INSTITUTE OF SPACE TECHNOLOGY,

ISLAMABAD

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
SEMESTER PROJECT
FALL 2020

REVIEW REPORT

Submitted To: Dr. MARYAM SATTAR

SUBMITTED BY: GROUP # 01
Ali Hassan Roll # 190501072
Ahsan Ahmed Roll # 190501024
Inam Ul Hassen Roll # 190501001
Unnayar Waqar Roll # 190501029
Chaudhary Muhammad Ahmad Roll # 190501022
Bushra Atta Roll # 190501014
Mohsin Ali Roll # 190501067
Muhammad Waqas Roll # 190501031
Muhammad Awais Roll # 190501005
 1986
COMPOSITE SHAFTING FOR NAVAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS
The paper under study leads to the advancements in this field for the improved vessels by improving the
manufacturing procedures and the way of using new and more useful composite materials.
Advanced fiber composite materials are having a great potential for the improvement of naval propulsion shafts
for the reduction of corrosion and the galvanic effects, weight, life-cycle costs, bearing loads, magnetic
signature, alignment problems, and use of strategic materials; and by increasing allowable fatigue stress,
flexibility, and Vibration damping characteristics. The THERMOSETTING epoxy resin matrix made up of
continuous graphite and glass filaments are considered to be the best in the improvement of the naval
propulsion shafts. So this paper shows the 2-years study on the composite propulsion shafts in the naval
academy.
The technical approach for the Navy’s composite shafting program involves the development, laboratory
evaluation, and at-sea demonstration of both small- and large-diameter composite shaft sections, as well as ship
impact assessments regarding shafting size, weight, cost, vibration, noise, maintenance, availability, logistics,
etc. The problem is to develop an adequate technology base required to successfully design, specify,
manufacture, inspect, and install composite shafting in future ships, and to demonstrate the feasibility of this
technology.

SMALL-DIAMETER COMPOSITE SHAFT DEMONSTRATION:

Many analytical and investigative techniques were conducted upon the small diameter composite shaft
demonstration. All of them were done for the reason to find the effects upon torque, thrust, bending fatigue,
buckling, and impact conditions. This led to some of the very advanced petrol vessels like the composite
propeller shaft vessel in U.S. These kinds of vessels are used to counter the patrolling in a fast manner with 65.9
tons of weight having wood hulls. This vessel is having 330 hp and 900 rpm power. By this advancement this
vessel is supposed to complete 3000 engine hours in the life cycle.
All steady stresses are due to engine torque.
 All alternating stresses are due to the cantilevered weight of the rotating propeller.
 The fatigue limit for the composite material is assumed to be 60% of the yield point.
 The yield point for the composite material is equated to the stress at “first ply failure.”
 The factor of safety is fixed at 2.0 and based on Soderberg’s equation for both steel and composite
materials.
 Shaft rpm and propeller weight at particular horsepower ratings were related to actual design data for
the ship classes indicated.
Due to the widespread use of composite materials in the marine industry the diameter could easily be reduced to
a possible 10 percent less length. The 6,000 lb/in2 restriction of alternating bending stress in the steel shafting is
mainly responsible for this much diameter reduction.
(George F Wilhelmi)
 1998
LIGHT-WEIGHT ALUMINIUM FOAM STRUCTURES FOR SHIPS
It is now considered that metallic foams are a valuable and applicable material for industrial applications. The
method developed at the Fraunhofer-Institute for Applied Materials Research (IFAM) in Bremen is one of the
most promising among the different processes available for producing such foams. It has now become possible
to produce metallic foams in a fairly easy way from different metals and alloys. The application spectrum of
cellular materials is broadened by these foams because of their excellent mechanical, thermal, electrical and
other physical properties and because they are easier to recycle compared to Foams that are polymeric. By this
foaming technique, sections of an almost random shape can be produced. With several options concerning
material combinations and shapes, sandwich structures consisting of a porous metallic foam core and metallic
face sheets can also be made.
Up to now, only automotive and aerospace applications have been tested for the use of aluminium foams. In the
automotive industry for example, the use of large 3D-shaped sandwich panels is debated as a substitute for
traditional steel structures. In partnership with the German automaker Karmann, IFAM has produced a
sandwich, which serves as the read seat wall and is ten times stiffer at a slightly reduced weight than the
traditional portion. In order to minimize fuel consumption, the development was motivated by the need for
improved passenger protection and the need for weight reduction.
The need for new materials on ships is different. Light-weight construction is still an important issue, but
compared to the automotive industry, other aspects are important. More versatility in the processing of
materials, for example, is needed because ships are not constructed with highly structured components, but the
material is handled during construction. Corrosion behavior is important in both cars and ships, but there are
different factors. Lastly, the scale of the components Ships is also much bigger, so that a modern and more
effective manufacturing technology is a strong challenge.
A surface that is almost closed is shown by aluminium foams formed by the powder metallurgical path.
However certain minor perforations cannot be prevented due to the degasification process during foaming. It is
therefore very common that some of the sodium chloride solution will penetrate the uppermost pore layer and
ultimately the next deeper layers, provided there is a certain interconnection between the pores. The mechanical
characteristics of corroded foams of aluminium have not been tested yet. Furthermore, the foams tend to be very
unaffected by the corrosive medium at first appearance.
For their use in the construction of ships, aluminium foams are being evaluated. In the first step, the elements of
fastening were checked. The first finding was that aluminium foam/aluminium sandwiches that are bound by a
high-strength adhesive and using fastening elements entering the sandwich can be applied with the highest
forces. For the most part, fastening components that were merely added to the surface of aluminium foam
sandwiches or plain screws could only bear slightly lower loads. Such strengths are appropriate for many
applications, however, so that these types of fastening elements can also be used. There were some corrosion
studies conducted. The outcome was that if there were gaps or holes in the foam surface, several pores were
filled with the sodium chloride solution. There were no significant signs of corrosion found on the samples. (J.
&.-w. Banhart)
 2001
USE OF FIBRE COMPOSITES IN NAVAL SHIPS
This research paper which was published in 2001 comprises of a collaborative study on the composites being
used in the naval industry on the mass scale production by a European agency. The study of the materials of
which the composites are made in the context of their properties, their physical capabilities and the structural
compatibilities like the Static or the dynamic loadings, fatigue conditions, collapse resistance, resistance to fire,
Performance etc. Also, some methods are discussed and summed here for the compatibility testing.
The internal connections and the fire blast features are also included here. Ems (the electro-magnetic techniques
are also described here). Here an important topic about the repair of the composites is also discussed. Paper has
results from some other projects also.

Introduction:
Since 1960s there is an increase in the use of the fiber composite materials. The RINA conference comprises of
many papers that bear witness to this development from the early beginning to till date. Smith [4] has given a
brief and review on this development
[ CITATION roy \l 1033 ].

The biggest importance and use of the use of fiber composites in the naval industry is the reduction of weight.
Obviously, the reduction of weight results to the increase in the speed as it will have less inertia and would be
easy to move over long distances. This weight reduction is referred mainly to the war ships containing the war
heads as the time plays a key role in the course of wars and same is the situation for the petrol carrying vessels.
The weight reduction is also important and essential when the vessel is carrying war head because these type of
war heads are also having larger weights. Now theses composites are also being used in the sensors and other
equipment due to having better quality and durability then the typically used material. Although this use is
having many advantages but there are also some dis advantages like the cost of the production at the mass level
is not that much easy but is of a lot of worth where-as underwater shock and impact loads, fire performance,
and the provision of effective electro-magnetic shielding these factors also play role as disadvantages of the
composites. Quality assurance is always a matter of importance showing whether the production is in favor to
cater, these kinds of problems or not.

The inspection of some layouts is also very difficult so for the sake of a widespread use of composites in the
naval structures this must be done in order to cover all the loopholes. This research paper includes the study
upon these topics:
material performance and characterisation,
• structural performance under both static and extreme dynamic loads (shock, blast and
• non-destructive inspection and evaluation,
• damage repair

• material performance and characterisation,

• structural performance under both static and extreme dynamic loads (shock, blast and
 Features and the performance of the materials
 Anti-damage systems and the repairment
 Structural analysis under static or dynamic loadings
 Effectiveness upon different magnetic techniques
 The performance of fire at the target in motion or at rest relatively.
The new rules cover the study of the high-performance applications, such as uni-axial and multi-axial non-
woven fabrics, carbon fiber reinforcements, optimised anisotropic lay-ups and laminates made by vacuum-
assisted infusion techniques. It is expected that the use of these rules and applications the future vessels will be
having more compatibility

INDENTATION FAILURE BEHAVIOR OF HONEYCOMB SANDWICH

PANELS
The failure behavior of simply supported honeycomb sandwich panels subjected to indentation loading on the
top skin has been studied. A plate-on-elastic-foundation approach based on distributed load and panel-specific
considerations (finite thickness and transverse shear) is developed to analyze the panel stress distribution.
Panels with various glass-fiber/epoxy skins and aramid cores are analyzed by using this approach together with
the finite-element analysis. Surprisingly, good agreement is found between the theoretical and FEA solutions,
suggesting that the model satisfactorily describes the panel indentation behavior. Indentation induced stresses in
the core relevant to the onset of indentation failure are found to depend on skin bending stiffness, core stiffness
and indenter size. The calculated maximum shear and normal stress values are compared with the experimental
data to assess the core failure mechanisms involved. The comparisons clearly show that core shear failure
dominates the onset of indentation failure. [CITATION Sha99 \l 1033 ]
The indentation failure behavior of honeycomb core sandwich panels is studied by examining the effects of
skin, core, and indenter size on load transfer from the top skin to the core. An analytical approach based on
distributed-load on a plate with an elastic foundation is developed to analyze the simply supported panel loaded
by a ¯at-bottom circular indenter. Physical details specific to sandwich panels (finite thickness and the nature of
transverse shear stress) are considered in the model to allow the stress distribution meaningfully determined.
Panels with different glass-fiber/epoxy skin and aramid core constructions and two indenter sizes are studied
using this model and the finite element analysis. Surprisingly, good agreement is found between the analytical
and FEA solutions, suggesting the distributed-load model to be effective for analyzing sandwich panel
indentation. Normal stress, τz, transferred to the top core surface is shown to be skin, core and indenter-size
dependent. The orders of maximum τz per unit applied pressure for different skins or cores are found to be
indenter diameter dependent, reflecting the indenter edge effect. Maximum core transverse shear stress, τxz, per
unit applied pressure is found to generally increase with decreasing skin thickness or increasing core density.
Based on core shear and compression failure considerations, the maximum τxz or τz values obtained from the
model and FEA are compared with the experimental data to assess the core failure mechanisms involved. The
comparisons clearly show that core shear failure dominates the onset indentation failure studied.
Sandwich panels typically comprise a relatively soft core sandwiched between two stiff outer face sheets.
The addition of a core increases the bending stiffness by increasing the second moment of area of the structure
without significant weight penalty. Sandwich panels present a unique fire safety design challenge, due to
flammable materials such as polyurethane and polystyrene foams encased within metallic sheets.
Sandwich panels have become more and more common in different engineering structures, including aircraft.
[ CITATION Meo \l 1033 ] Compared to metal plates or composite laminates, the sandwich structures have
interesting characteristics such as

 A high-energy absorption capacity.

 high flexural stiffness and strength,
 Improved stability.

A sandwich panel consists of a porous low-density core, e.g. honeycomb or foam, and two stiff metal or
composite faces. The sandwich panels usually absorb impact energy using two different mechanisms, namely,
local crushing and global bending. In local crushing mode, the low-density core under the point of impact is
crushed to a great extent and absorbs significant amounts of energy by plasticity of the cell walls. In a global
bending mode, the whole structure bends and absorbs energy by elastic (or elastic/plastic in severe impacts)
deformation of the structure. Due to the relatively large distances of the faces, the moment of inertia of the
sandwich panel is relatively high, which increases the flexural stiffness of the sandwich panel as well. High
flexural stiffness of the whole sandwich panel and a high flexibility of its core material yield a high-energy
absorption capacity of the sandwich structure which is very suitable for high-energy impacts, such as bird strike.
The core material must have increased shear strength to prevent relative sliding of the sandwich faces in a
bending deformation. In addition, the core material must have some degrees of stiffness to ensure its flatness at
its interfaces with the skins and to avoid wrinkling of the intact regions of the skins during an impact process.

2002
ENERGY ABSORPTION BY THE STEEL STRUCTURE OF SHIPS IN THE
EVENT OF COLLISIONS
Even though in recent year safety has been increased as a result of technical, administrative and nautical
measures taken, collisions and groundings impact constitute maritime accidents which still occur relatively
frequently.
The damages resulting from accidents could also be drastically reduced by an appropriate hull structure. The
results of large–scale collision experiment were wont to validate numerical calculations of the collision process.
By means of the results obtained in respect of the breaking strains to be utilized in the calculations and other
parameters numerical calculations were performed of a double–skin structure with austenitic inside wall and/or
austenitic shell and inside wall. It was shown that, the use of austenitic steel offers considerably greater
resistance to collisions.
One possibility of increasing the safety against collisions is the use of steels with very high breaking strains. In
shipbuilding, the likelihood of using austenitic steels presents itself.
The use of austenitic steels for the construction of the side structure increases the collision safety to a
considerable degree. An austenitic outer shell is able to reduce the penetration depth of the collision participant
greatly, since large amounts of energy can already be absorbed for penetration depths that are less than the
double hull width.
With this paper, it is shown that the structural behavior of the side structures and influence of a collision can be
calculated as early as the design phase, and taken into account appropriately. The use of austenitic steels
presents a viable method of enhancing the collision safety of ships whilst using the same fabrication technology
and the same structural mass before. Considering the higher speeds of these ships, investigations of the
structural behavior during the collisions of structures made of these materials would be necessary. Also, the
material costs only make up a comparatively minor portion of the overall costs for the construction of a modern
ship. Through the targeted application of this material in areas of the hull structure that are particularly at risk
during collisions, this cost disadvantage can be reduced. (Eike LehmannJoerg)

2004
ENERGY ABSORBING SANDWICH STRUCTURES UNDER BLAST
LOADING
Experimental study at the Army Research Laboratories shows the flat panels with different faceplates of foam
or honeycomb have transmitted more energy into a structure with an energy absorption faceplate under the
burden compared to a structure. The article informs us that the material from foam or honeycomb should ideally
transfer less energy to the structure, as it absorbs energy while plastically are deformed. Non-Uniform
deformation of the energy-absorbing material can result in increased pressure on the panel resulting in the
transfer of kinetic energy to the plates. Honeycomb sandwich structures with crushing cores are
comprehensively utilized as the fundamental load bearing members of structures since they have a high-
strength-to-weight-ratio and incredible energy absorption capabilities under dynamic loading conditions. large
deformations (strains) under a constant load are sustained by core of the sandwich structure enabling it to
absorb energy.
The flat square panel is subject to an explosive blast that is located a fixed standoff distance from the center of
the panel. The panel floats freely in space and is symmetric about its’ center. by determining its steady state
velocity or kinetic energy we ultimately get energy transmitted to the panel.
The total mass of the structure is constrained at 4000-g so that all panels have the same mass. An equation is
generated that relates the thickness of the back face.
The thickness variable, t2, is always a half of t1 because of the symmetry conditions applied to the panel.
A Design of Experiment study is performed using Altair Hyper Study to evaluate the factors that significantly
contribute to the response values. The research responses include kinetic (KE), inner (IE), total energy (TE) and
rigid body speed (velocity). The experiment design factorial fraction and controlled design variables are used to
determine the contributing factors to the response.
A typical series of deformation for a honeycomb sandwich structure is shown in the figure below.

The Design of Experiment study experienced nine-cycles of differing the two thickness values and measuring
changes in the internal energy. As responses of interest that were used for the DOE study were internal energy
and rigid body velocity. we expected to see a corresponding decline in the kinetic energy and final rigid body
velocity.
The observed results were that the total energy varies considerably during all the iterations despite the fact that
all the iterations have the blast load applied to the structure. The deformation pattern of the face of the blast can
be interpreted as a possible explanation for rise in the total energy of iteration 1 to 9. The middle of the panel
crashes more in the middle rather than on the edges forming a bowl or dish shape because the blast pressure is
higher in the center. As the elements become more perpendicular to the radically expanding blast wave, the
blast pressure on each element increases. The higher pressures on the blast face accounts for the increase in total
energy to the panel. The above findings suggest that a honeycomb system used to combine explosives may be
modified to improve energy absorption, although this can also lead to an increase in kinetic energy (or final
velocity) applied to the structure in back of the panel
Honeycomb sandwich structures can be utilized for energy absorption of blast loads for structural applications.

With increased internal energy due to more structure / material deformation, we expected to see a corresponding
decrease in the kinetic energy and final rigid body velocity.
The non-uniform deformation pattern (dishing) will tend to increase the total energy applied to the structure,
which increases its final velocity. Also It was found that varying inner-core thickness influences about 7% of
internal energy absorption to the structure and varying front face thickness influences about 93%.
(O'Toole)

LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF SANDWICH

PANELS TO BLAST LOADING
This problem is solved by the complex reaction of flat sandwich panels subjected to explosive loads. The
sandwich model contains a variety of non-classical effects, including anisotropy, heterogeneity of face sheets,
cross orthotropy of the core layer, geometric non-linearities considered in the von Ka'rma, and geometric
imperfections at the beginning. As concerns the impact beats considered in this examination, these are expected
to either a submerged/in-air blast or are because of a pressure wave traveling across the panel span. Explosive
load, stand-off, face material directionality, damping ratio, geometric nonlinearity, geometrically imperfect
initial and explosions' characteristics, dynamic response characteristics and dynamic factor magnification are
demonstrated through a parametric study and relevant conclusions are outlined.
A developing interest for a broad mix of sandwich composites in the development of maritime ships and
submarines has been showed in the most recent decade. A portion of the hidden reasons and inspiration for this
premium arise, among others, from the way that, contrasted with metallic bodies, the sandwich one’s experience
lower primary weight, expanded operational life, lower upkeep cost, just as a scope of incorporated capacities,
for example, warm and sound protection, superb mark properties, fire wellbeing, great energy ingestion,
directional properties of the face sheets empowering one a streamlined plan, and a smooth hydrodynamic
surface. A matter of their dynamic response to time-dependent external loading of the blast type is a matter
which should be addressed when dealing with sandwich composite design structures.
The results show that the effects of non-linearities are important for the thinner panel, which tend to decrease
the amplitude of the vibration. However, its influence becomes very immaterial when the panel is moderately
dense. Comparisons of the DMF variance for linear and non-linear structural models and for the damped and
un-damped structure are given here. In this figure. The geometric non-linearities play still a significant
advantageous role in the decay of the DMF for this moderately large sandwich panel. The structural damping
plays the same beneficial role in terms of the decrease in the DMF. A slight additional damping, however,
causes the DMF to drop significantly. The positive effects of geometric nonlinearities decrease considerably in
this latter case, at the same time.

