.01 gram
.

Procedures on how to use Triple Beam Balance

1. Place the balance on a flat and level surface and remove foreign materials that
may be present or have accumulated on the pan.
2. Set all riders to zero mass of the beam and check if the pointer is in line with
the zero marks. If it is not, adjust the knob until the pointer is at zero marks.
3. Use a container for weighing solid or liquid samples. No samples must be
weighed directly on the pan to prevent corrosion of the weighed sample's pan
and contamination.
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4. To get the mass of a sample, weigh the container first. Put the object on the
pan and move the 100 g rider to the right until the pointer falls below zero.
Then return the rider one notch backward. Do the same in the 10 g rider.
Using the pencil or pen's tip, slowly slide the 1 g rider until the pointer lines up
perfectly with the zero marks. The sum of the readings in the three beams is
the mass of the object.
5. Place the substance into the container then get the total mass. Finally,
subtract the mass of the container from the total mass to obtain the substance's
mass. Record the reading.
6. Practice weighing. Weigh any glass container.
7. Return all riders to zero after using.

Top Loading Balance. It is used for more accurate work. It is sensitive to 0.01gram
to 0.0001 gram.

Procedures on how to use top loading balance:

1. Check the level bubble indicator before weighing. The balance feet serve as
leveling screws.
2. Set the “g” or “oz” switch by sliding the “Unit Switch”. Then, prevs the Power
Switch to the “on” position designated by the 1. The “Display” will show
“8.8.8.8.8” for a few seconds, then “0.00” g for gram and 0.0000 for ounce.

3. Place the container on the balance pan gently; the display will show the
measured mass values. Do not exceed the overload capacity of the scale.
Overweighing will show the display “- - - - - -”.
4. Push “Tare Button” to reset the balance to zero values.
5. Carefully add substance to the tare container and record the mass.

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Spring Balance is used to measure the body's weight directly

and is given in the units of force, the Newton (N). The spring is
stretched until the force of gravity acting on the body is equal to
the spring's backward pull.

Example 1.6.1 Read the mass of an empty graduated cylinder

place in the triple beam balance.

Answer: 373.50 g

 Length, Area, and Volume

Length is the distance covered by a line segment connecting two points. The
standard unit of length in metric and SI units is the meter. A ruler, meter-stick, and

caliper are used to measure the length of an object.
Ruler. A ruler is a device used to measure more extended objects made up of
plastic, wood, metal, etc. The older version of a ruler is marked with inches as well
as in millimeters/centimeters as well.
In centimeter measurement, there are ten divisions, and
each is read as 1/10 or 0.1 cm. Between these markings is
read approximately, and it is 1/10 of 0.1cm or 0.01 cm.
Thus, in centimeter reading, a ruler is 0.01 cm precise.
In inch measurement, there are 16 divisions, and each
is read as 1/16 or 0.0625. Between readings is read
approximately. The rational numbers to decimal fractions
using inches as measurement contain different decimal

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numbers. These decimal numbers are considered. To determine the number of

significant figures when these numbers are added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided,
consider the decimal fractions with a least significant number.
Vernier Caliper. A vernier caliper is an instrument that measures the internal
diameter as well as the external diameter and distances of the object. This device
takes more precise measurements than the regular ruler. The ruler has a sensitivity

of 0.01 cm, while the vernier caliper has a sensitivity of 0.005 cm.
Procedures on how to use vernier caliper:
1. Loosen the lock screw and use the thumbscrew to the left to check if the zero
mark of the vernier scale coincides exactly with the zero mark of the main
scale. If it is aligned, a zero error occurred. If not, this could be a positive or
negative error. For discussion, let us assume that it is at zero error.

2. Place the object between two jaws to measure the inside diameter or outside
diameter or distances. In the measuring jaw and move the thumb grip to
position the object.