(LiviuLibrescu)

2005
METAL FOAMS FROM FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH TO
APPLICATIONS
Aluminum foam is possible using a range of techniques including direct foaming and advanced metal powder
processing of aluminium alloy melts. Complex foam-shaped components and 3D sandwich panels made up of
foam cores and aluminium sheets may be available.
Strong metallic foams, especially light metal foams, are known to have many fascinating combinations of
different characteristics, such as high joint rigidity with very low specific weight or high strengths of
compression combined with strong energy absorption properties. This is why there is still a growing interest in
these materials.
Manufacturing Methods:
Two key aluminium foam manufacturing techniques. Direct foaming methods start with a molten metal which
contains non-metallic particles which are uniformly distributed What gas is being pumped into a foam.
Titanium hydride can also be replaced by Melts that leads to the same effect after decomposition.
Indirect foaming methods are based on solid precursors consisting of an aluminium matrix consisting mainly of
titanium and zirconium hydride, containing evenly distributed blowing agents. This precursor spreads and
produces a foam when it is melted.
Gas injections already occur in industrial exploitation of aluminium or aluminium alloys that are fumigated.
Silicon carbide, aluminium or any other particulate matter must be present. Mixed for the foaming alloy. The
reinforcing particle volume range usually between 10 and 20 percent and the average size of particles between 5
and 20 μm. Injection of gas (typically, air) is done by injectors, some of which are defined explicitly designed
Rotating or vibrating. The resulting moisture builds on the fluid from which it is possible. The conveyor belts
have been pulled down, for example, and then cooled and solidified.
Different manner of processing of sprouting precursor materials:
• mixing and compacting this mixture with aluminium powder and titanium hydride, e.g., the thick precursor is
rolling by hot press, extrusion or powder. If there are alloy spumes the required addition of powdered metals
('Foam-in-Al' or 'Alulight' process) is required in a mix accordingly).
• pre-compacting mixtures of powder to billets to heat semi-solid state of these billets the precursor forming and
thixocasting
• by applying blowing agent to a molten aluminium alloy that solidifies the melt. In a die-casting machine or an
ordinary pipe, this can be achieved. The blowing agent powder should, however, be pre-treated in order to avoid
premature decay ('Formgrip').
• through the creation and deposition of fluid sprays in the presence of an aluminium blowing agent .
Applications:
Metal foams have characteristics that make them ideal for the car industry. When they were first created, they
were extremely interested in them. Possible software as well Shipbuilding, aerospace and civil engineering are
available. The key features can be described as follows:
Light weight building: Aluminium foams can be used to maximize the particular weight Tech materials
bending rigidity. The rigidity of bending in flat foam panels is related to the density of foam approximately
inversely. Lightweight building takes advantage of the load-deformation curve is quasi-elastic and reversible.
Energy uptake: Aluminium foams can absorb large amounts thanks to their high porosity. As they deform, the
sum of mechanical energy is limited to the frequency of the material compression. Therefore, foams can serve
as energy absorbers of impact limiting acceleration in collisions. The horizontal system is used in this mode of
the load deformation diagram's irreversible deformation. Like metal foams. They will find much more strong
collapse than polymer-based foams — up to 20 MPa — In environments that are not up to date foam usable
applications.
Acoustic and thermal control: Aluminium foams can absorb sound and damp vibrations. In certain cases. In
addition, their thermal conductivity is low although high temperatures are able to withstand. There are not
excellent properties — polymer foams. Example, sound absorbers could be much better, but in combination
they could be useful. With other foam characteristics.
Aluminium foams as cores for castings: Yet another application makes use of the beneficial properties of Al
foam within a dense aluminium shell both during manufacture and in use after. One begins with a developed
part of Aluminum foam (indirect or overt foaming) or Aluminum metcomb. The pieces are externally dense the
composites of a cast-out surface and a slight-weight inner core are then produced during the lower pressure die-
casting of skins and can therefore be used as cores These composites have advantages including higher rigidity
and enhanced operation. The damping is just significantly higher in contrast with the empty hollow
components. (J. Banhart)

2006
BLAST RESISTANT CAPABILITIES OF SANDWICH PANELS
Sandwich structures are usually composed of two stiffer face sheets and one softer core. As one important part
of sandwich, core often adopts lightweight energy-absorbing materials, such as foams, honeycombs and lattices,
etc. Due to the high specific strength, great energy absorption capacity and other superior mechanical
properties, sandwich structures have been extensively used in various engineering fields including aerospace,
automobile and protective applications. Dynamic responses of sandwich panels with various face sheet
materials and closed-cell foam core were investigated for different blast impulses experimentally in this study.
The deformation/failure modes of the whole sandwich structure, front face sheet, foam core and back face sheet
were explored systematically. The effects of face sheet materials face sheet configurations, and core density
gradients on the blast resistance of sandwich structure were quantified as per deformation/ failure modes and
permanent deflection.

The potential
applications
of foam core
sandwich
structures to
improve
Recently, sandwich structures have been applied to bear blast and impact
loading. Under blast loading, the deformation/failure modes of sandwich structures possess considerable effect
on the energy absorption and structural integrity, thus directly determining the structural capacity of blast
resistance. Of some key parameters, such as loading conditions, face sheet thickness, and core density, on the
blast resistance of uniform core sandwich panels were extensively investigated through experimental and
numerical approach. This study aimed to investigate the joint effects of different face sheet materials and core
gradients on the deformation modes and dynamic responses of sandwich panels under blast loading. The in-
house blast tests were carried out by using a four-cable ballistic pendulum system. The blast tests were
conducted on the sandwich specimens using a four-cable ballistic pendulum system. The blast testing device
included an impact pendulum, a detonating device and a testing measurement system. It has been known that a
composite structure with good blast resistance should usually absorb more energy prior to catastrophic
destruction, while the deformation modes of sandwich panels are closely related to the energy absorption
capacity. Therefore, evaluation of the deformation/failure modes of sandwich panels enables us to better
quantify the blast resistance of composite structure. Since the foam core is one of the key lightweight energy-
absorbing components for sandwich panel, the deformation modes of cores need to be particularly analyzed so
as to further assess the structural blast resistance. Based upon visual inspection on the cores, it was found that
the deformation/failure modes of graded cores differ from those of uniform cores. Three different back face
sheet materials (aluminum, steel and CFRP) were compared to investigate their effects on the blast protection
offered by the sandwich panels with the same front face sheet material. Therefore, the back-face sheet of
specimen Al-UD45-ST absorbed less blast energy. As a result, the sandwich panels with the Al front face sheet
and steel back face sheet could achieve a better blast resistance performance. For the sandwich panel with
different core gradients, the blast resistance can be enhanced with increase in the core gradients for a given
range of blast impulse. Specifically, a larger core gradient could outperform the uniform core, while a smaller
core gradient could worsen the performance.

Experimental
investigations have been carried out to study the resistant behavior and energy absorbing performance of square
sandwich panels under blast loading. Based on the experiments, a corresponding numerical simulation study has
been conducted using LS-DYNA software. Sandwich panels with a cellular core such as metal foams
(frequently aluminium foams) have the capability of dissipating considerable energy by large plastic
deformation under static or dynamic loading. The structural response of sandwich panels is investigated in
terms of both the deformation/failure patterns of specimens as observed in the tests; and quantitative
assessment, which is related to the permanent central point deflection of back face. The mechanism of
deformation/failure is considered as the most important characteristic of structural response as all the other
parameters (e.g. impulse transfer and energy absorption in plastic deformation) depend on it. Since people or
objects shielded from blast attacks are usually behind sandwich panels, the back-face deformation/failure of
specimen is here in considered as the main structural response. A parametric study has been conducted to
investigate the energy absorbing behavior of the blast loaded square sandwich panels, which include the time
history of plastic dissipation in the face-sheets and core, as well as partition of the plastic energy absorbed by
the different component parts of the panels; effect of panel configurations is also analyzed. During the
interaction between the explosion product and structure, th explosion energy is transferred to the sandwich
panel, and then dissipated by the panel as it deforms. The initial energy transferred to the structure. (E T) is
essentially the sum of kinetic (EK) and internal energy (EI), also known as deformation energy (ED). The kinetic
energy would reduce with time, while the internal energy of the system would increase. It is concluded
that the foam core constitutes a major contribution to energy dissipation; thinner face-sheets can raise the total
internal energy; while denser and thicker core can increase its portion of energy dissipation. .

2007
THE RESPONSE OF METALLIC SANDWICH PANELS TO WATER
BLAST
In a manner based on the relative time scales for core crushing and water cavitation, metallic sandwich panels
subject to underwater blast react. Based on a three-stage answer model, the findings are interpreted by
contrasting them with analytical solutions. In stage I, with some water attached, the wet face acquires its full
velocity. The core crushes and all the components (wet and dry face and core) merge into a common velocity in
stage II. In stage III, the panel deflects and deforms by plastic bending, stretching, shearing, and indentation,
dissipating its kinetic energy. The findings provide insight into three dimensions of the response. I Two
fundamentally distinct regimes, called strong (STC) and soft (SOC), separated by a time scale parameter of
stage II/III, have been elucidated. For soft-core designs, the finest overall performance has been identified. (ii)
The above theoretical models are found to underestimate kinetic energy and as a result, to exaggerate
performance benefits. The difference was overcome by a fuller fluid/structure interaction model. (iii) The
kinetic energy gained at the end of the second stage completely accounts for the plastic dissipation occurring in
the third stage, suggesting that the additional momentum acquired after the end of the second stage does not
affect the output of the column.

There is more ambiguity in the pressure bursts triggered by

underwater explosions. The bubble growth and collapse caused by the expansion and compression of the
explosion gases, as well as the interaction of the buoyant bubble with the sea floor, the surface of the water, and
the structure of the bubble and its acoustic signals. The implication is that pressure waves have complex shapes.
Nevertheless, the initial increase in pressure and its degradation are well defined by the preceding forms at
locations below the surface. After the initial pressure increase has decayed to moderate levels, most of the
variations between the present model and the truth of an underwater explosion occur. As mentioned later, the
secondary pressure spikes that arrive later do not cause serious damage to a well-designed structure that has
survived the original impulse. So we concentrate on the initial pressure wave and its effect on the interest
structures. It is also true that after the sharp spike of pressure, the simple exponential decay is an idealisation,
with some pressure oscillation occurring superimposed on the exponential form. These pressure oscillations,
however are small and do not alter the impact of the impulse on the deforming structure significantly.
The current findings predict that I- and corrugated cores with low relative density are favoured, integrating back
faces much thicker than the front. STC design behaviour has been compared to the predictions of a three-stage
analytical model 5, which defines the participating events correctly, but has deficiencies. An underestimation of
the momentum imparted to the system by the end of the second level, attributed to the previously ignored
characteristics of the cavitated water generated by the reflected pressure wave, is the most important of these.
(Robert M. McMeeking)
 2008
ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE OF SANDWICH PLATES
WITH FOAM-FILLED ALUMINUM HEXAGONAL HONEYCOMB CORE.
Filling honeycomb-type core with foam will increase the resistance against de-bonding propagation but changes
the sandwich structure's structural responses. The paper aims at estimating the polymeric foam effect of
sandwich plates with hexagonal honeycomb core on their vibration free and buckling characteristics. The
analyses of sandwich plates with hollow and foam-filled honeycomb cores are carried out using the
commercially available finite element code ABAQUS. The sandwich plates were modelled on the basis of
simplified three-layered continuum models. The displacement-based homogeneous technique using finite
element method (FEM) is applied to evaluate the effective elastic properties of core for both hollow and filled
with foam honeycomb cores. The comparative results of load carrying capacities and magnitudes of natural
frequencies of the sandwich plates are presented. The structural benefits of foam-filled sandwich plates are
briefly discussed.
High stiffness and strength at the given minimum weight make sandwich panels attractive for using as
components of modern aircrafts, aerospace vehicles, boats, building constructions and other applications where
weight saving is critical. This structural advantage of the frameworks is due to the fact that a small, thin, stiff
and strong facing sheets are divided by one lightweight core. This separation increases the stretching and
bending resistance of structure. The core must therefore provide the structure with rigidity in the transverse
direction to avoid the slipping of facial sheets.
The foam cores are preferably used when the waterproof, sound and heat insulation qualities of cores are
required. The honeycomb cores possess a higher stiffness to-weight ratio compared to foam core materials.
However, a small adhesive area of the honeycomb cells with facial sheeting is the weakest point of such core
which can cause de-bonding between the two due to production defects or in-service conditions and mechanical
loading. The filling of honeycomb cells with foam can be considered as the improvement of de-bonding
obstruction and capacity to create new kinds of sandwich cores. This idea consolidates the advantages of
honeycomb and foam cores. The increased adhesive area of foam-filled honeycomb cells is only one of them.
On the other hand, the filling leads to changes of the dynamic properties of the honeycomb sandwiches. The
filling, on the other hand, shifts the dynamic characteristics of the sandwiches.
The effective elastic properties of the hexagonal honeycomb core for both hollow and filled with foam cases
can be evaluated on the basis of a homogenization concept for periodic structures. Within this technique, the
smallest representative part of the periodic structure, referred to as a unit cell, is introduced. It is assumed that
the whole structure can be reproduced from the unit cell by means of appropriate mirror images and periodic
repetition. Then, the homogenization of the cellular microstructure can be performed. The unit cell should be
analyzed under influence of selected load cases, and the properties of the associated quasi-homogeneous
‘‘effective” continuum are determined in such a way that the stress–strain responses between the initial cellular
and homogenized ‘‘effective” structures are equivalent at the macroscopic level. Finally, according to
homogeneity assumption, periodic elastic moduli of the studied periodic structure are replaced by effective
constant elastic moduli.
The methods indicated show the same findings. It ought to be noticed, that foam filling increments transverse
properties of the honeycomb core and their magnitudes are greater when the foam density increases.
Two different problems are considered in the light of the effects on the static and dynamic response to
honeycomb sandwich plates of varying honeycomb material characteristics due to the presence of foam filler.
The first problem is a free vibration analysis of the sandwich plates and the second one is a buckling analysis
The numerical investigations presented in the paper lead to the following conclusions:
1. Global responses, such as mode shapes corresponding to free vibration and linear buckling and the view
on load-displacement curve, are qualitatively like hollow one under a non-linear buckling of sandwich
panels with aluminum hexagonal honeycomb cores.
2. The introduction of the foam into the core of the honeycomb causes the natural frequencies to decrease
moderately. The density of the foam fillers, which also increases the firmness and mass of the sandwich
plates insignificantly, increases this effect.
3. Filling of the honeycomb with the foam advances the slight increments of buckling loads and the
insignificant reductions of imperfection sensitivity of foam-filled sandwich plates
(Vyacheslav N. Burlayenkoab)

BLAST PERFORMANCE OF SANDWICH COMPOSITE MATERIALS:

BLAST-INDUCED DEFORMATION OF SANDWICH COMPOSITE
MATERIALS:
In this research, the properties of the sandwich panels are discussed when those panels face the damages or the
blasts. The dynamic deformation response of the sandwich panels when impulsively loaded by the detonation,
use to measure by using the high-speed DIC technique. This research is about the deformation induct in the
sandwich panels towards the maximum loadings and blasts and its measurements.
Theory:
The dynamic deformation response of the sandwich composites when impulsively loaded by the shock wave
and detonation products (in the case of near-field blast tests) was measured using the high-speed DIC technique.
Typical DIC generated images showing the displacement and surface strain maps of the back surface of a target
panel are shown in Fig:

(DIC generated images for the carbon-balsa sandwich composite tested at a 353 Pa.s blast impulse. The times
following detonation are given. The upper and lower images show the out-ofplane displacement and strain,
respectively)
In this case, the panel tested by using a 100 g PE4 explosive charge at 0.4 m stand-off distance, which generates
a blast impulse of ~350 Pa.s. The images are shown directly after the explosive, detonates (0.1 ms), and at the
point of maximum center-point deflection (2.1 ms). The impulse from the explosive detonation causes the panel
to deform in the direction of the shock wave. As expected, the point of maximum deflection is in the center of
the plate.
The center-point deflection versus time curves measured for the glass fiber- and carbon fiber-balsa sandwich
composites are compared in Fig.
(Comparison of the center-point deflection versus time histories for the glass fiber- and carbon fiber balsa
sandwich composites subjected to (a) 348 Pa.s and (b) 472 Pa.s blast impulse).When subjected to a ~350 Pa.s
impulse, the sandwich composites rapidly deformed to reach the maximum center-point deflection. The
maximum positive displacements were similar for both materials, however the glass fiber composite deformed
~10% less than the carbon. Also, the maximum negative deformation was also less for the glass fiber
composite. This was due to the development of front face sheet damage in the carbon panel, whereas no face
sheet damage occurred in the glass panel. At a higher blast impulse (~470 Pa.s), the maximum center-point
deflection of the carbon fiber-balsa sandwich composite was much higher (~50%) than the glass fiber-balsa
composite. Also, the residual deformation of the carbon fiber-balsa sandwich composite was higher, which was
due to the more severe damage experienced under blast loading (as described later). The same result was found
for the glass fiber- and carbon fiber PVC sandwich composites subjected to ~470 Pa.s shock wave impulse, as
shown in Fig:
(Comparison of the center-point deflection versus time histories for the glass fiber- and carbon fiber PVC
composites subjected to 472 Pa.s blast impulse)

When subjected to a ~350 Pa.s blast impulse, both carbon sandwich panels reached maximum out-of-plane
displacement at approximately the same time (~1 ms post detonation). However, the maximum center-point
displacement of the carbon fiber-balsa composite was lower than the carbon fiber-PVC composite. This is
expected given the higher stiffness of the balsa core composite. Both panels suffered from front facesheet
tearing at the edges, however this damage was more extensive in the PVC core composite. The PVC foam
compressed under the force exerted by the shock wave, which limited the load transferred to the back facesheet.
Similar behavour was observed in the PVC foam composite under three-point bend loading (substantial core
compression resulting in failure of the top facesheet). At a higher blast impulse (~470 Pa.s), the deflection
response and maximum center-point displacement of the carbon balsa and PVC sandwich composites were
similar. Despite the higher flexural stiffness of the balsa core panel, the amount of damage sustained by the core
reduced the panels rigidity during deformation. When subjected to a 472 Pa.s blast impulse, both sandwich
composites reached their maximum out-of-plane deflection at approximately the same time (~0.7 ms post
detonation). However, similar to that found for the carbon composites, the balsa-core sandwich composite had a
lower maximum displacement than the PVC-core composite owing to its higher bending stiffness.
Comparatively, at the highest shock wave impulse (500 Pa.s), both sandwich materials reached similar
maximum out-of-plane deflections (~40 mm). The glass-balsa composite reached maximum out-of-plane
deflection 1.7 ms post detonation, which was later than the glass-PVC composite (~0.86 ms). Also, the glass-
balsa composite failed to return to its initial starting position, both of which were representative of extensive
damage and permanent deformation. The effect of increasing blast impulse loading on the maximum center-
point displacements for the different sandwich panels is shown in Fig.

The maximum center point deflection of the carbon fiber sandwich composites was greater than the glass fiber
composites. Also, up to the blast impulses of 353 Pa.s and 472 Pa.s for the carbon and glass, respectively, the
maximum out-of-plane displacement of the PVC core composites was higher than the balsa core composites.
When subjected to greater respective blast impulses, the maximum displacements of the balsa and PVC core
composites were similar due to the extensive damage to the balsa core.[ CITATION Lee20 \l 1033 ]
[ CITATION Fen08 \l 1033 ]
 2009
BEHAVIOR OF SANDWICH PANELS SUBJECTED TO INTENSE AIR
BLAST – PART 1: EXPERIMENTS
Tests that investigate the inelastic response of blast-loaded sandwich structures, comprising mild steel plates
and aluminium alloy honeycomb cores, are reported. The ‘‘uniform” loading was generated by detonating a disc
of explosive and directing the blast through a tube towards the target. Localised blast loading was generated by
detonating discs of explosive in very close proximity to the test structure. The sandwich panels responded in a
more efficient manner to the uniformly distributed loading. The honeycomb sandwich results are compared to
test results on structures with air as the core. The compromise between load transfer through the core and
improved energy absorption is discussed.
Sandwich structures were suggested as energy-efficient structures (in terms of weight) absorption systems, with
the core bearing the shear and skins bear the bending. Honeycombs have been used quasi-statically and as cores
of sandwich panels with great results.
Under-expanded honeycombs of hexagonal configuration, made from 5052 aluminium alloy, were used with a
branch angle of about 80o. Thin aluminium skins adhesively bonded to the honeycomb were supplied with the
material. From the honeycomb, the skins were carefully peeled. It was found from the honeycombs that in the
honeycomb centre there was some difference in cell size and branch angle. It was believed that the global effect
of this variation was negligible, although it was recognised that this could have a slight impact on the peak load.
In order to characterise the core content, quasi-static compression tests were carried out. For the purposes of this
work , it is important to remember that, regardless of whether the honeycomb had skins or not, the findings are
within standard experimental variation.
On sandwiches with air and honeycomb cores clamped in a circular frame, experiments were conducted using
steel plates. A circular exposed area of a certain diameter was present in all specimens. Within the research rig,
the test specimens were clamped and balanced on a pendulum.
On the sandwich panel, a standardised distributed loading was created. There were a limited number of
localised blast experiments conducted. Using plastic explosives, small explosions were made. There are several
possible parameters for evaluating a blast resisting structure 's efficiency. One of the easiest ones is that on the
other side of the blast, the framework must shield individuals. For example , people outside the container / bin
must be shielded from projectiles (tearing of the back plate) in the case of a protective luggage container or
litter bin that can potentially cause more harm than the blast itself. Tearing happens when broad mid-point
displacements are the material at the boundary strains beyond its tensile failure pressure, so one way to measure
blast resistance is to compare the air-core sandwiches and the honeycomb sandwiches' back plate
displacements.