3. Read measured value.

 Read the MAIN SCALE, where it lines up with the zero marks of the vernier
scale. The main scale value determines the first reading with a certainty of 1/10
or 0.1 cm.
 Read the VERNIER SCALE lines up perfectly with any line on the main scale.
That mark tells you the value of the additional digit. Vernier scale is used to

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measure to the nearest 1/20 of 0.1 cm or 1/10 of 0.1 cm.

There are three decimal places to be considered in determining the measured
value using the Vernier caliper in cm.

Example 1.5.2 Consider the Vernier caliper shown below. What would the reading
be?
The caliper shown has a sensitivity of 0.001 cm. Therefore, the answer is express in
three decimal places.

main scale reading:

1 + 1/10 = 1.1 cm
Vernier scale reading:
(8.5/10)(0.1) = (17/20)(0.1) = 0.085 cm

Micrometer Caliper. A micrometer screw gauge is a small measuring device that

works on the screw principle and is used for measuring dimensions smaller than
those measured by the vernier caliper. This device has a sensitivity of 0.001 mm and
is more precise than using a vernier caliper.

Procedures on how to use micrometer screw gauge:

1. As in using a vernier caliper, make sure that the zero of the micrometer
caliper coincides exactly with the zero of the main scales. The figure below
shows no zero, positive zero, and negative zero reading.

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2. Place the object between the anvil and the spindle and move the rachet screw
to position the object.
3. Measure the dimensions or diameter of the objects asked for the experiment.
The micrometer reads in millimeters. The main scale marking is 0.5 mm. The
sleeve has 50 markings around its circumference, and each reading is 1/50 of
0.5 mm or 0.01 mm. Between intervals, say 0.01 mm and 0.02 mm correspond
to an uncertain number done by approximation. Thus micrometer has a
sensitivity of 0.001mm or 0.0001 cm.

Example 1.6.3 Consider the micrometer caliper shown above, what would the
reading be?
The micrometer caliper shown has a sensitivity of 0.001 mm. Therefore, the
answer is express in three decimal places.

The area of plane figures or solids is the number of unit

squares that can be contained within it. Say, the area of a
rectangle is length multiply by its width. For a rectangular
box, a 3-dimensional figure, the area is determined by
getting the area of all of the phases.
Volume is defined in terms of standard length. Cubic
meter (m3) is the standard SI-derived unit. It is the volume
of a cube that is exactly one meter on edge. However,
chemists work with much smaller volumes such as cubic
centimeter (cc) and cubic decimeter (dm3). Another
common unit of volume is liter. A liter is a non-SI unit of
volume that is equal to 1000 mL or 1000 cc. A liquid
volume is measured in a pipette, burette, graduated
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cylinder, and volumetric flask. These calibrated instruments are usually made of
glass and are available in various sizes.

To use a graduated cylinder, hold the cylinder vertically at an eye level and look at
the lower meniscus for transparent liquid. The reading of a volume is from bottom to
top. See figure shown.
In a burette, the liquid is drawn below; thus, reading a volume is
from top to bottom.

Example 1.6.4 Read the volume of water placed in a graduated

cylinder.
Answers: 11.5 mL

Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2 shows how the volume of regular solids and
irregularly shaped objects are measured respectively. The volume of regular solids
is obtained by measuring its dimensions. For example, the volume of a rectangular
container can be determined by multiplying its length, width, and height.

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The volume of an irregularly shaped object is determined by water displacement.

Water displacement is done by placing the material in a graduated cylinder with a
known volume of water. The material will displace a volume of water equal to the
volume of the material. An increase in volume is the volume of the material.

Example 1.6.5 What is the volume of a cylinder with a diameter of 4.1 cm and
height 6.5 cm?
Solution:
d2h  (4.1 cm)2 (6.5 cm)
V = = = 86 cc
4 4

 Density and Specific Gravity

Density () is defined as the ratio of the samples’ mass to its volume. Expressed
mathematically,
mass m
density = or =
volume V
where , m, and V denote density, mass, and volume, respectively.
The SI derived unit for density is kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3). But in
chemical work, the densities of solids and liquids are usually expressed in grams per
milliliter (g/mL) or gram per cubic centimeter (g/cc). For gases, density is expressed
in g/L. The water density at 4oC is exactly 1.0 g/mL at 1.0 atmosphere pressure or a
little less than 1.0 g/mL at different temperatures. The density of air at 0oC is 1.293
g/L at 1 atmosphere.
Suppose that a three-layered liquid system is formed by 2.0 mL of water,
benzene, and cottonseed oil, which are successively poured into a test tube.
Benzene, with the density between cottonseed oil and water, will form the middle
layer. Water, being denser than benzene, will sink, and cottonseed oil with the least
density will float.

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Example 1.6.6 What is the mass of 10.0 mL cottonseed oil? The density of
cottonseed oil is 0.926 g/mL at 20.0oC.
Solution: Derive mass from the density equation and substitute the data

= m m = xV
V
0.926 g
m= x 10.0 mL = 9.26 g
mL

Example 1.6.7 The water level in a graduated cylinder stands at 20.0 mL before and
at 22.0 mL after a 5.4 g metal is submerged in water. Calculate the volume and
density of the metal.
Solution: The metal will displace a volume of water equal to the volume of the
metal. Thus the increase in volume is the volume of the metal.
Vmetal = Vwater+metal – Vwater = 22.0 mL – 20.0 mL = 2.0 mL
m 5.4 g
metal = V
= = 2.7 g/mL
2.0 mL
Specific Gravity (SG) denotes the ratio of a substance's density to a reference
substance's density. Water is usually used as the reference substance for solids
and liquids. Common reference substances used in specifying the specific gravity
of gases are air and hydrogen. Specific Gravity, being the ratio of two densities,
has no unit. Specific gravity tells us how many times as heavy as a liquid, a solid,
or gas is compared to the reference material. By definition,

density of solid or liquid Density of gas

SG = density of water (1.00 ; or SG = Density of air (1.293
g/mL) g/L)
Specific gravity tells us how many times as heavy as a liquid, a solid, or a
gas is compared to the reference material. By definition,

Example 1.6.8 The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6 relative to water. What
volume of Hg would have the same mass as 100.0 mL of water?
Given: SGHg = 13.60 Vwater = 100.0 mL Required: VHg = ?
Solution: m water = 100 g m Hg = 100 g
mHg
Hg VHg = V water
SGHg = =
 water m water VHg
V water

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V water 100.0 mL
VHg= = = 7.35 mL
SGHg 13.6
 Temperature. Temperature is merely a measurement of how hot or cold a
substance is. But the term hot or cold is relative.
Temperature is measured using a thermometer. The thermometer contains
liquids, which expand when heated. Alcohol and mercury are commonly used in
these thermometers. A clinical thermometer is used to measure the small variations
in the temperature of the human body.
Two fixed points in a thermometer are chosen to serve as guides in graduating a
thermometer. A Swedish astronomer, Anders Celsius, devised the Celsius scale. In
this scale, the freezing point of water is fixed at 0 degree Celsius (0oC). The boiling
point of water at sea level (pressure at 1 atmosphere) is 100 degrees Celsius
(100oC). On the Celsius scale, the normal body (human) temperature is 37 oC.
A German physicist, Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, devised a Fahrenheit scale.
On the Fahrenheit thermometer, the freezing point of water is marked 32o, and the
boiling point is marked 212o, with 180 divisions between two points.
The absolute temperature scale starts at a point called the absolute zero. This
is the lowest temperature theoretically achievable. The absolute scale uses Kelvin
units, named after Sir William Thomson, also known as Lord Kelvin. On this scale,
the freezing point of water is 273K, and the boiling point is 373K. Each interval on
the Kelvin scale is equal to 1 degree Celsius.
Figure 1.3 illustrates the comparison between Celsius, Kelvin, and Fahrenheit scale.
Although absolute zero is the lower limit of temperature on these scales, the
temperature has no known upper limit,
To convert temperature reading from one scale to another, the equations below
are used.