There have been mentions of the findings of a preliminary investigation into the reaction of sandwich structures
to blast loading. The honeycomb sandwich structures exhibit lower back plate displacements for a given
impulse for a uniform loading state, at impulses above 20 Ns, than the plates with a 13 mm air core, as the
honeycomb sandwiches are heavier and have a core to absorb some of the energy by crushing and bending.
Below 20 Ns, due to load transfer through the honeycomb, the back plate of the honeycomb sandwich structure
deforms more for a given pulse than the air-core sandwich back plate. Under uniformly distributed loading, the
panels work better than under localised loading. A framework for further testing and numerical modelling is
provided by this preliminary analysis. Issues to be discussed include the effect of the core properties of the
overall behaviour of the sandwich, energy absorption division and the direction of load transfer through the
sandwiches.
It may undergo various types of failure, such as micro-buckling and crushing of the honeycomb cells or the core
's global bending, depending on the microstructure of the honeycomb panel. (Hajizadeh)
THE BLAST RESISTANCE OF SANDWICH COMPOSITES WITH
STEPWISE GRADED CORES
To research the dynamic reaction of sandwich panels with E-Glass Vinyl Ester (EVE) composite face sheets
and stepwise graded styrene foam cores, shock tube experiments were conducted. The shock wave loading was
exposed to two types of core configurations, with equal areal density. The core layers were arranged according
to the respective foam density; configuration 1 consisted of foams of low / middle / high density and
configuration 2 consisted of foams of middle / low / high density. Based on the shock wave pressure profiles
and the high-speed deflection images that were collected, the method of measuring the incident and reflected
energies of the shock wave, as well as the deformation energy of the specimen, was proposed.
In relation to their blast resistance, the experimental results showed that configuration 1 outperformed
configuration 2. Important core material compression was observed in configuration 1, while the core layers
disintegrated in configuration 2 and the front skin (blast side) fragmented along the midsection into two parts.
For both configurations, the approximate energies were then determined. The overall energy difference was
almost equal between the incident and the reflected energies, even though the deformation energy was greater
for configuration 2.
In the maritime and aerospace industries, sandwich structures have significant applications. In their
applications, their high strength / weight ratio and high stiffness / weight ratio play a vital role, especially when
subjected to high-intensity pulse loadings such as air blasts. Their characteristics help to disperse the
mechanical impulse that is conveyed into the system and thereby secure everything behind it.

In the dynamic behaviour of sandwich structures when they are exposed to blast loading, the core materials play
a crucial part. Polymer foams, metal foams, metal honeycomb, balsa wood, and truss structures and so on are
the general core materials. In recent years, stepwise graded materials have been used as a core material in
sandwich composites, where the material properties differ gradually or layer by layer inside the material itself.
Since it is possible to design and monitor the properties of graded / layered core structures, they display great
potential to be an efficient core material to absorb blast energy and increase the overall blast resistance of
sandwich structures.
The focus of this study is on blast resistance and energy. Absorption of sandwich composites with a foam
graded stepwise Core when exposed to a shock wave loading experimentally. The energy of the event, the
energy reflected, and the deformation based on the shock wave pressure profiles, energy was measured based on
the high velocity deflection images acquired from the shock tube the experiment. The core materials used in the
present study were Corecell A series styrene foams.

The most prevalent system for calculating dynamic constitutive properties of materials is the Split Hopkinson
Pressure Bar (SHPB). Dynamic tests for the core materials were carried out with a modified SHPB system with
a hollow transmitter bar due to the low impedance of CorecellTM foam materials to increase the transmitted
signal strength. In Fig., a sketch was given of the modified SHPB system and the typical pulse profiles. 4. It had
a 304.8 mm long striker, an incident bar of 1600 mm and a transmitter bar of 1447 mm. A 6061 aluminium
alloy was made from all of the bars. The nominal outer diameters were 19.05 mm for the solid incident bar and
the hollow transmitter bar. There was a 16.51 mm internal diameter in the hollow transmitter bar. Pressure
mounted into the hollow tube at the head and at the end of the hollow transmitter bar were end caps made of the
same material as the bar. The influence of these end caps on the stress waves can be reduced by applying pulse
shapers.
For any form of CorecellTM A foam studied, the dynamic stress-strain response was significantly higher than
the quasi-static response. CorecellTM A sequence foams (A300, A500, and A800) have shown an growing
pattern in both quasi-static and dynamic constitutive behaviours. Shock wave loading was performed on the
sandwich specimens with two separate core arrangements, configuration 1 (A300 / A500 / A800) and
configuration 2 (A500 / A300 / A800). The overall performance was higher for configuration 1 (A300 / A500 /
A800) than for configuration 2 (A500 / A300 / A800). With the lowest density foam (A300) first in contact with
the blast loading, significant compression was evident in the heart.
The dynamic pressures seen on the back face sheet were minimised by this design and thus restricted the total
amount of damage to the specimen. The overall deformation mechanism of the sample was entirely different
when using the A500 foam first in contact with the blast loading. There was limited compression in the core, so
the specimen showed a large amount of damage. (Erheng Wang)
A NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF THE BLAST IMPACT OF SQUARE
METALLIC SANDWICH PANELS
This paper presents details and brief results of an experimental investigation on the response of square metallic
sandwich panels with a cellular core under blast loading.
The blast loading process includes both the explosion procedure of the charge and the interaction with the panel.
The structural responses of sandwich panels are studied in terms of two aspects:
(1) deformation/failure patterns of the specimens
(2) quantitative assessment, which mainly focuses on the permanent center point deflection of the back face of
the panels.
Metallic sandwich panels with a cellular core such as honeycomb have the capability of dissipating considerable
energy by large plastic deformation under static or dynamic loading. The cellular microstructures offer the
ability to undergo large plastic deformation at nearly constant nominal stress, and thus can absorb a large
amount of kinetic energy before collapsing to a more stable configuration or fracture.
At this stage, the expanded explosive interacts with the plate front surface. At this stage, a dent failure is first
formed at the central area of sandwich front face, and then the deformation extends both outwards and
downwards with the transfer of impulse. Eroding effect takes place on a small number of elements of the TNT
charge part, due to the extremely large distortion, and thus had little influence on the result.
A typical FE prediction for core deformation/failure patterns, where progressive buckling forms on the side
adjacent to the loading end, and the vertical cell walls at the other end remain nearly straight.
Experimental investigations have been carried out to test the impact resistant behavior of square metallic
sandwich panels with honeycomb core under air blast loading.
The simulation study provides an insight into the process of the blast loading process and the deformation
mechanism of the panels, and therefore can be used as a valuable tool to accurately predict the structural
response of sandwich panels under air impulsive loading.
(FengZhu)

2010
A STUDY ON ENERGY ABSORPTION OF ALUMINUM FOAM
The main objectives of this research paper are
 To study and analyze energy absorption capability of the aluminium foam precursor to Alulight
 A comparison between a typical energy absorption of a fully dense elastic solid and the foamed material
The effect of the chemical composition is studied in the present article. The energy absorption density and shape
of aluminium foams. Aluminium foam samples were made from an aluminium foam, Pioneer to 'Alulight.'
From the results of compression tests, the ability of samples to absorb mechanical energy was calculated. The
experiments were performed using a universal exam.
That machine. The sample "force-elongation" diagram was written down during trials. Test results showed that
aluminium foams have strong absorption of energy and that the absorption capacity decreases with foam
density. More power can be consumed by Alulight AlMgSi 0.6 TiH2-0.4 foam
Aluminum foams are primarily a composite material made of aluminium or aluminium alloy matrix packed
with pores, Gas dispersed over the entire matrix up. The structure has an unusual property mix, such as low
thermal conductivity, high capacity to absorb energy, very high specific strength and excellent acoustic
properties. Features, especially when the porosity is interconnected. Furthermore, this extremely light material
is non-flame retardant, environmentally friendly and easily recyclable.
Al powder is blended in order to manufacture foamed aluminium. The mixture is then compacted by extrusion,
which releases gas at higher temperatures. This precursor is put into a shape and Heated up to the beginning of
the foam agent. The mould is removed from the oven and cooled off directly afterwards, so the foam portion of
aluminium is in frozen form. This is the result method is an aluminium foam closed cell displaying a thin cast
surfacing skin.
A contrast of a typical energy absorption of a fully dense elastic solid and the foamed material Obviously, the
foam will consume more energy at a specific peak stress level than the dense solid as a matter of fact the dense
solid naturally ingests more energy at a specific stress level, but it doesn't have a true situation). Dense elastic
solid and the dense content. As foams are typically an excellent energy absorber, since they can sustain
optimum stress while absorption of individual energy.

For creating samples, a powder compact foaming technique was used. An electrical resistance furnace with a
capacity of 2.5 kW (located at the Faculty of Non-metal Lab) Mechanical and naval engineering) have been
applied. The method of making samples of aluminium foam A precursor mass is mounted in a mould, and then
for a certain period of time needed to complete the foaming process, the filled mould shall be placed into a
furnace and treated at the temperature of 850 ° C.
By experimental analysis it was determined that aluminium foams exhibit good properties at the impact energy
absorption and application of stress. (Grilec)

BLAST AND IMPACT RESISTANT COMPOSITE STRUCTURES FOR

NAVY SHIPS
Focus of research is on marine composite structures; particularly lightweight glass/carbon polymeric based
composites, and innovative concepts for the mitigation of blast, shock and impact effects. Sandwich composites
with balsa and foam cores are presently being featured in number of navy applications such as in surface ship
deck structures, radar mast and boat hulls. In our work, other new and emerging cores including TYCOR (an
engineered three-dimensional fiber reinforced damage tolerant core) and the fire resistant Eco-Core are
also being explored in sandwich constructions.
Technical approach includes researching low-cost fire resistant Nano clay and exfoliated graphite platelet
reinforced glass and carbon polymeric based composites with fly ash and 3-D fiber reinforced foams;
investigating their response to low-velocity impact, ballistic, shock and blast loads; dynamic mechanical
analysis for modulus, damping, creep and stress relaxation; developing constitutive models and computer
simulations; accelerated testing for long-term durability; and evaluating their radar-absorbing and EM-shielding
characteristics for improved stealth and safety.
Energy absorption capability:
Test results show more than 10% improvement in impact energy absorption with addition of 2.5 wt. pct.
graphite platelets to pure vinyl ester (Figure 2). Maximum improvement in energy absorption (about 40%) was
observed with Owens Corning HP Shield Strand glass fabric face sheets compared to the E-glass/vinyl ester
(Figure 3)
Blast Testing:
Two large 4’ x 4’ panels were subjected to blast load waveforms and peak reflected pressures simulating
terrorist threats. Trial blast tests, simulating an approximate threat level of about 27,000 lbs. TNT at 184 feet,
were conducted at the ERDC-Blast Load Simulator (BLS) facility in Vicksburg, MS.

Conclusion:
Producing stronger, safer and more cost-effective platforms for the new generation naval ships requires
innovative designs, new materials, and affordable/efficient processing and characterization technologies.
This research will advance the development of blast, shock and impact resistant composites for navy ship
structural applications; to achieve better mobility, survivability, stealth, safety, and at lower cost.
(P. Raju Mantena)

BLAST RESISTANCE CAPABILITIES OF SANDWICH PANELS

(V-SHAPED SANDWICH PANELS, CURVED PANELS, BLAST
PROTECTION)

Abstract:
There are currently two widely researched measures for blast protection: Blast energy absorption by cellular
materials and energy dispersion by V-shaped plates. The aluminum foam sandwich panel with a double V-
shaped face plate, along with its anti-blast performance. Parametric analyses of the protection performance of
the double V-shaped face plated sandwich panel were conducted. The results indicated that the designed
sandwich panel could not only disperse the blast impulse but also maintain the energy-absorption property of
the foam core. The blast resistance of glass-fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) sandwich structures has been
investigated for increasing shock intensity and for multiple blast exposures. Experimental data provides detailed
data for sandwich panel response, which are often used in civil and military structures, where air-blast loading
represents a serious threat.
Introduction:
With the occasional occurrence of local conflicts and terrorist attacks, it is becoming increasingly important to
enhance the protection of critical instruments and buildings. Currently, there are two widely studied protection
measures: the first involves using the deformation and destruction of materials(particularly cellular materials
such as foams or honeycombs) to absorb the blast energy, and the second involves using the structural design to
disperse the blast impulse, e.g., the commonly used V-shaped plate under the bottom hull of armored vehicles.
In the former method, cellular materials are usually placed between two face sheets to form sandwich structures.
Compared with other materials, aluminum foam has the advantages of a higher specific stiffness, higher specific
strength, heat resistance, noise resistance, moisture resistance, and electromagnetic isolation. Therefore,
aluminum foam sandwich structures are attracting increasing research attention and increasingly being applied
in practice, particularly for blast and impact protection.
Double V face plated sandwich structure design:
The proposed sandwich panel is composed of a double V-shaped front face plate (or called pyramidal face
plate), an aluminum foam core, and a flat back face plate, as shown in Fig:

{Double V-shaped face plated sandwich panel.}

Different sandwich structures designed, and their sectional profiles are shown in Fig. 3. These sandwich panels
all had a size of L×L=250mm×250mm, with front and back face plate thicknesses of 1 mm. The classical flat
sandwich panel (Fig. 3(a)) was used as a reference design, and the aluminum foam core thickness of the
reference flat sandwich panel was 30 mm.
Blast responses of designed sandwich panel:

Numerical modeling was the main method used in this study. First, the numerical method, material model, and
material parameters were validated. The experimental results were used to validate our numerical model. The
numerical models of curved sandwich panels was established considering the symmetry condition, as shown in
Fig. 4. The LS-DYNA_971_R7.0 numerical modeling software was used. The front face plate and back face
plate were meshed with the Belytschko-Tsay shell element with five integration points through the shell
thickness. The other parts were meshed with 1point integration solid elements. The element size was set as 2
mm to balance the accuracy and the computation time.
A critical plastic failure strain of 0.77was defined for the face plates. *MATCRUSHABLE FOAM was used for
the aluminum foam, and the required stress–strain curve is shown in Fig. No failure criterions were adopted for
the aluminum foam. The behavior of the steel4340 blocks was modeled using the *MAT JOHNSON COOK
material model. The main material parameters were acquired from the AUTODYN software material library.
There was good agreement between the results of the numerical modeling and the experiment.[ CITATION
Yua1 \l 1033 ]
Dynamic response of sandwich panel under blast loading:
Considering the symmetry of the structures, quarter numerical models were adopted, and the symmetry
conditions were applied at the symmetry surface.

Clamped constraints were applied at the non-symmetry boundaries. For the front face plate and the aluminum
foam core, the same materials used in the validated numerical model were employed. Additionally, the element
algorithms, contact settings, and hourglass control were identical to those of the validated numerical model. The
Johnson–Cook material model was used for the RHA steel of the back face plate, and its parameters are
presented in Table 3. The strain rate and temperature effects were considered, and failure was modeled using
the Johnson–Cook failure parameters.
Air-blast test design:

A test arrangement is given in Figure, featuring all external instrumentation that was used during all air-blast
tests. In each case the spherical charge was raised off of the floor to the mid-height of the target and positioned
at the center of the test pad at the given stand-off distance from the target. The test pad is approximately 100 m
× 100 m in area and is made of concrete, the charge is positioned on a 150 mm thick steel plate to avoid
cratering during blast. The test fixture was a steel test cubicle, which was used to test one sample at a time
against a 38.4 kg TNT equivalent charge, although up to two test samples can be attached at one time in this
fixture. This clamping condition is meant to represent the support a free-spanning section of composite material
may experience when mounted in a real structure. support conditions on blast experiments, although ideally
clamped or built-in, will deviate due to the energy delivered to the finitely rigid (stiff) target structure.
[ CITATION HArUK \l 1033 ]

Single blast loading of sandwich panels:

From the set of samples, three samples each with 40 mm thick core (G40a, G40b and G40c) GFRP sandwich
panels were subject to three separate 30 kg charge C4 explosions at 16 m, 14 m and finally 8 m stand-off
distances. This investigation was designed to represent a real combat scenario, where different areas of the ship
surface may be subject to a number of different blast conditions of differing severity. For this analysis full-field
displacement and in-plane principal strain data of the deforming panels and pressure data was recorded for the
duration of the event.

Multiple blast loading of sandwich panels:

A 40 mm thick core (G40c) GFRP sandwich panel was subject to two additional 30 kg charge C4 explosions at
12 m and 8 m stand-off distances (after the blast at 16 m). This investigation was designed to represent real
combat scenario where multiple strikes represent a common threat to a naval structure. Moreover the decision to
progressively increase the impulse loading the sample from 30 kg at 16-8 m was based on the idea that these
sandwich materials may sustain milder levels of impact from a number of far-field blasts in service prior to a
severe blast. Blast loading, as an impact scenario, is not mild in any sense, however from visible inspection,
which is a common method of damage detection, damage may be overlooked leading to poorer response than
expected to subsequent blasts. For this analysis central point displacement and pressure data will be provided
for the duration of the event. Trends in period of oscillation and peak deflections will be the focus of analysis.

Front face sheet deformation:

For the front face sheet, the global deformation shows a dome shape, starting out from the center. For panels
with the radius of curvature of 600 mm, the dome shape transforms gradually into a prismatic shape towards the
clamped edges. While for panels with radius of curvature of 300 mm, it did not occur. An ellipse between the
dome and clamping edges formed to separate the deformed and undeformed region. There are two different
localized deformation patterns, i.e., local indentation and wrinkling. Fig. Shows three specimens with respect to
these localized deformation patterns. The thickness of the front face sheet seems a dominant factor. For the
panels with the thickest face sheet, there was no localized failure as shown in Fig. a. When the thickness of the
front face sheet decreased, randomly distributed indentations (dimples) appeared (Fig. b). A possible cause of
this is the compressive instability of the face sheet and the foam core. As for the panels with thinnest face sheet,
extensive wrinkling of the face sheet appeared, as shown in Fig. c. The deformation patterns of the front face
sheet changed little with the charge diameter and length as well as the stand-off distance.
Back face sheet deformation:

For the back face sheet, the final global deformation varied with the blast loading and geometrical configuration
of the sandwich panels. There was only one localized deformation pattern, i.e., wrinkling, as shown in Fig. b.
For comparison, Fig. a shows the final global deformation of a specimen without localized failure. The global
deformation pattern of the back face can be described by the profiles along the C-line and L-line. For all the
specimens, the deformation profile of L-line was approximately of V shape, which is the same as that for
circular or rectangular sandwich flat panels under blast loading.

As for the localized failure, only the panel with a radius of curvature of 300 mm, the thinnest core and thin face
sheets exhibited this type of deformation pattern.

Debonding:
Debonding was observed in the present research. The top specimen in Fig. a shows no debonding when the blast
loading was small enough. As the blast intensity increases debonding initiated from the center part of the layer
between front face sheet and the foam core. When the central part of the foam core had fully been crushed and a
shear failure region formed, debonding between the back face and core appeared. This failure mode resulted in
a fully crushed area around the centre, with the shear failure region adjacent. In this central area, the debonding
occurred between the front face and core, while it was between the back face and core for other region. It was
also shown from the experiments that the panels with a radius of curvature of 300 mm debonded more severely
than those of 600 mm.

For the two specimens without epoxy glue applied, the deformation profile was similar to that of the glued
specimens. However, the core failure was different. Instead of the shear failure present in the glued panels, the
two specimens showed tensile failure along the L-line, in addition to the crushing of the core.

Effects of different explosive masses:

To investigate the responses of the V-shaped face plated sandwich panel under different explosive masses, the
TNT mass in the keyword *LOAD_BLAST_ENHANCE was set as 10, 30, 50, 80, and 110 g. The V-shaped
sandwich panel had the layout of structure 2; that is, the V apex angle was 160°, and the boundary thickness of
the foam core was 30 mm. The distance between the explosive center and the back face plate was kept the same
(262 mm). The maximum deflections, maximum velocities, and maximum accelerations of the center of the
back face plates under different explosive masses are plotted in Fig. below. For comparison, the responses of
the flat panel under different explosive loadings are also presented. As shown in Fig, for both the V-shaped
sandwich panel and the flat panel, the maximum deflections, velocities, and accelerations increased with the
explosive mass (except for the accelerations of the V-shaped panel). With the increasing explosive mass, the
maximum acceleration of the back face plate of the V-shaped panel increased, decreased, and then remained
unchanged. This indicates that for a range of explosive masses, the force imparted to the V-shaped structure was
not affected by the strength of the blast loading. However, a larger explosive mass corresponded to a larger
explosive charge dimension; thus, the force duration was elongated owing to the shorter distance between the
explosive charge surface and the V-shaped panel. The maximum velocities and accelerations of the V-shaped
panel were lower than those of the flat panel, in contrast to the deflections (which were larger for the V-shaped
panel). The difference was significant for the accelerations. The results confirm that the V-shaped structure
effectively reduced the velocity and acceleration responses of the sandwich panel. However, the maximum
deflection of the V-shaped panel was not always smaller than that of the flat panel, even though the V-shaped
panel had a thicker foam core and an impulse-dispersion effect.