To convert oC to oF: TF = 9/5 (TC) + 32

where: TC = temperature in the Celsius scale
TF= temperature in the Fahrenheit scale
To convert oF to oC: TC = 5/9 (TF – 32)
To convert oC to K: TK = TC + 273
To convert K to oC: TC = TK – 273

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Figure 1.3 The Comparative Scale Among Celsius, Kelvin, and Fahrenheit

Example 1.6.9 The air temperature on a hot day is 95.0oF. What is this temperature
in the (a) Celsius scale? (b) absolute scale?
Solution:
(a) TC = 5/9 (TF – 32) = 5/9 (95 – 32) = 35.0oC
(b) TK = TC + 273 = 35.0 + 273 = 308 K

For the formula of temperature conversion, the number of the answers' significant
figures must be based on the given data.

Practice Exercise 1.6: Answer the following in correct significant figures

a. A sheet of aluminum foil has a total area of 1.000 ft 2 and a mass of 3.636 g.
What is the thickness of the foil in mm? (Al = 2.699 g/cc).
b. Calculate the mass of each of the following: (a) a sphere of gold with radius of
10.0 cm,  = 19.3 g/cc; (b) a cube of platinum of edge length 0.0400 mm,  =
21.4 g/cc; (c) 50.0 cc of ethyl alcohol,  = 0.789 g/cc
c. Normally the human body can endure a temperature of 105 oF for a short time
period without permanent damage to the brain and other vital organs. What is
this temperature in degrees Celsius? In Kelvin?
Answers:
a. 0.01450 mm
b. 8.08 x 104 g, 1.37 x 10-6 g, 39.5 g
c. 40.6oC, 314 K

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1.7 Precision and Accuracy

Precision and accuracy are distinctly different concepts and should not be used
interchangeably. Precision refers to how closely individual measurements agree with
each other. It is usually expressed in terms of percent deviation.

We can calculate the % deviation from the formula

Ave AD
%D= x 100%
M
where: Ave AD = average absolute deviation
M = mean or average of several measurements

Absolute deviation (AD) is the difference between the measured value (Mo) and the
mean (M) for the set of several measurements. In equation,
AD = ǀMo – Mǀ
Accuracy refers to how closely a measured value agrees with the correct value for a
specific physical quantity. It is expressed in terms of percent error.
We can calculate the % error from the formula
Ave AE
%E= x 100%
MA
where: Ave AE = average absolute error
MA = accepted value
Absolute error is the actual difference between the measured value and the accepted
value. In equation,
AE = ǀMo – MAǀ
Figure 1.4 illustrates the differences between precision and accuracy.

precise
not precise and precise but
and
not accurate not accurate
accurate
Figure 1.4 Precision versus Accuracy

Percent Error can also be obtained by the absolute difference between the accepted
value (or true value) and the average measurement (or average experiment value)
divide by the accepted value.
ǀ TV – EV ǀ
%E= x 100%
TV
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Example 1.7.1 Three students were asked to weigh 10.0 mL of distilled water. The
results of two successive weighing by each student are:

Student A Student B Student C

10.02 9.75 9.80
10.00 9.85 9.86
Average 10.01 9.80 9.83
value
The true mass of distilled water is 10.00 g. Compare their measurements.
Solution:
Student A Student B Student C
Absolute Absolute Absolute Absolute Absolute Absolute
Readings Readings Readings
Deviation Error Deviation Error Deviation Error
10.02 0.01 0.02 9.75 0.05 0.25 9.80 0.03 0.20
10.00 0.01 0.00 9.85 0.05 0.15 9.86 0.03 0.14

Ave. value 10.01 0.01 0.01 9.80 0.05 0.20 9.83 0.03 0.17

Ave AD 0.01
% DA = x 100 = x 100 = 0.1%
M 10.01

Ave AD 0.05
% DB = x 100 = x 100 = 0.5%
M 9.80

Ave AD 0.03
% DC = x 100 = x 100 = 0.3%
M 9.83

Ave AE 0.01
% EA = x 100 = x 100 = 0.1%
MA 10.00

Ave AE 0.20
% EB = x 100 = x 100 = 2.0%
MA 10.00

Ave AE 0.17
% EC = x 100 = x 100 = 1.7%
MA 10.00
ǀ TV – EV ǀ ǀ 10.00 – 10.01 ǀ
% EA = x 100 = x 100 = 0.1%
TV 10.00