Effect of
blast loading:

Because the deformation of the sandwich panels did not vary with the form of the blast loading as described in
the previous sections, impulse was considered as the primary parameter that will determine the final deflection
of the centre of the back face. The centre deflection against impulse is shown below, from which it can be seen
clearly that the central deflection of the back face increases with impulse for all the configurations in the
Experiments.
Conclusions:

 Compared with the flat sandwich panel, the double V-shaped face plated sandwich panel not only
dispersed the blast impulse but also maintained the energy-absorption property of the foam core. It
also outperformed the single V-shaped face plated sandwich panel and the corresponding
monolithic plate.

 Under certain conditions of the blast loading and V apex angle, the V-shaped plate underwent a
transformation from a stable state to another stable state, increasing the deflection. The gap
between the V-shaped front face plate and the foam core must be avoided to minimize the
acceleration of the front face plate.
 Eccentric loading did not degrade the performance of the V-shaped face plated sandwich panel,
even under different boundary conditions. The largest deflections still occurred at the center point
of the back face plate. The local deformation of the foam core absorbed more blast energy than the
situation of central blast loading.
 For the double V-shaped face plated sandwich panel, the stiffness of the front face plate and the
stiffness of back face plate must be properly matched for balancing the energy dispersion and
absorption. Stiffness matching is needed to optimize the protection performance.
  Curved sandwich panels with Aluminum foam cores and Aluminum face sheets under various
blast loadings have been investigated experimentally. The deformation duration of the panels was
found to be of the order of milliseconds.
 The deformed profiles of the curved sandwich panels were different from flat ones previously
reported. Global wrinkling has been observed in the experiment, which is a new deformation mode
for sandwich structures under the blast loading. Three effects have been revealed of the curvature
on the blast response of sandwich panels: it resulted in a reduced effective impulse transferred to
the shell, one additional failure mode of wrinkling and one more deformation regime with coupled
circumferential bending and longitudinal stretching. The experiments have also shown that
performance of the sandwich shell structures has the potential to exceed both their equivalent solid
counterpart and sandwich plates under certain geometrical and loading conditions.

2011
THE EFFECTS OF AIR AND UNDERWATER BLAST ON COMPOSITE
SANDWICH PANELS AND TUBULAR LAMINATE STRUCTURES
Resistance to blasting in air and underwater conditions is studied in glass-fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP)
sandwich panels and laminate tubes. Procedures have been devised for tracking the structural reaction of such
materials during blast events. High-speed imaging was used to track the deformation of these structures under
shock loading during the air-blast loading of GFRP sandwich panels in accordance with digital image
correlation (DIC). The use of DIC has revealed failure mechanisms and validated them in post-test sectioning.
Strain gauges have been used to track the structural reaction during underwater shocks of related sandwich
materials and GFRP tubular laminates. During these experiments, the impact of the back-up medium (air or
water) of the target facing the shock was established. Failure mechanisms such as core crushing, skin / core
cracking, delamination, and fibre breakage have been developed. The mechanisms for such damage are
supported by strain gauge data.

To observe the deformation and damage creation within such traditional marine constructions, GFRP sandwich
panels were subject to full-scale air-blast loading. Full-field displacement plots of the rear face of the objective
were obtained by using high-speed photography in combination with digital image correlation (DIC) methods
for the duration of the blast event. Behind the 1.6 ⁇ 1.3 m speckled targets, two high-speed video cameras
(Photron SA3s) were placed and sampled at maximum resolution at 2,000 frames / second (1,024 ⁇ 1,024
pixels). Using a single degree of freedom model based on the method, this sampling frequency, needed to
accurately capture the case, was determined. The time taken for an example blast to achieve maximum
deflection (1.5 bar peak shock pressure) was calculated to be within the 5 ms area for each target.
Therefore, it was possible to operate at maximum resolution (keeping spatial resolution high) using the Photron
SA3 cameras while recording the images at an acceptable rate (temporal resolution) for the DIC analysis to be
performed. Before testing, these cameras were calibrated to enable the captured images to be processed in
ARAMIS (produced by GOM mbH), a DIC programme used to perform calculations of image correlation. As a
secondary point measurement instrument focusing on the middle of the plate, which was sampled at 2,000 Hz, a
laser gauge was mounted on a steel beam frame. The laser gauge was intended to check the results obtained
from high-speed video recordings. Air Blast Test Configuration and Other Instrumentation At the same stand-
off distance from the charge as the target, reflected pressure and static (side-on) pressure measurements were
taken.
In order to film front-face deformation, high-speed video cameras were also placed externally on the test pad,
protected by turrets. Three targets were tested; two with a core of 40 mm thickness (denoted G1) and one with a
core of 30 mm (denoted G2). At a stand-off distance of 8 m and 14 m, the blast parameters used during the tests
shown here were 30 kg C4 charges. Tests performed at a stand-off distance of 14 m (approximately 2 bar peak
shock pressure equivalent) were designed to take the panels to their elastic max. In ABAQUS, FE simulations
were carried out to design the geometries of the plates, predicting the central peak deflections and peak surface
strains below the magnitudes of failure. The 30 kg C4 blast at a stand-off of 8 m was designed to cause damage
to the target. Underwater Blast Loading of GFRP Sandwich Panels In order to observe the deformation of
targets during the blast and damage sustained, GFRP sandwich panels were subjected to underwater-blast
loading.
As for variations in behaviour, a distinction can be made between air and underwater blast events. During the
blast case, surface strain measurements were taken using strain gauges located at 12 different locations. They
were located along the centre lines of the panel face: three spaced evenly on the horizontal side at 60 mm
intervals from the centre and three spaced evenly on the vertical side at 80 mm intervals 10 mm from the centre
to prevent gauge overlap. Behind these positions on the rear face were the other six gauges located. With the
ability to track complex events (in terms of strain magnitude and strain rate), the strain gauges (and data
acquisition hardware) selected for this application were explicitly chosen. Once the gauges were bonded, they
were sealed in compliance with the recommendations of Vishay Micro-Measurement engineers to insulate and
protect from the environment during impact, while maintaining a low profile and mass.

Although very straightforward in design, these sandwich composite structures offered considerable blast
resistance to shock loading. They retained a 2 bar pressure load in the air without contributing to a catastrophic
failure. After deflecting 80 mm, the back face of the panel also remained intact. The transition to underwater
studies showed various processes of absorption of energy and failure. When subjected to peak shock pressures
of 450 bar, core crushing and skin fibre breakage were observed, but not full skin-to - skin failure. An
alternative geometry was represented by the tubes and the filler medium variable proved to greatly influence the
response. (Hari Arora)

COMPOSITE MATERIALS FOR MARINE APPLICATIONS: KEY

CHALLENGES FOR THE FUTURE
Polymeric composite materials have been used in ships and boats and many other vessels for about 50 years.
There is a considerable amount of work and advancement done in this regard taking in account all the factors
affecting the structures
The Processing and production: The main goal is to create sustainable large and bulky three-dimensional
vessels that can withstand the hardships in the field but also be speedy in movement.
Load Transfer Mechanism: There has been a huge increment in the use of vessels ranging from small boats to
the ferries and oil transporting vessels so the weight reduction is always a great concern. As the speed of the
vessel needs to be higher. The Production techniques sometimes have some drawbacks; The production
techniques are mostly very much time consuming or sometimes very much expensive. So, the selection of
standard parts on the base of pre-formed parts leads to the reduction of these disadvantages up-to some
extent. For the sake to get the high-speed crafts and vessels the use of aluminum has proved very helpful as it
is having very low weight
Not only the ordinary parts but the highly detailed corners and the base parts are also being made up of these
composite materials

It could be clearly concluded that there is a great scope of the fiber composites to be used in the production of the
naval structures or it could be said that the marine industry will have a huge contribution due to these materials
All this is to be done to make sure about the safety factors and also the quality assurance while taking in
account all the factors including weight and speed. The economic approach is also in great consideration in
the future that how could we make some good products out of little production expenditure
the property of fatigue is to be must include because by this we can have a better life cycle of these ships
while in contrary the effects of these vessels and the products used on the environment must also be taken in
account
Structures should be made with great inspections to assure safety and long life of the vessels in order to insure
the safe operations in the field of marine.
(Cripps)

A dynamic loading method for simulating explosive blast was developed using a crushing foam projectile
launched by a gas gun at velocities ranging from 30 to 60 m/s. The objective of this test method is to
dynamically load ‘‘small-scale’’ composite beam specimens so as to allow for the dynamic failure
characterization of these materials subject to blast-type loads. Sandwich beams all failed in core shear for the
configuration tested, with no significant rate dependency for the shear failure strain of the balsa core material.
Such projectiles were implemented by Rathbun et al. to study the performance of the stainless-steel honeycomb
core sandwich structures subjected to dynamic loading. The performance of the sandwich beams is compared to
the performance of solid beams of an equivalent weight when loaded in a similar fashion to demonstrate the
benefits of sandwich construction. However, using harder materials such as metallic foams creates a concern
with whether or not one is exciting more of a ballistic impact response along with uniquely ballistic associated
failure modes. While the metal foam projectile can be useful in simulation of fluid shock loading, the present
study is more concerned with the simulation of air blast loading.

This experimental method was implemented to explore the failure process of composite sandwich panels
consisting of high strength carbon fiber laminated face sheets and end-grain balsa wood core. Beam specimens
composed of face sheets separated from the core show that compressive failure strain was strongly dependent
on strain rate, up to 143% greater for dynamic (101 s 1 strain rate) relative to quasi-static, and tensile failure
strain also showed a less strong rate dependency (29% greater relative to quasi-static). This rate dependence
makes the beams more resistant to bending failure when subjected to high-rate loading. The initial failure mode
for all tests was always core shear cracks forming at random locations between the outer supports and the
impact zone of the projectile (beam center), with shear failure of the core dominantly occurring along the grain.
Great improvements in the sandwich panel structural performance can be gained by use of a core material
having higher transverse shear strength as well as much more physical uniformity (less scatter in strength).

MITIGATION OF BLAST EFFECTS ON PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES BY

ALUMINUM FOAM PANELS
Low density aluminium foams are desirable materials for mitigating High-speed pressure due to high-energy
absorption capabilities by blast loads. Mechanical properties of foam and foam panels under compression,
stress, shear and bending moment were obtained through numerous tests in order to establish nonlinear material
models for aluminium foam with different densities. The derived models were tested by means of explicit study
of the foam panels by LS-DYNA. Blast experiments measured the efficiency of foam panels with various
scaling distances. The most important parameters to estimate the transmitted pressure to protective structures
are the panel's thickness, density and skin plate properties. The skin plays an important role in the foam's
actions because the pressure of close-range blast loading is not uniform. For the protective structures with
sacrificial foam panels, numerical simulations considering the parameters given simple design guidelines.
Under a certain pressure on the yield strength of the foam, properly designed panels for the necessary blast
loads will regulate the transmitted stress to the target structure.
Extreme loads, such as impacts and blasts, are currently being taken into account in the design of critical
infrastructure. There are also drawbacks to the hardening of existing structures, such as increased thickness and
wrapping. Concrete, which is brittle, is used either by changing the matrix by fibre inclusion or by ductile
detailing in blast resistant construction. The risk of spalling and scabbing when it is exposed to blast loading is
one of the drawbacks of concrete, however. The loss of material caused by concrete spalling and scabbing
weakens the core and this could impact the structure's integrity. The use of composite structural forms that can
enhance blast resistance is an alternative but cost-effective approach. Sacrificing cladding is often used to
safeguard target structures. High-energy capabilities for absorption. Instead of improving target structures,
energy absorbing materials such as aluminium foams may be used to mitigate the blast pressure.
The aluminium foam panel can be designed to monitor the transmitted panels according to different design
bases (BOD). Pressure below the mean pressure that concrete structures can withstand, as seen in Figure 1. The
mitigated pressure may be adjusted to the appropriate pressure level by the blast loads, depending on the density
and thickness of the foam panel. The foam density, in particular, is the main parameter for a certain degree of
pressure to be allowed. The short period of the blast load can be postponed until the long duration is reached.
For the design of protective structures, a pressure-impulse diagram (PI diagram) is usually required. Designers
also need to provide accurate material models to estimate the mitigation of strain.

Mechanical properties of foam and foam panels under compression, stress, shear and bending moment were
obtained through numerous tests in order to establish nonlinear material models for aluminium foam with
different densities. Over the past three decades, numerous experiments have been performed to investigate the
constitutive reaction of aluminium foams. To load the foam at a range of strain and stress rates, various
experimental facilities were used. They stated that no strain rate effect was exhibited by a closed-cell aluminium
foam. The initial elastic modulus has been found to be lower than that of fully dense alloys. The deformation of
the cell walls led to the concentration of stress around the deformation zone, resulting in a reduction of the
module. The deformation of the foam is not spatially uniform under loads. In the weakest zone, deformation
first occurs and is propagated in this region until it is completely crushed or entirely densified.
A variety of constitutive models, such as a continuum model, have been developed based on empirical evidence
to produce a yield surface for reproducing the bulk properties of aluminium foams. In commercial finite
element systems, some of these constitutive models have been introduced and have .In previous analytical
research, it was used .
In this paper, to extract typical material models of aluminium foams, material tests were performed. Via explicit
analysis of the foam panels by LS-DYNA, the derived models were tested. Blast experiments measured the
efficiency of foam panels with various scaling distances. For the protective structures with sacrificial foam
panels, numerical simulations considering the parameters given simple design guidelines. Tests and simulations
confirmed the proposed principle that, under a certain pressure on the yield strength of the foam, properly
designed panels for the necessary blast loads will regulate the transmitted pressure to the target structure.
Conclusions
It has been shown in this study that properly designed aluminium foam panels can regulate the transmitted
pressure to the target structure under a certain pressure on the foam's yield strength for the necessary blast loads.
A generalized design method for blast pressure mitigation was provided by blast tests and analyses. (Shim)

2013
INVESTIGATION OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SANDWICH
PANELS MADE OF PAPER HONEYCOMB CORE AND WOOD
COMPOSITE SKINS BY EXPERIMENTAL TESTING AND FINITE
ELEMENT (FE) MODELLING METHODS.
The honeycomb core structural and wood composite skin lightweight sandwich panels with various Kraft paper
had been designed. The effect on the mechanical behavior of those lightweight Sandwich panels was
investigated by experimental testing and finite element modelling methods of structural parameters, including
the core type, cell dimension, core density, core and web thickness and material properties of core and skin
layers. Compression and shear loading were carried out on the plates. The results of experiments and
simulations show that center thickness and center shape predominantly influenced the panel stiffness under out-
of plane loading conditions (e.g. Ez, Gxz and Gyz). Material properties of the skin layer influenced the panel
solidness both under in-plane and out-of-plane loadings if the skin layer was orthotropic.
The honeycomb core can have various configurations. It is previously shown that skin layers hold most of the
bending and twisting moments along with in-plane normal and shear forces when the sandwich panel is loaded.
the center layer bears most of the out-of-plane flatwise normal and inter-laminar shear loads.
Four FE models for panels with different web thicknesses were established to investigate two scenarios. The
core and skin materials for these models were 26 mm thick Kraft paper expanded honeycomb and 3 mm thick
HB, respectively. In one situation, two of these models had different core cell sizes, but at 44.03 kg / m3, the
core density which was the same. Modulus of Elasticity and shear module values were simulated under the
loading of the panels both in plane and out of plane, and found to be similar. The core density was different in
another scenario while the core cell dimension in Finite 's models was similar at 31.8 mm.
The simulation results showed that an increase of the core density increased the panels’ inter-laminar shear
moduli and elasticity modules under flatwise compression. The alteration of the core density did not affect the
Modulus of Elasticity and shear modulus under the in-plane loading. Both these scenarios showed that core
density and not cell size had an enormous influence on the rigidity of the sandwich panel when the core had the
same shape under out-of-plane load condition.
It was discovered that by experimental testing and Finite Element the sandwich panels were found to have
isotropic response under the in-plan loading conditions and became orthotropic under the out-of plane loading
conditions. The properties of the skin materials have therefore played an important role in determining the
performance of products.

The samples had the same cell size but different core densities. The results indicated that the elasticity module
of these four types of sandwich panels under edgewise compression and edgewise shear were similar. The
elasticity module of these panels were however influenced by the core type under flatwise compression and
inter-laminar shear modulus.Panels with the corrugated honeycomb core had a lower Gyz and a higher Ez and
Gxz than the panels with 31.8 mm cell size laminated expanded honeycomb core, even though both cores had
the same core density. . This showed that the shape of the core instead of the core density affected mainly
Ez,Gxz and Gyz. The Finite Element model predictions for panels with different skin materials showed that an
increase in the stiffness of the skin only resulted in a higher Ex, Ey and Gxy of the panel when the skin material
was isotropic. Ez, Gxz and Gyz of the panel did not change significantly. The panel’s stiffness under the out-of
plane loading (Ez and Gyz) was quite similar However, the stiffness under the in-plane loading (Ey and Gxy)
was very different. In the event that the skin materials were orthotropic the material properties of the skin
influenced the stiffness of the panel under both in plane and out-of-plane loadings..
Conclusion
Influence on mechanical propensities of sandwich panels was experimentally and numerically investigated by
structural and material parameters of core and skin components. honeycomb core density affected mainly the
stiffness of the panels under the out-of-plane loading conditions for the core shapes that were the same.
However, when the cell shape was different in the center, a greater core density did not always increase the
panel rigidity. Kraft paper corrugated honeycomb core panel had a higher Gxz than the panels with other types
of Kraft paper honeycomb cores even if the core density of these panels was equal to or higher than that of the
corrugated core. However, perpendicular to the ribbon direction, Gyz of the corrugated honeycomb core panels
was lower than that of the expanded honeycomb core panels even if the density of the corrugated core was
equal to or higher than that of the expanded core. For isotropic skin materials, material properties of the skin
predominantly impacted the stiffness of the sandwich panel under in-plane loadings. However, the material
properties of the skin, when the skin thickness in relation to the core thickness was equal to the threshold value,
influenced the thickness of the panel under both in-and out-of-plane loadings.
(Zheng Chen)

The effect of through-the-thickness stitching on the blast resistance of sandwich panels is investigated both
experimentally and numerically. An examination of the blast-loaded samples highlighted a number of failure
mechanisms, including crushing of the foam core, skin-core debonding, fracture of the glass fibre/epoxy skins,
fibre-matrix debonding with fibre pull-out and delamination. One of the most effective ways to enhance the
impact and blast resistance of foam-based sandwich structures is to stiffen and strengthen the core and increase
the level of interaction between the skins via through-thickness stitching. Raju and Tomblin investigated the
energy absorbing characteristics of sandwich panels with through-thickness stitches, subjected to edgewise
compression. Static crush tests showed that the average sustained crush load increases with reduced stitch
spacing, thereby increasing the total energy absorbed. Researchers have also investigated the response of
stitched panels under flexural, shear and compressive loads. They found that the mechanical properties increase
significantly following the introduction of stitches with stitch density being a significant factor. The fatigue
behavior of stitched foam-core sandwich structures has also been investigated. Few workers have investigated
the blast resistance of stitched foam core sandwich structures. Tekalur et al. investigated the shock loading
response of sandwich panels based on 3- D wovene E-glass composite skins and a stitched foam core. Both
experimental work and theoretical analyses were carried out to evaluate the effect of core stitching density on
the transient response of three simply supported sandwich panels loaded in a shock tube. Experimental testing
has highlighted a number of failure modes including fibre fracture in the composite skins, delamination,
debonding between the skins and the core and core crushing. A comparison of the stitched and unstitched
sandwich panels suggested that for a given impulse, the stitched laminates exhibited a slightly superior blast
resistance. However, when compared on a basis of specific impulse (i.e. the blast impulse normalized by the
panel mass) there was no significant difference. Indeed, at the highest impulses the evidence suggests that
stitching has a deleterious effect.
With increased threats on the battlefield, as well as from terrorist attacks, military vehicles are being reevaluated
to be safer and more efficient. Advanced vehicle armor with enhanced blast resistance is a critical requirement
for improving the survivability of crew exposed to landmines or improvised explosive devices (IEDs). In this
regard, metallic sandwich structures composed of metallic foam cores. The porosity of the foam core offers
light weight and excellent energy absorption capabilities, as well as vibration and sound isolation. In addition,
the metallic face-sheets provide the required stiffness and strength of the structure and help prevent perforation
by fragments and debris generated by explosives and blast loading. Low cost and flexibility in design and
manufacture also make these sandwich structures suitable for mass production. The dynamic response of
sandwich constructions (beams and panels) to blast loading has been studied extensively through analytical,
numerical, experimental and combined methods. There exist several possible criteria for evaluating the blast
resistant performance of a structure.
First, the maximum deflection (MaxD) under shock loads should be reduced or constrained to survivable levels.
a blast resistant structure is expected to absorb as much strain energy as possible to reduce the level of the
kinetic energy transferred to the protected objects. The energy absorption (EA) in a structural volume of V can
be calculated as follows:

The blast-resistant behaviors of aluminum foam-cored sandwich panels (AFSPs) were simulated using the finite
element method. Three distinctive phases of dynamic responses, front face deformation, back face deformation
and structural vibration, were identified. The simulation results also indicate that a low-stiffness front face
results in large foam core compression and energy absorption. Finally, the Multi-objective design optimization
(MDO) results obtained for three case studies with blast load variation show that the selection of weighting
factors for different blast intensities can affect the location of the optimal solution to the problem of minimizing
the MaxDc of the AFSP and thus plays an important role in the blast-resistant design of sandwich panels.
METALLIC SANDWICH PANELS SUBJECTED TO MULTIPLE INTENSE
SHOCKS
For panels with honeycomb and folded plate core constructions, the mechanical reaction and fracture of metal
sandwich panels subjected to multiple impulsive pressure loads (shocks) were examined. The overall transverse
deflection of the face sheets and the core crushing strain at the mid-span of the panels quantifies the structural
efficiency of panels with complex core configurations under multiple impulsive pressure loads. To discover the
optimum core density of a square honeycomb core sandwich panels under two shocks, a limited set of
simulations was carried out. For the loading conditions considered here the panels with a relative core density of
4 percent-5 percent are shown to have minimum face sheet deflection. This was consistent with the results
related to the reaction of the sandwich panel to a single extreme shock. The comparison of these findings
showed that under shock heating, optimised sandwich panels outperform solid plates. Based on finding an
efficient peak over-pressure an empirical method for predicting the deflection and fracture of sandwich panels
under two consecutive shocks was provided. In addition, to highlight the role of metal strength and ductility, a
limited number of simulations related to the response and fracture of sandwich panels under multiple shocks
with different material properties have been carried out. Square honeycomb sandwich panels made of four steels
representing a reasonably wide range of strength, strain hardening and ductility values have been studied in this
series of simulations. For panels clamped at their edge, core failure, top face failure and tearing at or near to the
clamped edge are the observed failure mechanisms. Failure diagrams were constructed for sandwich panels that
show the fracture and failure mechanisms for panels subjected to up to three consecutive shocks under different
shock intensities. The findings complement previous research on the behaviour and fracture of these panels
under high dynamic loading intensity and further illustrate the ability of these panels to build structural
structures that are immune to threats.
Both core topologies are height, H, web thickness, t, and have similarly thick top and bottom face sheets, h. In
both in-plane directions, the square honeycomb core has Web Spacing B. There is an inclination angle in the
folded plate centre, a, such that the spacing of the folds in the y-direction is B 1⁄4 t= sin a Я H= tan a. The width
of the panels is 2L and only half of the unit cell of the panels have been modelled, while the density of
symmetry conditions are defined as the volume fraction of the core that is occupied by the webs and denoted by
qc in both in-plane directions.

The mass/area of the sandwich panel is M ¼ qð Þ 2h þ qcH . By specifying L, M and q, the geometry of
honeycomb sandwich panels is fully determined by qc, H/L, B/H and L and the geometry of the folded plate
core sandwich panels is fully determined by qc, H/L, a and L. In our simulations, all panels have half-width, L =
1 m, and mass/area, M = 156 kg m2 , which is the same mass/area of solid plate with thickness equal to 20 mm.
The core thickness of both types of sandwich plates is fixed at H/L = 0.1, and the web spacing of the square
honeycomb is fixed at B/H = 1 while the folded plate cores have a = 45 such that B=H ffi 1. Because of
symmetry, numerical simulations of the response are based on models of one unit cell of the sandwich panel
with periodic boundary condition.
Conclusion
To research the response of sandwich panels with square honeycomb and folded plate core constructions made
of four steels under multiple extreme shocks (impulsive pressure loading), a small collection of calculations
were carried out. Using comprehensive numerical simulations of the panel response, the dependence of panel
deflection and failure modes on shock intensity was studied. In order to illustrate the potential of sandwich
panels as threat-resistant structural structures, contrasts were made with the counterpart solid panels. For square
honeycomb core sandwich panels with distinct core relative densities but constant mass/area, an optimization
study was performed. It is usually desirable to achieve minimal deflection and fracture while optimising
structural designs against shock loading. The findings indicate that when panels are exposed to two shocks, a
core relative density of 4 percent-5 percent corresponds to minimal deflection. An empirical link was proposed
to estimate the reaction of panels under two consecutive but isolated shocks, allowing deformation and fracture
of solid plates and square honeycomb panels to be predicted with reasonable fidelity. (Hamid Ebrahimi)

PERFORMANCE OF ALUMINUM FOAM–STEEL PANEL SANDWICH

COMPOSITES SUBJECTED TO BLAST LOADING
The paper studies the blast wave attenuation characteristics in different structures. A comparative study on the
attenuation of different structures was carried out. The effect of interface and structure on the wave attenuation
was discussed. The paper presented how the blast wave attenuated with the increasing core density. A
comparative study on the attenuation ability of mild steel plates and sandwich panels with aluminum foam core
was carried out. The results showed that the peak load was reduced by 61.54–64.69% in sandwich panels with
foam core compared to the mild steel plates without foam core.
Closed-cell aluminum foams, investigated in this work, were manufactured by molten body transitional foaming
process. The experiment was conducted in an air blast reservoir. In order to compare the blast wave attenuation
in sandwich panels with different structures, mild steel plates and sandwich panels with aluminum foam core
were constructed.

Response of mild steel plates under blast loading:

The central deflection of plastically deformed plates is taken as the characterization of blast damage. There was
only one phase in the deformation of the steel plates: inelastic deformation of the front plate and the back plate.
In case of blast wave attenuation in plates, he stresses rise time increases slightly with distance.

RESPONSE OF SANDWICH PANELS SUBJECTED TO BLAST LOADING:

The typical voltage signals of sandwich panels with aluminum foam core was recorded by the oscilloscope. the
overall attenuation for each sandwich structure is more than 96%. Sandwich panels with foam core reduced the
peak press-sure by 61.54–64.69% compared to the mild steel plates. It is clear that the sandwich structure got a
better performance compared to steel plates in wave attenuation. Except for the com-mon mechanisms of
decaying such as material viscosity and rare-faction wave, the sandwich structure plays a dominant role in
attenuation.
The typical profile of the damaged sandwich panels can be seen below. As the sandwich panels subjected to
blast loading in experiment, the front plate exhibited large plastic deformation while the back plate was
unaffected.
0
Conclusion:
Blast wave attenuation and the deformation process of sand-which panels with closed-cell aluminum foam core
were investigated in this paper. The results showed that sandwich panels with aluminum foam core reduced the
peak load by 61.54–64.69% compared to the mild steel plates without foam core. It has profound application in
naval structures corresponding to military vessels.
(H. Liu)

2014
BLAST RESISTANCE OF STIFFENED SANDWICH PANELS WITH
CLOSED-CELL ALUMINUM FOAM
The reaction of the stiffened sandwich in the present investigation of Foam panels with aluminium foam closed-
cell cores that are subject to the blast load is inspected. The metal foam panels are sandwiched between two
sheets of steel. To enhance the resistance of sandwich foam panel against blast, stiffeners are provided and
Their dynamic response is investigated under varying blast loads Explosion Using blast equations available in
LS-DYNA, load is applied which Reflecting the blast from the top of the sandwich takes account of Frame
foam. Numerical simulations based on finite elements for dynamic analysis are conducted using a shell mix. For
steel sheets and metal foam, respectively, and solid components.
Quantitative evaluation of the sandwich's complex response Foam panels are made, focusing primarily on the
peak central point Back-sheet displacement (opposite to the explosion) of the panel. Several studies are
performed with a view to understanding the effects of the configuration of the stiffener, foam thickness, foam
density, On the blast response, and the standoff size. Outcomes say that the supply of significant stiffeners along
with metal foam Compared to the unstiffened panels, it improves blast resistance Foamed with metal.
For various applications, such as sacrificial blast walls in homes, side walls in shipping containers and boxes,
and various military applications, foam core sandwich panels have been increasingly used (Ashby et al., 2000).
Such panels have excellent properties, such as lightweight, high specific stiffness, resistance to corrosion, and
moisture independence. With the advancement in technology recently, metal foam has Due to their high energy
absorption potential (Ashby et al., 2000), they have emerged as an important material in blast resistance
applications. In contrast with other materials, this foam has many advantages. Sandwich core materials that
have I greater basic stiffness are widely used; (ii) lighter in Weight; (iii) resistant to fire; and (iv) reusability.
Newly formed metal foam in the present investigation (Mondal et al., 2009a and 2009b) In particular, closed-
cell aluminium foam (ACCF) has been studied in blast applications for its promise. And its blast resistance
efficiency is seen. Here the sandwich foam's blast response the panel (SFP) and the stiffened sandwich foam
panel (SSFP) are tested under different blast loads. Usage of commercially available LS-DYNA tools to
determine their receptive mitigation effectiveness. It is not always possible to conduct field experimental tests,
particularly in the case of Fire. Blast. Numerical analysis proves to be an important method for analysis of such
situations. Therefore, numerical studies performed in the present study aim to study the impact on the blast
response of a) stiffener configuration, (b) foam thickness, (c) foam density, and (d) standoff size.
The objective of numerical studies carried out in the current investigation is to research the impact on the blast
response of a) stiffener configuration, (b) foam thickness, (c) foam density, and (d) standoff size. Central point
displacement of the stiffened sandwich foam panel in the current study the sandwich foam panel (SFP, i.e. P1)
defined as the base model (referred to as 100 percent weight) is contrasted with (SSFP, i.e. P2 to P11). It should
be noted that the displacement is reported in all instances with respect to time at the center of the back-sheet,
and absolute peak values ('peak') are Wherever appropriate, presented. Using central point displacement, the
calculation of effectiveness of the sandwich foam panel is quantified; this reduces the performance of the
central point displacement.
For standoff distances of 1.5 m, 2.0 m, and 2.5 m, 1 kg of TNT is considered. Figure 3 shows the peak pressures
arising from this combination of TNT and standoff distances. The face-sheet of the panels is exposed to blast
and the TNT is precisely positioned in the middle to preserve the panels' considered standoff distances (Figure
3). For the core material, three different relative densities (RD) of the foam (0.100, 0.107, and 0.114) are used,
as shown in Table 1. Figure 4 displays the SSFP-ACCF panels' central point displacement time histories for
three Foam core thicknesses (tf = 50, 100 and 150 mm), with foam relative density values of 0.100 and 0.100,
respectively. Standoff distance of 1.5 m for blast loading. Similar patterns are noted for other Relative foam
densities, core foam thicknesses, and lengths of standoff, though differing in magnitudes.
Popular plots for a representative foam thickness (50 mm) are shown in Figure 5 in order to compare the effects
of peak central point displacement for the SSFP-ACCF and to understand the effect of relative densities, foam
core thicknesses and standoff distances. In Table 2 through Table 4, the peak central point displacements for all
the combinations of density, foam thickness and standoff distances are recorded. In Case 1 to Case 3 different
combinations of the parameters considered are presented as
CASE 1: SANDWICH FOAM PANELS WITH 50-, 100-, AND 150-MM
THICK FOAM CORE WITH 1 KG TNT AND 1.5 M STANDOFF
DISTANCE
Comparison of the peak central point displacements of different relative density sandwich foam panels for 50
mm thick foam core reveals that the relative density of the foam panels is 0.100 panels. Compared to panels
with foam core relative densities of 0.107 and 0.114 with the same degree of blast loading (Table 2 and Figure
4), this results in the lowest peak central point displacement for all the panel configurations (except P3 and P9).
For the panel configuration P9 with RD 0.114 (Table 2), the lowest central point displacement (i.e. 4.13mm) for
a 50 mm thick foam core is observed. However, the panel configuration P11 with RD = 0.114 and tf = 150 mm
results in an overall configuration of RD = 0.114 and tf = 150 mm. Displacement of the lowest peak central
point (3.67 mm) for the 1.5 m standoff distance (Table 2). This can be due to the fact that greater usable foam
thickness in these configurations results in higher foam thickness. A lower transfer of impulse to the back-sheet.
In addition, it should be remembered that the advent of foam. The result is a higher reduction in response except
for configuration P7 for all relative foam densities and configuration P4 for RD = 0.100 for blast loading with
all other parameters held the same, i.e. without any stiffener, as opposed to the panel, i.e. A1. P1. The rationale
for greater peak displacement the fact that stiffeners in these configurations do not move through the center
point of the panels, resulting in a localized response, is attributed to panels P4 and P7. For the foam core
thicknesses of 100 and 150 mm for P7, similar observations are made, while configuration P44 is results in
lower peak central point displacement as opposed to P1. Increasing foam relative density, however, results in
increased peak central point displacement with higher foam core thickness in the case of the P1 configuration.
Furthermore, since the low-density foam hardens at low stress levels than those with higher density foams for
the same level of blast heating, better performance of the low-density foam with the lowest foam thickness is
achieved .

CASE 2: SANDWICH FOAM PANELS WITH 50-, 100-, AND 150-MM

THICK FOAM CORE WITH 1 KG TNT AND 2 M STANDOFF DISTANCE:
Comparison of the peak central point displacements of sandwich foam panels with a foam core thickness of 50,
100 and 150 mm with different relative densities shows that panels with a foam relative density of 0.100 have
the lowest peak central point displacement for all panel configurations at the same degree of blast load
(Figure4). For a 150 mm thick foam core with a relative density of 0.100, the lowest central point displacement
is observed for panel configuration P11 (3.05 mm) for a 2 m standoff distance (Table 3 and Figure 4).
Furthermore, with the exception of configuration P7 (50 mm thick foam core), the introduction of foam results
in a higher response reduction for all foam relative densities, but excluding foam relative densities of 0.114- and
150-mm thick foam. The maximum displacement of the P7 configuration is 19.78 mm at tf = 150 mm, while the
maximum displacement of the P1 configuration is 20.81 mm at the same blast loading stage (Table 3). In the
case of panel P7, the explanation for the higher peak displacement is due to the fact that the stiffeners do not
move through the center point of the panel in this configuration, i.e. the peak displacement point.
For this loading combination, the peak central point displacements of panels reveal varied patterns for all the
thicknesses of the foam core. Again, for the unstiffened panel configuration, the maximum displacement is
observed and all other configurations display lower central point peaks Displacement demonstrating the
efficacy of the use of closed-cell aluminium foam with an acceptable stiffener configuration for a specific foam
core thickness.

CASE 3: SANDWICH FOAM PANELS WITH 50-, 100-, AND 150-MM

THICK FOAM CORE WITH 1 KG TNT AND 2.5 M STANDOFF
DISTANCE
In this loading situation, the peak central point displacement of the panels results in a similar pattern as
observed in case 2. For a 150 mm thick foam core with a relative density of 0.100 for panel configuration P11
(2.45 mm) with a standoff distance of 2.5 m, the lowest central point displacement is observed (Table 4 and
Figure 4).
Furthermore, it should be noted that the introduction of foam results in a greater reduction of the response
except for configuration P7 (50 mm thick foam core) for all the relative foam densities. However, the P7 panel
configuration results in a higher peak displacement compared to the 50 mm thick foam P1 configuration at the
same blast loading speed, for the same reason as mentioned above that the stiffeners do not move through the
center point of the panel.
For this loading combination, the peak central point displacements of panels reveal varied patterns for all the
thicknesses of the foam core. Again for the unstiffened panel configuration, the maximum displacement is
observed and all other configurations display lower central point peaks The quality of the foam and stiffeners is
indicated by displacement.

CONCLUSIONS:

In order to research the effect of a) stiffener configuration, (b) foam thickness, (c) foam density, and (d)
standoff distance on the blast response, the response of sandwich foam panels subjected to varying blast loading
is shown. The present analysis draws the following conclusions:
1. The circle panel with the configuration of a cross stiffener sandwiched with the highest relative configuration
the lowest peak central point displacement below results in density and overall foam thickness. Consideration of
the lowest standoff distance.
2. Central point displacement decreases with the rise in foam thickness for the foam considered.
3. The implementation of foam results in a higher reduction in response, with the exception of the circular
panel.
4. For the unstiffened panel configuration, maximum displacement is observed.
5. Compared to the lowest foam density, foam largely performs best with the lowest foam thickness. In the
present investigation, higher foam densities and thicknesses were considered for the minimum standoff size.
6. It is not only the stiffener configurations that control the response, but also the form and thickness of the
foam, along with the blast loading scenario, that significantly affects the response.
7. The overall internal energy of the unstiffened sandwich foam panel is greater than that of the stiffened
sandwich foam panel, and so is the kinetic energy considered in the present investigation for all the forms of
foams and all the stiffener configurations. (Goel)

THE COMPARISON OF VARIOUS FOAM POLYMER TYPES IN

COMPOSITE SANDWICH PANELS SUBJECTED TO FULL SCALE AIR
BLAST LOADING

Full-scale testing of a number of polymer foam composite panels has been conducted. These panels employed
glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) face-sheets with different polymer foam cores, namely: Styrene
acrylonitrile (SAN); Polyvinylchloride (PVC) and Polymethacrylimide (PMI). All three sandwich panels were
loaded at a stand-off distance of 15 metres at 100 kg TNT equivalent, and the reactions were measured using the
digital image correlation. The extent of damage was then analysed through the post-burst segmentation of the
sandwich panels, and the SAN core was found to be least damaged and the PMI was most damaged. The DIC
showed that because of the less damage, greater steepness was retained, the deflection of the SAN core sands
was much lower than the two other foam polymer cores. To date, all explosive research has been funded by the
Naval Research Office.
Due to its low radar signature, polymeric foam sandwich panels have customized mechanical properties and a
low density, they are of interest in military applications. Here, PVC foam core panels have been subject to
explosive loading, and the replies have been divided into core crushing and bending to create core damage. The
splash panels were tested in full scale with high-speed camera recordings for 3D Digital Image Correlation and
their responses were recorded. Then after loading with blasting, the sandwich panels were used to test the
number of core cracking and decay present.

This study considered the blast resistance of 2 mm GFRP face sheets of polymer composite sandwiches to full
size blast loading. Three separate foam polymers: SAN, PVC and PMI were included in the comparative
analysis. Both of the three core foams were 100 kg/m3 density and 40 mm thick. The reactions of sandwich
panels were supposed to be similar due to the similar established mechanical properties, but in this work the
blast tolerance was to be determined by the dynamic behaviour of those Polymer foams with little research

BLAST TEST SETUP

Out of plane displacement (UZ) and maximum principal strain (εmax) for the SAN, PVC and PMI core
sandwich panels, measured using DIC from the high speed camera images. The first two contour plot of
maximum main strain (μmax) show high pressure areas along the vertical edges caused by early cracking of the
heart, which results in wide bends in the back of the sandwich panel in this field. The sandwich panels of the
out of the plane displacement (UZ), which is a result of core crackings that result in a high localised bending,
display discontinuity of gradient along a single edge of the sandwich panel during later loadings. In the case of
the SAN polymer core the out of flat pathway (UZ) is also approximately 10 mm lower than the two other test
tables. The rectangular regions of high tensions of the μmax contour plots display core cracking, as the cracks
on the edges decrease the deflection on the outside of the sheets, only the central region is strongly bent.
To survey the harm endured during impact stacking, the three sandwich boards were segmented in to 16 pieces
after shoot stacking, to assess the edges for harm. The measure of debonding between the face-sheets and the
center was then assessed, and the quantity of breaks spreading through the center thickness tallied. Because of
high measures of center breaking and debonding it was unrealistic to segment the PMI center sandwich board,
however the harmed district of the board (counting a combination of debonding and breaking) represented
around 75% of the sandwich board. From the post impact harm investigation, it was resolved that the SAN
center endured essentially less debonding and center breaking than the PVC and PMI cases, and because of less
center breaking likewise endured less front face-sheet disappointment.
The SAN froth polymer held more solidness during stacking, because of less breaking, and avoided 10 mm not
exactly the other two sandwich boards, coming to around 90 mm greatest redirection. The sub-surface center
breaking in the sandwich boards can likewise be noticed through discontinuities in the out of plane removal
profiles estimated with DIC, and it was discovered that these were substantially more articulated in the PMI
case than the other two, suggesting more harm. Upon post-impact separating and review it was found that the
complete debonded territory of the SAN sandwich board, across the two interfaces between the face sheets and
center, was around 20%. In the PVC case this was about 44% and in the PMI case was over 60%. Moreover 34
through thickness center breaks were seen in the SAN center, 82 in the PVC center and more than 200 in the
PMI center. This permits the end to be drawn that the SAN froth center sandwich board endures significantly
less center and interface harm than the PVC and PMI centers, bringing about considerably less redirection and
front face-sheet breaking because of it holding a high solidness. The PMI case endures especially extreme
center breaking during impact stacking, bringing about high measures of debonding, and serious compressive
front face-sheet breaks.
The findings of this research can be summarized as follows in different GFRP sandwich core foam polymer
forms.
 The use of DIC maximum principal strain measurements on the back face of the sandwich panel can
provide an early indication of sub-surface damage due to high localized bending.
 Discontinuities in the displacement profile across the back face-sheet of the sandwich panel provide an
assessment of the extent and location of sub-surface core damage.
 Significant core damage causes severe drops in stiffness, resulting in compressive front face-sheet
cracking.
 SAN foam polymer suffers the least amount of damage out of the three polymer types, resulting in less
deflection and fewer front face-sheet cracks.
 PMI suffers heavy core cracking, leading to significant debonding in the interfaces between the core and
the face-sheets, and leads to a lot of front face-sheet cracking.
(Mark Kelly)
 2014
COMPOSITE AND NON-COMPOSITE BEHAVIORS OF FOAM-
INSULATED CONCRETE SANDWICH PANELS
The structural behavior of the uniform pressure insulated concrete panels was assessed. The study revealed an
important impact on the reactions of foam- insulate concrete sandwich panels on interface conditions such as
composite and non-composite, showing that
the simulated shear tie resistance can in fact be integrated into numerical analyses. Finite element models have
been constructed to simulate the detailed shear resistance of concrete, foam and rebar components in connectors
and their nonlinear behavior’s.