ǀ TV – EV ǀ ǀ 10.00 – 9.80 ǀ
% EB = x 100 = x 100 = 2.0%
TV 10.00
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ǀ TV – EV ǀ ǀ 10.00 – 9.83 ǀ
% EC = x 100 = x 100 = 1.7%
TV 10.00

Student C's results are more precise than Student B's results, but neither set results
are very accurate. Student A’s results are not only the most precise but also the
most accurate.

Practice Exercise 1.7 The mass of an unknown substance is 2.86 g. Which of the
following sets of measurement represents the value with both accuracy and
precision? (a) 1.78 g, 1.80 g, 1.76g, 1.81 g; (b) 2.85 g, 2.86 g, 2.84, 2.81 g: (c)
1.98 g, 2.02 g, 1.96 g, 2.01g (d) 2.81 g, 1.98 g, 2.40 g, 2.78 g
Answer: (b) 2.85 g, 2.86 g, 2.84, 2.81 g

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Name: Chemistry for Score

Course,Year&Section: Engineers MODULE 1

Instructor: Date:

Exercise 1.0

Answer the following:

1. How many significant figures are shown in each of the following?
a. 2900 m
b. 0.000002 cm
c. 1.0 x 105 Pa
d. 450.0 mL
e. 0.00530 mol
f. 3008 g
2. Do the following operations and express answers in the right significant figure.
a. 1.43 x 5
b. 396/23
c. 7.0032 – 3.05
d. 1.234 + 2.3 + 0.007
3. Express the following numbers in scientific notation.
a. 706.5
b. 0.00123
c. 125,000
d. 0.00000034
e. 3,000,000
4. A force of 2000 N acts on an area those measures 1 m x 2 m. What is the force
per unit area in kN/m2?

5. One furlong is defined as one-eight of a mile. How many km are there in a six-
furlong (6.0) race? The following relations are exact: 1 mile = 5280 feet, 12
inches = 1 foot, 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters. Answer: 1.2 x 103 km

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6. A cube of sodium 15.0 cm on a side weighs 3.28 Kg. What is the density of
sodium in g/cc? Answer: 0.972 g/cc

7. The density of a liquid is 1.6045 g/mL at 25oC. What is its specific gravity?

8. An irregularly shaped stone was placed into a graduated cylinder holding a water
volume equal to 2.0 mL. The height of the water rose to 7.0 mL. If the mass of the
stone was 25.0 g, what was its specific gravity?

9. What is the volume of a solid that measures 6.50 cm x 0.0750 m x 20.0 mm?

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10. Solve for S from the following equations: [A] S + a = t2 [B] a = S2 /2t [C] 1/t = S/a [D] t =
Sa

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Reflection and Insights:

Name: Chemistry for Score
Course,Year&Section: Engineers MODULE 1

Instructor: Date:

1. Measure the length, width, thickness of your front door.

2. Draw the front door showing its dimension.
3. Compute for the total area to be painted.
4. Calculate the volume of paint needed to coat the total surface area.
Coverage: 20 – 25 m2 /4 L /coat
5. Determine the cost of painting.
P 560.00 / 4 L

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 Bulacan State University
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 Bulacan State University
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Post Test
Name: Chemistry for Score
Course,Year&Section: Engineers MODULE 1

Instructor: Date:

The questions given in a certain topic are needed for you to answer. Answers in capital
letters only must be submitted.
__1. The following units are used to measure pressure except: [A] torr [B] mmHg
[C] in2 [D] Pa
__2. Which of these is a non-SI unit? [A] Pa [B] L [C] cc [D] K
__3. Which of the following does not belong to the group? [A] luminous intensity
[B] electric charge [C] amount of substance [D] electric current
__4. A more appropriate way of describing the distance between New York and San
Francisco by car along a certain route is [A] m [B] mm [C] cm [D] mi
__5. What will be the work unit if it is defined as force multiplied by distance and
force as mass multiplied by acceleration? [A] kg-m/s2 [B] kg-m2/s2 [C] N/m [D] B
and C
__6. Which of the following has four significant figures? [A] 0.0430 [B] 0.0431 [C]
0.04309 [D] 0.043090
__7. What is the product of 6.89 and 35.17? [A] 242 [B] 242.3 [C] 242.32 [D]
242.321
__8. The exponential number 5.26 x 10-3 in an ordinary number is written as [A]
0.526 [B] 5.260 [C] 0.00526 [D] 0.0526
__9. In the formula N x 10y, y is negative if [A] the decimal point is moved to the left
[B] the decimal point is moved to the right [C] the decimal point is moved either
to the left or to the right [D] none of these
__10. The set of numbers that has the same number of significant figures is [A] 2.350
x102 g, 0.02350 g, 235.0 g [B] 4 x 10-4 g, 4.000 g, 0.0004 g [C] 1.00 g, 10.0 g,
100 [D] 0.23020 g, 2.302 x103 g, 23.02
__11. When numbers are multiplied, the limiting term is the one with the ____ number
of ___ [A] largest, decimal places [B] smallest, decimal places [C] largest,
significant figures [D] smallest, significant figures
__12. This represents a number that will give reasonably reliable or good estimates
[A] scientific notation [B] exponential form [C] significant figure [D] None of
these
__13. The mass of the sample of homogeneous matter is proportional to its volume.
The proportionality constant between them is the __ [A] length [B] time [C]
weight [D] density
__14. What is the liquid's specific gravity if 225-mL of the liquid has the same mass as
396-mL of water? [A] 1.76 [B] 0.570 [C] 171 [D] 0.760
__15. The temperature scale has 180 divisions between the freezing and boiling point
of water at [A] Celsius scale [B] Fahrenheit scale [C] Kelvin scale [D] A and C

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__16. Absolute zero is a negative value on the [A] Celsius scale [B] Fahrenheit scale
[C] Kelvin scale [D] Both A and B but not C
__17. Four liquids have the following densities: A= 1.0 g/mL, B= 0.8 g/mL, C= 0.6
g/mL, D= 1.2 g/mL. In what order would the liquids form layers from top to
bottom if they were carefully placed in a container? [A] C,B,A,D [B] A,B,C,D
[C] D,C,B,A [D] D,A,B,C
__18. The difference between the measured value and the average reading represents
the [A] absolute error [B] absolute value [C] absolute deviation [D] none of these
__19. A student’s measurement resulted to 5% error, this means that [A] he is 95%
accurate in his measurement [B] he is 5% accurate in his measurement [C] he
is 95% precise in his measurement [D] he is 5% precise in his measurement
__20. The term that is used to indicate the degree of agreement of a measured value
with the true or known value is known as [A] quantitative [B] qualitative [C]
accuracy [D] precision

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Final Requirement

1. Submit the following at a specific time

 Learning Insight (Do It Yourself)
 Post Test, Exercise 4.0, Activity 1.0, Experiment 1.1 and Experiment 1.2
2. Take the quiz at allotted time

Suggested Readings, Video, and Websites:

Chapter 2: Measurements and Calculations

https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8
&ved=2ahUKEwiBpbCHoO3rAhXhDaYKHdNpC7kQFjAZegQIBxAB&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fsites.google.com%2Fa%2Fquaboagrsd.org%2Fchemistry-mr-
richards%2Fhome%2Fchapter-2-measurements-and-calculations-1&usg=AOvVaw3G-
sMCw6HfJdL797jNPw2I

Measurements and Calculations

https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8
&ved=2ahUKEwiq2ZrSoe3rAhVvwosBHcwYDqY4ChAWMAB6BAgGEAE&url=http%3A
%2F%2Fwww.fcusd.org%2Fcms%2Flib03%2FCA01001934%2FCentricity%2FDomain
%2F1269%2FNotes%2FCh5-