The main objective of this paper was to determine FICSP's structural behaviors under standardized strain using
FE analyses. This study established and validated model finite element (FE) by comparing the simulation
findings with experimental data obtained by static testing. For verification the concrete code and calibrating the
parameters of the non-linear concrete model, the data of two test arrays of two sizes and/or reinforcement
conditions for the concrete beam was used (see Table 2). The FE modelling was help and loaded uniformly over
a simple span in Fig 2a for the concrete code verification. Compared with the test matrix, the load-displacement
curves from the FE tests. The findings of the FE experiments were well in line with those of the test matrix,
though the initial rigidity of the FE analysis was significantly higher than the test matrix. This is possibly due to
(1) the mid-span crack in the sample and/or (2) inadequate knowledge about the tensile strength of the béton
FICSP's ultimate bending ability can be heavily influenced by its shear tie connector steadiness and failure
mode. Direct shear tests were used to assess shear resistance data for composite and non-composite ties (shear
force–displacement history), which were used in the FE modelling to effectively simulate the shear strength of
the tie in an incline sandwich model. For the modelling of any shear tie, a multi-point limit (MPC) approach has
been used. Three concrete layers, two shear bindings and two layers of foam were used in the evaluation. To
minimize eccentricity, the symmetric test configuration was selected. On the rebar in the central concrete plate,
the axial tensile forces were applied and the lower sections of this rebar were fixed, which had become
embedded in exterior concrete layers. The shear intensity of the tests was compared to that of the FE models.
The panel was simply supported and pressurised uniformly. The results were compared with those produced in
the FE models from the static testing of 3-2-3 FICSPs subject to uniform pressure. Due to interface properties
between concrete and foam, the ultimate strength of FICSP is highly affected. The fact that the composite
distributions are completely different from non-composite parts can be explained. The composite bonds
sandwich panel is rigidly reacted by shear that is stress-distributed in the figure 6. The non-composite sandwich
panel, however, can be seen as an individually stressful stacked platform. After hitting the final intensity of the
system, the uniform pressure decreased suddenly. This is likely because of the slippage caused by the shear
forces that failed in many shear links.
The pressure vertical avoidance and stress–strain bends of the top and base wythes at the midpoint of the range
are plotted in Fig. 9. Strangely, the breaking of the base wythe was incited before a definitive compressive
pressure was forced. The pressure strain history after a definitive compressive and rigidity were reached
obviously shows the pressure solidifying and strain hardening impacts. The cozy connections between the
weight dislodging bends of the trial tests and the FE demonstrating recommend that the recreation of the
pressure solidifying and strain hardening of the solid is palatable for this application
The structural behaviors of the rebar in the FICSPs were monitored in detail.the stress distributions of the top
and bottom reinforcements along the span at the initial yielding and ultimate stages of the system. At the initial
yielding stage, the highest compressive stresses at the top wythe occurred in the same location at which the
FICSP experienced the failure of sections. The tensile stresses at the bottom wythe from this point were
increased substantially up to the midpoint of the span. The deformed shape of a FICSP subjected to uniform
pressure, therefore, could be expected to be associated closely with the stress distribution in the rebar along the
span. The rebar did not reach to the ultimate strength of steel after it yielded.
Shear resistances are closely linked to the connections and the global FICSP behaviours. During vertical
deflection the shear resistances of the bonds at midpoint and end were evaluated. As Fig reveals. 11a, at the end
and at the bottom the resistances of the bonds were greater, respectively, than those of the centre and the top. It
has been found in Fig. 11 that at the end of the lower wyth and at the centre of the top wyth, the highest shear
forces on the links were induced. The information proposes that the upgrade of the shear qualities at the
closures will be a more proficient approach to build a definitive strength of FICSPs exposed to uniform weight
than improving the shear qualities at the midpoint or at different areas. the yield purpose of each tie introduced
at one of different areas harmonized with the diversion point at a definitive strength of the framework.
for either of the loading processes, the foam insulation did not undergo any noticeable tension. Since the
ultimate device strength was achieved, the foam's stress direction has changed. It is important to note that the
primary goal of foam isolation is not to strengthen the structure but to increase energy efficiency and minimize
impact damage
The effect of composite and non-composite effects on the response of FICSPs was important and indicated that
the simulated shear tie resistance had to be integrated into the FICSP numerical analyses. The Multi-Point
Constrictive approach (MPC) has been shown to be an effective way to model shear resistance. In this research,
the modelling method has successfully simulated the comprehensive structural conduct of concrete, rebar, foam
and bindings in all loading phases (elastic, yielding, ultimate and post-failure). Due to the adequate simulation
in compression hardening and stress stiffening of concrete, the experimental test results and the FE model
demonstrate strong consent.
(Kang)

CHARACTERIZATION OF NOMEX HONEYCOMB CORE

CONSTITUENT MATERIAL MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
To achieve mesoscale limited component demonstrating of these centers, cell divider mechanical properties are
needed, for which restricted information are accessible. In this work, tractable testing was performed on Nomex
paper, phenolic tar, and Nomex paper covered with phenolic gum. Two forms of Nomex honeycomb cores were
also tested for flat tension and compression. The results of the test were optimised for local tension
measurement effects and thickness normalisation in finite element modelling. In the Honeycomb core finite
element model, established cell-wall material properties have been implemented and further tuned by
corresponding simulation results to the test data from the manufacturers. The cells have also been calibrated to
their double wall thickness. These measurements and modifications resulted in the precise simulation with the
test results. The numerically matching properties of cell wall material depends on complexity of modelling and
on core variability of results and core building differences between manufacturers.
Cores of Nomex honeycomb consist of attached Nomex paper strips dipped into phenolic resin. Nomex is a
meta-aramide chemical ingredient made of Nomex fibres. The thermoset epoxy bands normally hang on to
Nomex paper strips. This gathering, once exp Core producers give mechanical properties to the center square,
specifically pressure strength and modulus, and fundamental bearing shear strength and modulus. Center
elasticity is frequently assessed from a manufactured sandwich with a flatwise tractable testanded to frame
honeycomb cells, is dunked into phenolic tar and restored to shape the last center. This test can likewise serve to
assess face-to-center bond quality.

The reported stress was determined on the basis of measured data from the manufacturer by specimen section
with an actual thickness of 0.056 mm. Strain was determined by the displacement of the system divided by the
original measuring length of the specimen by 300 mm. The plastic like behavior observed in the curves is
similar to what Foo et al. previously reported. In like manner, wrinkling of the paper started at roughly the mid-
level power sufficiency. Each example we tried fizzled in its center length parcel, away from the tabs. The
elastic modulus was determined from a direct relapse in the 0.2–0.4% strain stretch. normal moduli test results
contrast by 7–23% and uncover a higher orthotropic proportion. While it is untimely to make an end as a result
of restricted information, these distinctions might be brought about by the diverse paper thickness tried.
The results of the phenolic resin stress test showed, as predicted, a linear elastic stress/strain comportement. A
linear regression of stress/tensile strain, and eye/ex slope respectively were determined from the tensile and
Poisson ratios in the range of strains of 0,1–0,3percent. The tensile modules, which were measured from five
specimens, averaged 4.94 GPa (Sn1 = 0. 20 GPa, C.V. = 4.05%) and averaging 0.389 Poisson (Sn1 = 0.005,
C.V. = 1.35%). The obtained modulus is above a given guideline value of 3.9 GPa.

Straight flexible conduct was seen until disappointment. Contrasted with plain Nomex paper, the expansion of a
phenolic pitch covering killed plastic twisting and significantly diminished most extreme strain. r. Thinking
about this outcome, we expected that our single sap impregnation was moderately thick in examination. The
average fault strength of the 0 Nomex/phenolic specimens (42.9 MPa) corresponds to 204.5 N of the strength of
these specimens. Suppose the phenolic coating is the first to fail in this test. This inference is based on the
relatively low fault strain of the Nomex/phenolic specimen compared to Nomex paper (0.83 percent vs 7.27
percent).
Despite the different core densities and manufacturers evaluated, constituent material densities are fairly close,
within a range of 1.11–1.16 g/cc. Using the core and material densities, the cell size (H), and a theoretical
perfect hexagon cell geometry, a theoretical honeycomb constant single-wall thickness (tth) can be calculated

From these calculations, a slight trend is apparent: the higher the wall thickness, the higher the material density.
Linear elastic output was specifically observed at the tensile side of the strain measurement signal for the 32
kg/m3 core, and the 64 kg/m3 core showed some nonlinear drift. This is due to experimental imprecision,
namely the misalignment of the load and the imprecision of the strain gauge on the wall of the wall. At low
pressure, compression conduct is usually linear during compression, while with increasing stress, some strain
measurements showed precise nonlinear drift.
For the results of the Nomex/phenolic test, the measurements will be modelled on a FEM and the results will be
compensated for the local stiffening effect of the strain gauge. Most possibly, because of the increase of the
Nomex Honeycomb Core, it will be that the Nomex paper's 90 line will be corresponded to the heart direction
of the consumer. In these core experiments, this direction was the principal direction of load and stress
calculation. Therefore, the 90 defined directional properties from the Nomex/ phenolic specimens can be
compared and the core tests can be carried out at once.
A limited component model of the Nomex/phenolic pressure tests was underlying request to make up for the
neighborhood solidifying impact expected in the strain gage region. To accomplish this, the strain gage material
was remembered for the model. In light of the properties of epoxy films, the accompanying boundaries were
utilized to demonstrate the strain gage: E = 2.5 GPa, m = 0.36, and a 0.03 mm thickness. For each tractable
experimental group (i.e., 0, 45, and 90), a model was constructed that considers each gathering's specific normal
thickness to decide the additional phenolic covering thickness in the model.
The primary flat sense trials were constructed in FEM to determine the strain gauge determination outcomes.
This type of model will consider many aspects of a real variable characteristic of the heart, such as cell wall
thickness variability of the cell wall curvature (in out of planes), material property variations inside the cell
wall, the resin build-up at the cell corners and other random geometrical imperfections. The shell elements
reflect a honeycomb cell geometry. Depending on the core producer, such characteristics may differ. Staal
demonstrated that utilizing adjusted cell corners can significantly affect the model's in-plane face wrinkling
clasping load. From magnifying lens perceptions of the centers, a cell filet proportion (w) of 0.2 was executed
in the model calculation, characterized as w = (L)/2l, with l the glorified hexagonal cell divider length and L the
genuine straight part of the cell divider. The center's base hub relocations (ui) were secured in the X, Y, and Z
headings. The center's top hub relocations were coupled in the X, Y, and Z headings. With this we thought
about that the in-plane firmness of the center was insignificant contrasted with the appearances.
Tensile tests on Nomex paper, phenolic resin and phenolic Nomex paper were carried out for the first time in
this work. The results of the paper test Nomex were comparable to the test data previously released. These
findings confirmed that the properties of the paper depend at least in terms of strength on the nominal thickness
of the paper. In the range of results released, measured phenolic resin elastic properties. The Nomex paper
showing phenolic resin coated has an elastic nature which is purely linear; we attribute this to the relatively
dense resin coating. In finite element modelling (FEM), these NomeX / phenoline test findings were evaluated
to account of stress local stiffening effects with regards and normalise the splicing sample thickness of test
selections. E1 = 5.20 GPa, E2 = 3.22 GPa, G12 = 1.26 gpa, and m12 = 0.24 were the reported Nomex/phenol
elastic properties. On Nomex honeycomb cores mounted in strain gauges, flatscrew tension and compression
tests were also carried out. Finite element models for these tests were also constructed, and models were used
for determination of material E2 values of 4.16 or 4.77 GPa. Compared to our processed specimens and phenol
test specimens, we assign these comparative values to the more optimised formulation for the content of
industrial Nomex cores. The distinguished Nomex/phenolic material property set was then utilized in a limited
component model of a center. Reenacted center moduli were contrasted with maker's test information. Scaling
of the material moduli E2 and G12 was needed to move toward the test information. It was likewise seen that
the honeycomb cell's twofold dividers don't actually have twofold the thickness of its single-dividers. This
perception was additionally actualized in the model, and it was conceivable to accomplish an ideal match
between center reenactments and test outcomes. The adjusted cell divider material versatile properties in this
coordinating model were E1 = 5.20 GPa, E2 = 3.60 GPa, G12 = 1.76 GPa, and m12 = 0.24. We think about that
as some degree of model adjustment should be normal with meso-scale Nomex honeycomb center displaying.
The requirement for alignment may come from the degree of demonstrating refinement utilized (defects, cell
corners), center development contrasts among producers, or center test outcomes changeability.
(Roy)

2015

Sandwich structures with two face-sheets and a metallic core exhibit superior energy absorption capability and
high stiffness with a relatively low weight. Extensive studies previously been conducted to investigate the
response of sandwich structures with foam cores subjected to blast loadings. All studies show that metallic
sandwich plate’s exhibit excellent energy absorption performance compared to monolithic plates subjected to
high velocity projectile impact and air blast especially, investigated effect of several key design parameters on
structural response of sandwich panels with aluminum foam core subjected to air blast. Their study indicated
distinct dependence of plastic deflection of back face-sheet on skin thickness and core parameters, such as cell
size and wall thickness. To enlarge the application range of sandwich constructions in submerged protection and
naval engineering wherein sandwich structures are subject to more complicated and stronger dynamic loads,
studies on its blast resistance to underwater impulsive loading recently conducted. .

2016
SANDWICH STRUCTURE BASED ON CORRUGATED-CORE
For lightweight uses like the aero-flat fuselage, hull in marine construction, etc., sandwich structures are used as
they are typically based on polymeric foam and honeycomb core material. firstly, this paper offers a way to
compare sandwich structures available in the industry. Secondly, it aims to provide a corrugated sandwich
framework for future exploration advancement endeavors in field of sandwich development.
Advanced composite materials such as the sandwich structure have increasingly replaced conventional
materials, such as aluminum and steel, from small-scale to the main structural components of heavy vehicles,
such as aircraft and marine ships.
Generally, single layer sandwich structure consists typically of three principal sections that are the center and
two face sheets. With an additional sheet, called internal sheet, embedded into the center, a two-layer sandwich
panel is then formed. The sandwich structure includes two relatively thin, rigid, and strong faces separated by,
for example, honey-comb, foam core and cellular metal, a relatively thick lightweight core..

The faces adhesively stuck to the core to gain a load transfer among the components. The structural advantages
of the full assembly result in a high strength-to-weight and high bending strength-to - weight ratio of these
characteristics of individual components. The face layer typically consists of laminates, aluminum plates and
fiber glass reinforced plastics. The skins are usually thin, rigid and highly durable..

The sandwich structure center is the structure that set between two thin faces. The material at the center is
typically of low strength, but its larger density provides high bending rigidity for the sandwich part with a low
overall density. The core is intended to protect the thin skin in order to avoid deformation. Honeycomb is well-
known core used to build sandwich structure.
The honeycomb, flexcores and nomex are sandwiched between two carbon skins to make a hardened and solid
structure. Honeycomb has a uniform state of hexagonal development characterized by the cell size, material,cell
divider thickness and mass thickness. If the waterproofing, sound and heat insulation qualities of the core are
desired, the foam cores are ideally used.

The filling of honeycomb cells with foam can be considered as an improvement in de-bonding resistance. The
insertion of foam into the heart of honeycomb core allows the natural frequencies to be sufficiently decreased.
Tiny improvements in the bending load and negligible decreases of imperfection of foam-filled sandwich plates
are promoted by foam filling. The added foam can change the stress distributions in the interface between the
core and the layer.
Sandwiches of aluminum foam (AFS), obtained by joining sheets of metal with a light weight core of metal
foam, possess a low specific weight, efficient dissipation power, high impact strength, sound and heat
insulation, high damping, etc. that have made these sandwiches interesting for a number of practical uses such
as lightweight structures with very high mechanical strength and great limit of energy dissemination under
effects. Aluminum Foam Sandwich provides some advantages as opposed to conventional honeycomb panels. It
can be formed into curved shapes and with incorporated skin (without adhesive bonding). The work temperature
can be higher and higher protection from harm from water interruption, which could be significant for marine
applications. (V. N. Burlayenko and T. Sadowski)

A corrugated-core sandwich structure is embraced of a corrugation sheet between two thin surface sheets. Its
high strength to weight ratio is the essential aspect of this structure. The corrugated-core separates the face
sheets, stabilizing them by resistance to vertical deformation and furthermore empowers the entire structure to
act as a single thick plate as an asset of its shearing strength. This second feature gives the sandwich structures
greater strength. Moreover, not at all like delicate honeycomb formed centers, a corrugated-core restricts
bending and twisting as well to vertical shear.

Corrugated-core sandwich panels, due to their extremely high flexural stiffness-to weight ratio are widely used
for aircraft, aviation, civil engineering, and other applications where weight is a vital design problem. Tested
longitudinally, the corrugated cores give shear forces comparable to square honeycombs which are substantially
larger than those demonstrated by diamond cores and more conventional foam cores. The second different
feature of a corrugated center is its ability to create excellent ventilation characteristics to prevent moisture
retention problems typical in cellular core materials. For these panels there are dissimilar core shapes, such as
truss-type corrugations (i.e. triangular), circular shape or trapezoidal cores.
 Triangular
 Sinusoidal
Conclusions
The structures for sandwiches are typically polymeric and honeycomb-based. This paper addressed the
sandwich construction based on a corrugated core with various corrugated core shapes which are trapezoidal,
triangular and sinusoidal. The important features of this corrugated-core sandwich structures is its high strength
to weight ratio. Furthermore, because of their high flexural stiffness to weight proportion, the structure typically
utilized in making airplane, marine boat, connect and other application. corrugated-core offer shear qualities
when tried the longitudinal way which can be contrast and square honeycombs and altogether more noteworthy
than jewel centers and more customary froth centers.
(Ruzaimi Rejab)

BLAST RESISTANCE OF METALLIC SANDWICH PANELS SUBJECTED

TO PROXIMITY UNDERWATER EXPLOSION
In order to examine the blast resistance of metallic sandwich panels, a series of close-in underwater blast tests
were carried out on sandwich panels consisting of two aluminium alloy face-sheets and a honeycomb core. In
terms of structural deformation resistance represented by back face-sheet deflection and secondary pressure
wave strength, which is determined by the maximum velocity of the back face-sheet, the blast resistance of
sandwich panels was evaluated. The secondary pressure wave was found to show an inverse pattern with the
thickness of the face-sheet while a positive relationship with the core density determined by the thickness of the
foil. To define the impact of design parameters on the structural failure mechanism at this blast magnitude, a
failure mode map was adopted. In terms of deformation resistance and secondary pressure wave strength even
at high blast magnitude, the comparative study presented more experimental evidence for the advantage of
sandwich construction. It was also proposed that the gain of resistance to deformation was amplified with equal
thickness increases.
Two facesheets and a honeycomb centre make up the square specimens adopted in the experiments. Epoxy resin
adhesive was used to bind the face and cores. The Al-5052 aluminium alloy, which has excellent shock
resistance and anti-fatigue performance, was made from both face sheets and the core. A rectangular array of
hexagonal cells was composed of the honeycomb centre.
A schematic diagram of the experimental set-up is outlined below. Air-backed and peripherally clamped into a
frame was the rectangular sandwich panel. The diameter of the exposed area was 170 mm. In order to replicate
the protected space underneath the specimens, a back-sealed container of 170 mm x 500 mm in dimension was
used.
A comparison of blast resistance between sandwich panels and monolithic plates of equivalent mass was
investigated, including the deformation-resistant capacity and anti-shockwave results. By converting the mass
of its face sheets and core to a monolithic plate of the same lateral dimension, the equivalent thickness of the
sandwich panels is obtained. The x-coordinate for the monolithic specimens is its thickness. Both the deflection
and the secondary pressure wave amplitude decrease periodically over the equivalent thickness, according to the
scatter diagram. We can see from the contrast that the deflection of the back face-sheet steadily approaches the
deflection of solid plates by reducing the thickness of the skin. By using thinner face-sheets, the deformation
resistance of sandwich panels tends to decrease and even to be worse than solid plates when the equivalent
thickness is close to the extension area. That is, by using sandwich construction, the advantage of anti-
deformation efficiency is amplified with an equal increase in thickness. Results of tested specimens show that
the amplitude of the deflection and secondary pressure wave are distributed below the solid plates fitting curve,
which means that the sandwich panels demonstrate stronger blast resistance than the comparable mass
monolithic plates. In addition, it is obvious that the specimen's anti-shockwave efficiency is greatly enhanced by
the use of sandwich structures that have an important guiding role in the naval industry's structure design and
subsea defensive engineering.
Conclusion
Two aluminium alloy face-sheets were used in a series of proximity underwater blast tests on sandwich panels
and a honeycomb core was carried out. The effect of the thickness of the face-sheet and foil on resistance to
structural deformation and anti-shockwave performance has been established. In the experiments, PVDF
pressure gauges measured the shock pressure loading on the front face-sheet, and the secondary pressure wave
originating from the moving back of the face-sheet was controlled by a pressure sensor mounted at the same
observation distance relative to the back face-sheet. It was shown that by monitoring pressure-time histories at
various loading surface positions, specimens experienced typical localised underwater explosion loading. The
deformation resistance and shockwave attenuation output of the panels were defined in the quantitative analysis
by back face-sheet deflection and strength of the secondary pressure wave. Results show that specimens
developed smaller deflections with thicker face-sheets and denser cores. The secondary pressure wave,
however, shows an opposite pattern with face-sheet thickness, while this analysis shows a positive relationship
with core density defined by foil thickness. In order to study the influence of face-sheet and cell foil thickness
on the structural failure mechanism at the experimental blast magnitude, a failure mode map of the front skins
and cores was used. Specimens with thinner skins and lighter cores created more complex modes of failure, it
was concluded. As for the back face-sheets, only global deformation was generated by all the panels. Finally, by
transferring its mass to an equivalent solid plate, the blast resistance of sandwich panels is compared with
monolithic plates in terms of back face-sheet deflection and secondary pressure wave strength.

(ZhiqiangFan)

The study of the structural blast worthiness is aimed to design efficient structures, which are not only high
strength materials but also the capability of the structure to absorb the blast impact energy. The use of sandwich
panels as the energy absorber is promising to obtain the lightweight blast impact resistant structures. This study
was focus on the dynamic response behavior of the metallic sandwich structures on blast impact loading
associated with the plate thickness or its mechanical characteristics. The main criteria of designing vehicles for
military purposes is its strength and its protective capability against blast attacks. Recently with the emerging
research on metallic foam is an effort to develop more lightweight military vehicle. Under this study we have
examined that first layer of sandwich panels will not only absorb the blast energy but also to distribute the blast
energy over the whole plate to decrease its impact. However, the second layer was designed to absorb the blast
energy further which has been reduced or distributed by the first layer of plate. Through the experiments it has
been observed higher the thickness of the plate lower the displacement will be. Because greater the energy will
be absorbed by the plate resulting less displacement. The total energy of blast impact is dissipated as the
internal energy during the loading. The remaining kinetic energy will be represented as the inelastic
deformation of the panel displacement. The capacity of energy absorption is measured by specific energy
absorption which is defined as ratio of internal energy per total mass of the panels.
 The
advantage of using metallic foam as material for blast protection can be shown particularly by the increase of
specific absorbed energy with the increase of foam thickness resulting decrease in displacement. This behavior
shows the potential of the metallic foam to achieve structural efficiency of the armor vehicle.

Nowadays, sandwich panels are recognized for their importance in various technical fields especially in
aeronautics, automotive, and structural engineering. Light-weight composite material can be used in sandwich
panels due to having high stiffness-to-weight ratio. In this study, a numerical model has been conducted to
study the effectiveness of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) sandwich panels under blast effect. Recently, blast
loads resulting from accidental or intentional events adversely affect different structures and threaten their
occupants.
In industrial fields, man-made accidents can create explosions that are accompanied with other phenomena such
as fire and impacts caused by explosion-borne missiles. The most efficient light-weight maneuverable walls are
usually made of sandwich panels. Sandwich panels are composed of three layers; upper skin, inner core, and
lower skin.
In the last two decades, the dynamic behavior of sandwich panel under blast loading has been the area of
investigation for many researchers. Xue and Hutchinson stated that it is way better to compare the blast effect
resistance of a well-designed sandwich panel with a solid panel having the same weight. In addition, they have
proven that the sandwich panel dissipates significantly more energy than a solid plate of the same material and
mass due to the ability of the core truss structure to deform plastically.
Using sandwich panels with filling materials improves their behaviour. In this regard, Børvik et al. investigated
aluminum sandwich panels to be used in protecting a 20ft ISO container. The results showed that ballistic and
blast load resistance were enhanced when using granular material as a filling material. Zhang et al. studied
analytically and numerically the compressive strengths and dynamic response of corrugated sandwich plates
with unfilled and foam-filled sinusoidal plate cores..

A tube-core sandwich panel was designed to serve as anti-blast panel of blast resistant walls. The steel tubes are
non-expensive and strong for anti-blast walls and can be easily connected with the face sheets through welding.
Contact explosion experiments were performed to check the failure style of tube-core sandwich panels under
intense explosions.
Tubes in three-tube-core and four-tube core panels have periodic spacing and these panels are called spaced
tube-core sandwich panel. Tubes in five-tube-core connect with each other and the spacing is zero. These panels
are called connected tube-core sandwich panel. The designed panels have been applied in anti-blast walls.
Blast-resistant ability was firstly checked by close-in explosion experiments. Failure of the three-tube-core
sandwich panel is close to the five-tube-core sandwich panel. Under contact explosion, performance of the tube-
core panel is localized. Tube-crushing and skin-tearing are the main energy absorption mechanisms.
Appropriate thicknesses for the front face and the tube wall promote the energy absorption. Over-stiff design
will decrease the energy absorption and transfer the blast load to the support system of the panel. The
experiments indicate that under given conditions connected tube-core panel is the best choice for contact
explosion. Possessing energy absorption and keeping overall bending rigidity, tube-core panel has excellent
anti-blast ability. As this panel is easily acquired, it is a promising anti-blast structure. (ZhiqiangFan)
COMPRESSIVE RESPONSE OF SANDWICH PLATES TO WATER-
BASED IMPULSIVE LOADING (SANDWICH STRUCTURES)
The compressive response of sandwich plates with Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) foam cores and aluminum face
sheets to water-based impulsive loading is analyzed using an instrumented impulsive loading apparatus called
the Underwater Shock Loading Simulator (USLS) and a fully-dynamic 3-D computational framework. The
loading conditions analyzed are similar to those in underwater blasts. Naval experiments are carried out to
quantify the response of rigidly supported sandwich plates to water-based impulsive loading. The study focuses
on the overall deformation, strain recovery and impulse transmission which are quantified as functions of
structural attributes.
Introduction
Marine vessels operate in severe environments with temperature extremes, transient loads and corrosive sea
water. In addition to operational loads, the structures are required to withstand accidental hydrodynamic
impulsive loads due to surface and sub-surface blasts and weapons impact. Sandwich composites can provide
good blast mitigation due to their high strength-to-weight ratios and high shear and bending resistances. The
forces and impulses transmitted by sandwich structures are significantly smaller than those transmitted by
monolithic structures. Recent assessments of blast-loaded marine structures show that fluid structure interaction
(FSI) effects play an important role in response and can be exploited to improve the blast mitigation capability.
Theory:
The deformation and failure of sandwich structures subjected to underwater impulsive loads is complicated due
to competing damage mechanisms, complex failure modes, interfacial effects and material heterogeneity. The
facesheets have a dominant effect on the rigidity of the sandwich structure and provide protection from
environmental conditions while the core governs the energy absorption by, and impulse transmission, through
the structure. In addition, load intensities, boundary conditions, and operating environments all influence
deformation and failure. Despite recent advances in understanding, several key issues remain unresolved. The
objective of the present combined experimental and numerical study is to characterize the behavior of structural
foams subjected to underwater impulsive loads and delineate the role of core compressibility and facesheet
thickness on the response of sandwich plates.
Main Areas for Discussion:
The focus is on quantifying the compression and impulse transmission characteristics of PVC foams with a
range of densities under loading of water-based high-intensity impulses generated using a recently developed
experimental setup called the Underwater Shock Loading Simulator (USLS). The loads mimic the high-
pressure, exponentially-decaying impulses that are generated during underwater explosions. As shown in Figure
1, the USLS consists of a projectile-impact-based impulsive loading system, a water chamber, a target holder
and a safety enclosure.
In-situ measurements of the material response are obtained using high-speed digital imaging and force
transducers, providing an opportunity to assess the role of core density and strength on blast resistance during
events mimicking an underwater detonation.
Underwater impulsive loading experiments
The materials analyzed are structural Poly-Vinyl Chloride (PVC) foams manufactured by DIAB Inc. under the
trade name Divinycell HP. These foams are used because their high residual strengths and dimensional stability
make them ideal for vacuum bagging and vacuum assisted resin-transfer molding (VARTM). The high strength-
to-weight ratio of sandwich structures manufactured using these foams lead to higher vehicle speeds, greater
payload capacities, and reduced power demand, all of which result in better operating economy. Additionally,
these structural foams possess high chemical resistance, low water absorbency and good thermal insulation and
make ideal core materials in sandwich constructions for marine applications. Here, PVC foams with densities of
60, 100, 130, 200 and 250 kg/m3 are studied. The stress-strain relations are linear initially and subsequently
show yielding and stress saturation before core densification which

leads to a rise in stress as shown:

This unique characteristic of the compressive deformation makes the foams especially useful for applications
requiring compression and energy absorbency. The densities of the platens and the facesheets are much higher
than those of the foam cores, so the platens can be considered as effectively rigid.
Loading-structure-performance maps:
To fully utilize the potential of sandwich structures, one consideration is to maximize the performance for a
give load setting while minimizing the mass. The weight-efficient designs of blast-resistant structures are
determined by a number of factors, such as the expected incident load, facesheet and core materials, structural
dimensions, geometry and interfacial effects. To quantify the effect of these factors on deformation response,
structural indices are developed. Non-dimensional variables are used for quantitative evaluation of the
compressive response of the PVC foams and the structural response of composite panels as functions of loading
and structural attributes figures show high-speed photographs and corresponding calculated strain fields in
HP200 and HP250 foam subjected to loading with I=0.25 , respectively. In both specimens, the strains and
resulting strain localization are concentrated at the base of the specimen near the distal face, precipitating
inefficient impulse absorption and leading to large impulse transfer through the foam. The experiments and
simulations show reasonable agreement in terms of the rate and extent of compression.

As the loading intensity increases, both the rate and extent of core compression increase substantially.

Scaling and structural design:

The underwater blast loading problem involves a wide range of length and time scales such as the spatial decay
of the blast impulse, blast attenuation, pressure decay time, the size and geometry of the structure, and the area
under impulsive loading relative to the total area of the structure. The characteristics of high intensity pressure
pulses resulting from underwater blasts have been well established through large-scale experiments. In the
analysis reported here, the underwater blast loading problem is simplified to delineate the performance of the
sandwich core and provide a clear understanding of the role of core thickness, core density and facesheet
thickness on blast response.
Responses and Outcomes:
The compressive strain experienced by and the impulse transmitted by the sandwich core pose opposing
requirements on structural design. Low density cores experience high compressive strains while transmitting
lower impulses. On the other hand, high density cores behave like monolithic plates and transmit large fractions
of the incident impulse. The homogenized, crushable foam constitutive model employed provides accurate
tracking of the early stage response of the core material. However, the model slightly overestimates the
compliance of the core leading to an increase in core compressive strain and a decrease in the transmitted
impulses in comparison to experiments. The numerical calculations have provided an in-depth understanding of
the temporal and spatial evolution of deformation modes in the core material. Loading-structure-performance
maps derived from uniaxial compressive loading are compared to those obtained from the simply-supported
bend loading configuration to offer insight into the role of core density on bending and failure of sandwich
structures. The relative core density is found to be an important parameter determining the performance of
sandwich structures in simply-supported conditions. Greater core compressibility minimizes both the deflection
and impulse transmission in this configuration.[ CITATION Sid16 \l 1033 ]

2017
With an expect of the potential applications as blast counters and energy absorbers, there has been much interest
in cellular metallic foam core sandwich structures in large part because the devisable microstructure of their
cellular cores endows them with the positive multifunctional integration properties. Numerous studies of these
sandwich structures, including the straight or curved beams and straight or curved panels, subjected to blast and
metallic foam projectile impact loads, have been reported. To ensure the accuracy and reliability of simulations,
the numerical approach and computational model were checked and validated in terms of existing experimental
data of ungraded sandwich panels. Using the same numerical approach, the air blast tests on aluminum foam
core sandwich panels conducted by Zhu et al. were simulated, where the input parameters keep the same as
those of experiments.

The entire blast and structural response of air-blast loaded ungraded sandwich specimens has been discussed in
our previous study, and it was split into three successive stages, that is, the expansion of the charge, the
interaction between explosion products and the sandwich specimen, and the deformation of the sandwich
specimen under its own inertia. Here, the blast and structural response process of the graded sandwich panel,
with core configuration 1 under 40g TNT charge blast with the stand-off distance of 100 mm, was presented in
Figur. It is clear that the charge was detonated at the central point, and its volume expanded rapidly. As the
violent expansion of the blast products, a strong shock wave is generated and propagates toward the graded
sandwich panel. One of the most important applications of metallic foams is used as energy absorbing materials
and structures; it is therefore of great significance to study the energy absorption capability of sandwich panels
with layered gradient metallic foam cores under blast loading
This research is aimed at developing novel lightweight protective structures for civil and military applications
against contact and close-in detonations. Full-scale aluminum alloy sandwich panels with the auxetic re-entrant
foam cores were manufactured by the authors. To evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed structure as a
protective shield for civil and military infrastructures in resisting close-in blast loads, field explosive tests were
carried out on a target concrete slab with and without the protective sandwich panels. The numerical modeling
techniques were validated using the test results including permanent plastic deformation, deformation and load
histories of the sandwich panel and the cover plate as well as the failure mode of the concrete slab. The
specimens for the tests were sandwich panels made from AA6061 aluminum alloy.

Set-up for the field blast test is shown in Fig. The sandwich panel specimen was placed on top of a reinforced
concrete slab with a thickness. The concrete slab was simply supported by two timber planks which were
resting on a sturdy steel foundation. To prevent local failure of the specimen and to simulate real-world
application scenarios, a 9.4 mm thick BISPLATE 80 high-strength steel (HSS) plate was placed on top of the
specimen. The steel plate had the same in-plane dimensions as the concrete slab. A cylindrical charge
containing 250 g Composition B explosive was used to generate the close-in blast loading.
To evaluate the lightweight potentials of blast protective structure such as the vehicle armor, areal specific
energy absorption (ASEA) can be defined as follows
ASEA= EA/mA
where mA is the areal mass of the protection structure and EA is the blast energy absorption.

This study was aiming to investigate the performance of a type of auxetic foam sandwich panel proposed as a
key component of the protective system for concrete structures against impact and close-in blast loadings. Filed
blast tests has been carried out for this purpose.
Conclusion
The dynamic response, blast resistance and energy absorption capability of clamped square sandwich panels
comparing two aluminum alloy face-sheets and a layered gradient metallic foam core, subjected to air-blast
loading and the response of clamped sandwich panels with two aluminum alloy face-sheets and a layered
gradient metallic foam core, subjected to air-blast loading, were studied and simulated numerically in this
report. The blast-resistant behaviors of aluminum foam-cored sandwich panels (AFSPs) were simulated using
the finite element method. Three distinctive phases of dynamic responses, front face deformation, back face
deformation and structural vibration, were identified.
For the structural configurations considered, the AFSP featuring an aluminum alloy front face and steel back
face achieved the best blast resistance in terms of maximum back face deflection (MaxD) and areal specific
energy absorption (ASEA). Thus, we focused on the AFSP with the configuration in the parametric study and
blast-resistant optimization.
Blast resistance of sandwich specimens was evaluated by the central point deflection of the bottom face-sheet,
while the energy absorption capability was discussed in term of face-sheets and layered gradient foam core.
Simulation results show the graded sandwich panel with core configuration 1 (i.e. low-middle-high density core
configuration) has the best blast resistance capability among both all the graded and ungraded sandwich panels.
The arrangement of different top and bottom facesheet thickness can improve obviously the blast resistance of
ungraded sandwich panels, and the specimen with thicker bottom face-sheet has the best blast resistance.
However, blast resistance and energy absorption performance of graded sandwich panels are also sensitive to
the amplitude of blast loading; a corresponding further study will be conducted at a wide loading region, as a
part of our current and future work.
The impact resistance of foam-based sandwich structures can also be enhanced by the introduction of through-
thickness stitching. Lascoup et al. evaluated the damage resistance of sandwich structures based on a stitched
foam core and glass fibre face-sheets under low velocity impact loading. They found that the impact resistance
of the sandwich structure was greatly enhanced by the introduction of stitches and showed that the global
behaviour under impact loading is influenced by the geometrical stitch parameters. An energy breakdown
analysis has shown that the core absorbs most of the energy during blast, followed by the skins and then the
Kevlar stitches. This evidence supports the conclusion that the through-thickness stitching does not play a
significant role in enhancing the blast response of the sandwich panels.