Accuracy /Resolution/Precision
https://www.googleadservices.com/pagead/aclk?sa=L&ai=DChcSEwj-
68KTou3rAhWRtpYKHWGHDA8YABAAGgJ0bA&ohost=www.google.com&cid=CAASE
uRornbCOS-jYzeLjhB5LC-ITg&sig=AOD64_1xkt54QFEVRZN6J6-
5T0FvAcg_zg&q&adurl&ved=2ahUKEwifgbuTou3rAhUJEqYKHcQeAPMQ0Qx6BAgRE
AE

Accuracy and Precision with Percent Error and Percent Deviation

https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=video&cd=&cad=rja&uact=
8&ved=2ahUKEwjd3LG9o-
3rAhWMvpQKHW28BwEQtwIwBXoECAAQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.youtube.co
m%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dloduc50moIQ&usg=AOvVaw3haigO01nJAtpBqDlQPtCt

Reading a Vernier Caliper and a Micrometer

https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=video&cd=&cad=rja&uact=
8&ved=2ahUKEwiP2K6mp-
3rAhUZIIgKHWomChcQtwIwAHoECAEQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.youtube.com
%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DXQT6RSNN9sA&usg=AOvVaw1UqAnZaiRtHwIvmAGXJu9g

How to Read a Metric Vernier Caliper

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vkPlzmalvN4
CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS MODULE 1 MEASUREMENT CALCULATIONS Page 34 of 38
 Bulacan State University
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City of Malolos, Bulacan
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CHEMTUTOR: UNITS, MEASURES, &DIMENSIONS

http://www.chemtutor.com/unit.htm

Mass, Weight, and, Density

http://www.physics.ucla.edu/k-6connection/Mass,w,d.htm

Math Skills Review – Significant Figures

(http://chem.tamu.edu/class/fyg/mathrev/mr-sigfig.html)

Glossary:

Absolute zero. The lowest possible temperature where the substance has absolutely
no energy to give up.
Amount of substance. A quantity defined by standards measures the size of a group
of individual elementary entities, such as atoms, molecules and electrons, and other
particles. It contains as many particles as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of C -12. The
number of atoms in exactly 12 g of C -12 is 6.022 x 1023.

Conversion factor. The factor by which a quantity expressed in one set of units must
be multiplied in order to express that quantity in different units.
Electric charge. The physical property of matter causes it to experience a force when
placed in an electromagnetic field and carried by subatomic particles.
Electric current. The rate of flow of negative charges (electrons) of the conductor in an
electric current.
Foot. Historically was used as a standard of length, which is equal to the length of the
king's foot.
Fundamental units. Are the units of the fundamental quantities that are not dependent
upon any other units, and all other units are derived from them.
Inch. The distance from the tip of the king's thumb to the thumb knuckle.
International System of Units (SI). Commonly known as the metric system is the
international standard for measurement that is made up of 7 basic units.
Luminous intensity. A measure of the wavelength-weighted power emitted by a light
source in a particular direction per unit solid angle.
Physical quantity. The material's property or system quantifiable by measurement is
expressed as a numerical value and a unit.

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Pressure. The force exerted by the substance per unit area on another substance.

Answer Keys:

Answers to Pretest

a. 1. 4V
a. h =
d2
RT1 T2 (ln k2 – ln k1)
b. Ea =
(T2 – T1)
Ea(T2 –
T1)
RT1 T2
k2 = k1 e
2. Volume, energy
3. Temperature-second
4. (a) mmHg (b) km (c) kg
5. 4.1 g has two significant figures, and the balance has a sensitivity of 0.1 g,
whereas 4.10 g has three significant figures with a sensitivity of 0.01 g. With
these numbers, the greater sensitivity the device has, the more precise it is.
6. Four (4) significant figures
7. (a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 3
8. (a) 0.0471 mi (b) 0.0200 L
9. Micrometer caliper
10. Micrometer caliper
11. Graduated cylinder
12. kg/m3
13. (b) 4.849 cc (c) 77.0o
14. 1.36x104 kg/m3
15. 0.7 g/mL

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References:

Appendix C of NIST handbook 44 General Tables of Units of Measurements

(http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/appxc/appxc.htm)

CHEMTUTOR: UNITS, MEASURES, &DIMENSIONS

http://www.chemtutor.com/unit.htm

Mass, Weight, and, Density

http://www.physics.ucla.edu/k-6connection/Mass,w,d.htm

Math Skills Review – Significant Figures

(http://chem.tamu.edu/class/fyg/mathrev/mr-sigfig.html)

Measurements
(http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/mod_tech/nod11.htlm)

Metric Density and Specific Gravity

(http://www.essex1.com/people/speer/density.htlm)

Metric Units and Measurements

(http://www.mathleaque.com/help/metric/metric.htm)
(http://www.athropolis.com/popup/c-metric.htm)

Precision and Accuracy

http://service.homeworkhelp.com/guests/samplelessons/science/chemistry/ch24/11/mai
n.htm

Review of Measurement
http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch1/unitframe.html

SI Units
(http://www.chemi.fu-berlin.de/chemistry/general/si_en.htlm)

Significant Figures
(http://www.towson.edu/ ladon/sigfigs.html)
(http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch1/sigfigs.htm)
(http://www.swt.edu/slac/meth/SigFigure.htlm)

Units and Measurements

(http://wwwphyschem.co.za/Basic%20Skills/Units.htm

Vernier Caliper
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fsg.misumi-
ec.com%2Fvona2%2Fdetail%2F223000304273%2F&psig=AOvVaw27_pR5zK-
CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS MODULE 1 MEASUREMENT CALCULATIONS Page 37 of 38
 Bulacan State University
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
City of Malolos, Bulacan
The journey to excellence starts here.

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ahcKEwj4vPfEotTrAhUAAAAAHQAAAAAQAw

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.toppr.com%2Fcontent%2
Fconcept%2Fmeasurement-by-vernier-caliper-and-understanding-zero-error-
208198%2F&psig=AOvVaw3kYzHeWf6NqD5lSdSiE3UF&ust=1599472971288000&sou
rce=images&cd=vfe&ved=2ahUKEwja58Kjo9TrAhVNXpQKHfIqB-UQr4kDegUIARCf
Micrometer Caliper
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fphysicsabout.com%2Fscrew-
gauge%2F&psig=AOvVaw1MvubrfQiI-
KRpsh0cn8n8&ust=1599473212553000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=2ahUKEwjEuMi
WpNTrAhXuw4sBHXLvCkYQr4kDegUIARCjAQ
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fphysicsnoteonline.blogspot.co
m%2Fp%2Fmicrometer-screw-gauge-micrometer-
screw.html&psig=AOvVaw3GIT7vbJOWD5ZvkPk4tX_a&ust=1599473304090000&sour
ce=images&cd=vfe&ved=2ahUKEwj7tpvCpNTrAhUGUpQKHe7CCi4Qr4kDegUIARDrA
Q

Accuracy and Precision

http://www.carlton.paschools.pa.sk.ca/chemical/copy%20of%20sigfigs/accuracy_and_pr
ecision.htm

SI Units/NIST
https://www.nist.gov/pml/weights-and-measures/metric-si/si-units

Fundamental Units-Wikiversity
https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Fundamental_units

Amount of substance
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amount_of_substance

Electric Charge
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge#:~:text=Electric%20charge%20is%20the%
20physical,placed%20in%20an%20electromagnetic%20field.&text=Electric%20charge
%20is%20carried%20by,in%20the%20nuclei%20of%20atoms.

Electric Current
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_current#:~:text=An%20electric%20current%20is%2
0the,electric%20charge%20through%20a%20region.&text=In%20electric%20circuits%2
0the%20charge,electrons%20moving%20through%20a%20wire.

CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS MODULE 1 MEASUREMENT CALCULATIONS Page 38 of 38