POLYMER BASED COMPOSITES IN MARINE USE: HISTORY AND

FUTURE TRENDS
Abstract
Polymer based, fiber reinforced composites (FRP) are used very frequently because they offer several advance
and quality features to the naval architects and boat builders to achieve such structures that are more resistant to
environmental cycles and can bear max fatigue properties so that making them more reliable. In this research
there is a short and brief history of the of FRP boats and the vessels that are commonly used across usa or
Europe for the sake of sailing to transport. Future trends of FRP applications naval industry that how they resist
again all the biological and physical factors
Introduction:
As we know that in different physical phenomenon resistances occur naturally in the form of air resistance,
static resistance and many others so the engineers are getting to the structures which face the least resistance
now in the case of a vessel the expected parts that would experience the maximum resistances are bulkhead,
deck, mast, propeller, etc.. Here the marines that are made up of composites also have increased resistances
against corrosion and other natural factors . But still after having such advantages the composites are not very
good in some properties (like stiffness, coefficient of thermal expansion, etc.) due to their anisotropic nature.
The share of composite materials usage in boat building industry has been reached to 6%. These FRP
composites offers best corrosion resistance as well as fatigue etc and more importantly having low strength to
weight ratio. For marine structures subject to environmental cyclic loading, fatigue characteristics has an
important indicator for the limit state which must be considered by the designer nowadays concurrently. The
fatigue design methodology of FRP compared to metallic structural materials is still limited regarding the
availability of methods as well as the insufficiency of existing models to reliably assess the fatigue behavior.
The reason for this situation is the inherent inhomogeneity of FRP and the various distinguished damage
mechanisms such as matrix cracking, fiber/matrix debonding, fiber fracture, interlaminar delamination, as well
as their pronounced interactions which have to be taken into consideration.
History
The history of polymer composites in the two big regions of USA and Europe is given here making it pretty
obvious that they the where most producers, costumers as well as users the referral link ahead is having a short
and brief history of composites used in naval vessels [10] (Marsh.). In the middle of 1960s hand lay-up method
was applied to mat and woven roving fiberglass. From 1970s, sandwich construction propagated in the relevant
field. By the end of 1970s most of the alternatives were in use like vinyl ester and epoxy etc. In order to meet
the needs of the industry by the decade of 1980’s fiber reinforcement techniques were also in use by these
techniques the following materials were processed such as aramid, Kevlar and carbon fibers found place in the
industry. 1990s vacuum assistive methods and the infusion for the production were also in use.
Future trends:
As experienced that GRP are having very good aspects such as they provide good quality assurance and a long-
life span. But the only issue to be faced is its recycling which is very poor in physical circumstances. Due to this
property the marine industry is facing a lot of problems:
(1) while recycling a vessel we must make sure that there shouldn’t be any bad effects on the environment
(2) finding a way of designing new boats that will not leave future generations in the same predicament, which
calls as “sustainability” is the term used for designing such vessels or boats by using some technological
measures, through improving energy efficiency and storage.
The end-of-life of vehicles is in accordance with the “Increasing Sustainability and Recycling” cause increasing
demand for recycling of GRP. This means that proper ways to recycle these naval structures must me done
because the recycling and the recovery is not that simple. The quality depends on the cost we put to the
production of the vessels. So this just means that the sustainability of this industry is dependent on the recycling
of the vessels after the end of life.
Conclusion
Since the beginning of 1940s, FRPs have been used by the naval industry because of the qualities and features
of these materials. Behaviors of FRPs in marine environment should be studied by the researchers in marine
technology area to find proper material solutions for boat building industry. As one can see from this study, the
environmental impacts of a product should be well understood to achieve better practices by the producer who
are under the pressure of stricter environmental legislations while the people demands from them to take more
responsibility for their production and product. To survive in the boat building industry mainly driven by
environmental legislations, FRPs, thermoset composites, producers and suppliers have to ensure a proper
system throughout life cycle of the materials
(Adi Maimun Abdul Malik)

HIGH-TEMPERATURE HIGH-VELOCITY IMPACT ON HONEYCOMB

SANDWICH PANELS
Honeycomb sandwich structure have a very low weight and feature high stiffness, and durability. Honeycombs
with hexagonal cells are the most common structures among cellular materials, although the shape of
honeycomb cells had evolved from hexagonal to square, triangular, columnar, or other related shapes.
This work provides an overview of the damage and high-speed impact deformation mechanisms in honeycomb
sandwich panels made of PM1000 and PM2000 alloys at elevated temperatures. The effect temperatures were
between 22 ° C and 866 ° C. Using a custom-made gas gun rig, and using Finite Element and developing a
phenomenological analytical model to predict the residual velocity and ballistic limit equations for the case
where the diameter of the projectile is near or smaller to the length of the honeycomb cell, the investigation was
carried out experimentally. The sizes of the holes were also evaluated by conducting numerical simulations of
thermal loading on high-speed impact honeycomb sandwich specimen models. The predictions given by the
Finite Elements and the analytical model agree well with the experimental test results. The hole diameters were
also presented in this paper as a function of the projectile diameter and velocity for the two idealised standard
impact situations, in which the projectile reaches the cell core and at the triple-wall intersection of the core.
High-Temperature Impact Experimental Tests
Four tests were carried out during the research campaign. The damage conditions on the front and back
sandwich skins of the samples were observed and quantified after the impact tests by calculating the perforated
hole-areas of the front and back facing skins. The following table provides a description of the outcomes of the
impact test. Over a wider surface, larger (between 3.5 and 7 times) than the affected one of the front face skins,
the back-face sheets of the perforated honeycomb sandwich specimens are damaged.

High-Temperature Impact Numerical Tests

All the simulations were performed using ANSYS WORKBENCH's Clear Dynamics module (Version 16.1),
which is more convenient than classic ANSYS for engineering simulations. Calculations were carried out on a
4.8 GHz Processor and 32 GB RAM Windows-based computer. In order to represent both the heart and face
skins, SHELL181 components and a linear elastic constitutive model with large geometric deformations were
used (Fig . 6). Since no apparent deformation was shown by the spherical projectiles used during all four
experiments, the finite element model representing the projectiles was a rigid one. For the projectile, the
SOLID185 part was used. For the honeycomb sandwich panels and the rigid projectile, the linear triangular
elements of Conta173 and Targe170 were used, respectively.The interaction geometry of the contact body was
set as "both bodies" and the automatic detection of automatic link generation on refresh was triggered.
Displacement (UX, UY, UZ) and temperature (TEMP) were the component degrees of freedom. The form of
touch was frictionless. There was a maximum offset of 10-7 m.
Analytical Model

Several works record the existence of three different velocity regimes in open literature that occur during the
impact of metal specimens. The first is indicative of small impact velocities, governed by the petalling of the
goal with the perforation. The second regime is defined by the perforation mechanism of the target, which
moves from one dominated by petallization to another characterised by the creation of conical plugs. The
creation of formed plugs that cause compression / shear failure in the target is typified by the third regime. The
projectiles after the impact were intact in our experiments. The perforation mechanism appeared to be
controlled by formed plug formation at high temperatures on the front surfaces and on the honeycomb walls,
and a compression / shear failure could be observed. Some petallisation was found for the back surfaces of the
samples, but most of the perforation edges were smooth and dominated by the forming of formed plugs; the
lower the angle of impact, the smoother the edges. The progress of the perforation can be interpreted as a plug
being extracted from the honeycomb panel in the standard impact velocity scheme (almost = 0) of the reference
test (room temperature).
Conclusion
In a custom gas gun setup, and also by numerically using Finite Element simulations and a phenomenological
analytical model, the impacts were performed experimentally. We developed the residual velocity and ballistic
limit equations for the test cases on the basis of experimental and numerical results. When the diameter of the
projectile is equivalent or smaller to the length of the honeycomb cell, the established analytical model is
accurate and the perforation mechanism is dominated by formed plug formation, causing compression / shear
failure in the target. In order to develop thermal defence shields or other high-performance sandwich panels for
airframe and spacecraft structures, the experimental results and the models proposed provide general guidance
on the effect of temperature, initial velocity, impact angle and projectile diameter.
(LB Wang)
EXPLOSIVE BLAST RESISTANCE OF NAVAL COMPOSITES
Naval composite structures are at risk from both air and underwater blast loads that may cause damage. A
concern with using composites in naval ship structures is their response of explosive blast loading from a
weapons strikes.
The response to explosive blast loading of four types of laminate commonly used in ship structures was
evaluated: woven carbon, polyester, woven glass, polyester, woven carbon, vinyl ester, and woven glass, vinyl
ester composites
Mechanical Properties:
The tensile, flexural, and inter laminar fracture toughness properties of the laminates were determined, using a
minimum of four samples for each type of property test. Stress-strain curves measured under tensile or flexural
loading for the laminates with weak or strong interfacial bonding are presented below. The mechanical
properties of the laminate with strong bonding were found significantly higher.

The layout of the experimental facility used for explosive testing of the laminates is shown below. The facility
consists of an enclosed steel plate-lined concrete chamber fitted with viewing windows to observe the explosion
and the dynamic deformation of the laminate target.

The dynamic deformation response of the carbon and glass fiber laminates when impulsively loaded by the
shock wave and detonation products was measured using the high-speed DIC technique.
Following blast loading, the laminate targets were inspected using scanning electron microscopy, ultrasonic, and
X-ray computed micro tomography (CT) to determine the amount and types of damage. The different types of
damage observed.

We observed that the strain energy density of the vinyl ester laminates is also higher than the polyester matrix
composites. Also the energy density is higher due to the capacity of the glass fibers and vinyl ester to deform to
higher strains without breaking.
The capacity of the glass fiber laminates to absorb more flexural strain energy accounts for their blast damage
resistance being higher than the carbon fiber composites.
Also, the vinyl ester laminates have higher mode I and II inter laminar. Effect of increasing blast impulse
loading on the delamination damage area to the laminates fracture toughness properties compared to the
polyester composites, which increases their resistance to delamination cracking.
Conclusion:
The explosive blast resistance of fiber, polymer laminates used in naval ship structures is influenced by both the
type of fiber reinforcement and polymer matrix as well as the bonding between these constituents. We also find
that that delaminations and broken fibers reduce the post-blast mechanical properties of the carbon fiber
laminates, which were lower than the glass fiber laminates.
(Gargano)

2018
A STUDY ON BLAST AND FRAGMENT RESISTANCE OF COMPOSITE
METAL FOAMS THROUGH EXPERIMENTAL AND MODELING
APPROACHES
Composite metal foam (CMF) is known for its high ratio of strength to density and exceptional potential for
energy absorption. In this research to study their resistance to explosive blast pressure and the resulting
fragments, stainless steel CMF panels are developed and tested against high explosive incendiary (HEI) rounds.
It is shown that the CMF plates, with speeds up to 1500 m/s, were able to avoid the imparted fragments of
different sizes and absorb the blast energy without cracking or bowing. Using IMPETUS Afea Solver, the
experimental results were checked and compared to the performance of a standard aluminium armor. It is
observed that the depth of penetration of the fragments into the aluminium plate is higher than that of the CMF
sheet, despite their similar mass. In aluminium plate, after the effect of the blast and frags, substantial front
petaling and bulging was observed. In all CMF tables, no petaling and slight bulging is observed. Moreover, as
opposed to the aluminium plate at any period following the explosion, CMF panels are much less stressed. The
experimental and analytical results show that the novel CMF material can be the solution to the pressing need
for vehicle armors that are light and more effective.
There has been a growing need for vehicle armors with enhanced blast and ballistic resistance while retaining
light weight over the past few decades. Conventional vehicle armors are typically manufactured from steel
plates of rolled homogeneous armor (RHA). More advanced armors use composite materials that incorporate
lighter weight ceramics, metals, and polymers, but need a greater thickness to avoid and resist the penetration of
flying fragments from projected rounds. To blunt and shatter incoming projectiles, the ceramic plates on these
composite armors are used to allow the metal or fabric backings to then absorb the residual kinetic energy of the
fragments by plastic deformation. Many explosive ordnances inside a large blast wave release groupings of
high-speed metal fragments. These fragments can be more piercing than projectile threats because of the much
higher speed and pose a danger to passengers and components of the vehicle.
The effects of IED blasts on the lower hull of infantry vehicles and possible ways of raising the blast resistance
and safety of specific components have been studied in recent numerical and experimental studies. The use of
metal foam armor systems to protect against blast loads produced by explosive materials has been investigated
in several studies. While these armor systems demonstrate efficiency in absorbing explosive blast waves, the
ability to defeat the fragments that frequently accompany these blasts is lacking.
A solid, lightweight metal foam with composite metal foam (CMF) is a strong metal foam with Mechanical and
physical properties which are able to withstand harsh conditions of loading and heating. By surrounding hollow
metal spheres with a metallic matrix, CMF is made. The hollow metal spheres are lightweight and have a thin
wall and are packed with air. Inside the material, the spheres produce macro porosities that reduce the density
compared to their bulk metal. The surrounding metal matrix acts to reinforce the bond between spheres and
delays the propagation of cracks through the material. Under compression, the spheres collapse, filling the
porosity until a density equivalent to the parent metal is reached. CMF has inherent micro porosities within the
sphere walls and matrix material, in addition to the macroporositites produced by the hollow spheres, that also
collapse under compression. In contrast to its parent metal under compression, CMF has demonstrated two
orders of magnitude of greater energy absorption. Composite metal foam also has a ratio of strength to density 3
times higher and plateau strength 5 times higher than comparable metal foams produced with similar materials.
Additional details can be found in previous studies on the microstructure, manufacturing, and properties of
composite metal foams.
The standard stress-strain curve of CMF features an elastic yield followed by a plateau region where the
porosities can collapse before full densification is reached under relatively constant stress. Composite metal
foam continues to behave like its parent material at maximum densification. Composite metal foam exhibits a
strengthening effect under high strain rate compression. At strain rates above 1031/s, both the yield strength and
plateau stress are pushed up. This unique characteristic further enhances CMF's performance with intrinsically
high strain rates against ballistic and blast threats. The use of CMF in ballistic armor has already been studied in
previous works by Garcia-Avila, Porta nova and Rabiei
This study reports the recent advances in the performance of CMF via both experimental and numerical
approaches against blast and fragment. For research, a High Explosive Incendiary (HEI) round is used to
produce the blast and frags. This study is an initial step towards the application of CMF for full-scale
improvised explosive device (IED) defense in vehicular armor. Due to its ease of setup and test against multiple
panels, the HEI was selected as a scaled choice for IED threats.

Experimental Results:
The high-speed cameras measured the velocity of the fragments arriving at the CMF panels and found them to
be between 1400-1524 m/s (4600-5000 ft/s). For ease of analysis and comparison, the fragment sizes differed
with every shot, but were grouped into three sizes. Photos of the post-testing CMF panels are shown in Fig. 8. It
should be noted that due to the impacts, all of the panels remained intact with no cracking or warping. Fig. Fig.
8(a)-(d) contains all the tested 9 mm CMF plates. Fig. Fig. 8 (e) shows panel 5 in 8(f) with a close-up of a large
fragment and its region of impact. Fig. Fig. As a function of their areal impact scale, 9 demonstrates the extent
of penetration of all fragments. Both graphs display the general groupings (by color) of the fragments, depicting
the small fragments with yellow lines, the medium with red, and the broad blue fragments for the 9 mm and
16.75 mm CMF plates. At the top of the graph classified as 'full penetration' in Fig., fragments that penetrated
the panels are seen. (a) 9(a). After three full tests against the explosive hazard, panel 5, the thicker CMF panel,
stopped all fragments except for two that had an impact on the edge of the panel. These data points are omitted
as outliers in the graphical representations due to their effect lying along the edge. The positions on panel 5 of
these fragments are highlighted in Fig. 8 (e).
There were a few fragments penetrating through the entire thickness of the thinner CMF plates, but they did not
break or bulge. Following all checks, the entirety of every CMF panel remained intact. At their point of
departure, the fragments that have entered the panel have a number of impact areas and cause minor petaling.
While the thinner panels were able to avoid a majority of the fragments, they were too thin to completely defeat
all the fragments produced at such close proximity by the 23 x 152mm HEI round. Table 5 provides a
compilation of the results and average v.

Values for each fragment size.

For fragments of a similar scale, the extent of penetration of the fragments for both CMF panels varies slightly.
A majority of the incident fragments between 2- and 6-mm thickness can be stopped by thinner CMF sheets,
although the thicker panel has stopped the equivalent distribution of fragments between 3- and 8-mm thickness.
The small-sized pieces between the thin and thick CMF panels are stopped at equal depths. Yet, in the 16.75
mm thick CMF panel, the penetration is consistently deeper for medium and large sized fragments (panel 5). In
both types of CMF plates, there is little deviation in penetration depth between medium and large-size
fragments. While large fragments hold more energy, they also compact more spheres, resulting in additional
energy being absorbed more efficiently.
The key difference between thin and thick CMF panels (panels 1-4 versus panel 5), other than the thickness of
the panels made, is the size and form of spheres used during the processing process. Spheres with an outer
diameter of 3.5 mm are used in Panel 5, while panels 1-4 use spheres with an outer diameter of 2 mm. It can be
shown that the fragments are brought to rest in increments of sphere diameters upon further examination of the
findings. To stop small fragments, one sphere layer is needed, while medium fragments need compression of
approximately two layers (two sphere diameters) before coming to rest entirely. The air that is displaced inside
the spheres can be due to this interaction, dissipating energy upon contact, a trait specific to composite metal
foams.
Such findings would clarify the deviation in the depth of fragments Penetration between the thinner and thicker
CMF panels tested will be the subject of future experimental and simulation studies to design the material in
such a way that using the lightest possible CMF design, fragment penetration is reduced.
Conclusion
Steel-steel composite metal foam armor panels is produced using various thicknesses of 9.5- and 16.75-mm
using powder metallurgy techniques using 2 mm and 3.5 mm hollow steel spheres. The panels have been tested
against 23 x 152 mm high explosive incendiary rounds that emit at speeds up to 1524 m/s a high-pressure blast
wave and metal fragments. The CMF panels were able to withstand without bowing or cracking the blast and
frag impacts. Out of three separate HEI samples, the thicker sample was able to avoid different sized fragments
entirely. It is shown that CMF is capable of arresting the fragments locally and dissipating the energy of the
blast wave incident and impeding the spread of failure. These initial tests include useful blast and frag data that
can be used to measure the effective thicknesses needed to overcome additional explosive dumps and to defend
against full-scale IEDs.
(JacobMarx)

BLAST-RESILIENCE OF HONEYCOMB SANDWICH PANELS

Well-designed honeycomb sandwich panels are known to have superior blast performance compared to their
corresponding solid panel of the same mass. Here, we investigate the structural behavior of all-metal
honeycomb sandwich panels after shock loading. The initial shock is varied from relatively small intensities to
moderate intensities sufficient to create material failure and significant plastic deformation in the panel. The
structural response of the shock-loaded panels is investigated under quasi-static punch indentation and in-plane
compression. The maximum load carrying and energy absorption capacities of shock-loaded panels are
quantified for a wide range of initial shock intensities and different panel core densities. In this research,
Residual capacity of shock-loaded sandwich panels was examined.Quasi-static transverse punching and in-
plane compression were considered. New insights into the behavior and structural resilience of the shock-loaded
panels.
Theory:
Critical civilian, industrial and military structures should sustain their functionality if subjected to extreme
loadings. Sandwich panels with low density core construction have shown significant promise for developing
shock-resistant structures. A sandwich panel with sufficiently strong core construction can withstand more
intense blast loads and absorb more energy compared to its corresponding solid plate of the same material and
mass. The residual strength of blast-loaded structures is one of the most important parameters to be considered
in studying their blast-resistance. The response of the panel, including the role of panel core density and the
failure map and mechanisms are discussed in this section:
Panel geometry, loading and material modeling:
A moderate strength steel with low strain hardening and no strain-rate Dependency. The low ductility of this
steel enables our model to highlight the role of fracture limits in the response and failure of the panels. AH36, is
used in all the simulations. AH36 has shown to closely conform to an elasto-plastic constitutive relationship
with Young’s modulus 200GPa, Poisson’s ratio 0.3, yield strength 380MPa and density of 7800kg/m3, with an
isotropic hardening behavior that is shown in Fig. B

The fracture strain of this steel strongly depends on the stress triaxiality which is taken into account simulations.
For each shock loading, we allowed the simulations to run for 10 ms before applying the quasi-static loading, to
give the panel sufficient time to get into the rest position. For a quasi-static simulation using the dynamic
explicit solver to produce reliable results, inertia effects should be kept insignificant by ensuring that the ratio of
kinetic energy to internal energy of the model does not exceed 1%.
Punch indentation of shock-loaded panels:
In this section, we study the response of shock-loaded honeycomb sandwich panels Under quasi-static punch

indentation.
Figure A shows schematics of the loadings applied to the panel. Frictionless surface-to-surface contact
condition is applied between the punch and the panel top face. The indentation rate is chosen to ensure a quasi-
static condition(i.e., the results are independent of the indentation rate).
Role of core relative density:
It is known that there is an optimum core relative density for square honeycomb Sandwich panels for which the
deflection of the panel under single shock loading or multi-shock loading is minimized. In this section, we limit
our study to moderate intensity shocks to better highlight the performance of the panels under indentation. the
maximum indentation force decreases by increasing core relative density.
Fracture mechanisms:
Simulations revealed three failure mechanisms
i) Face sheet failure, which is defined as necking and tearing of the top or bottom face sheets.
ii) core failure, which is defined to occur when the total length of one continuous crack on the core webs
exceeds the undeformed core height.
iii) Total failure of the panel, which signifies the total detachment of a panel from the support.
Axial compression of shock-loaded panels:
The in-plane characteristics of sandwich panels has been the focus of several recent studies where the in-plane
response of panels with honeycomb, corrugated and pyramidal truss cores was investigated experimentally,
numerically and analytically.

Response of the panels:

Figure shows the normalized in-plane compression force of the panel versus the normalized compression
displacement for three different peak over-pressures of the initial shock loading with 0,30MPa and 50 MPa for
panels with a core relative density of 0.04. For the case of no shock, the force increases linearly with the
displacement until the point of shear buckling of the panel the stress state in the panel before shear buckling is
primarily compressive. However, after this point, tensile stress and plastic deformation start to develop in the
panel. This results in low stiffening behavior in the panel’s response the portions of the core webs under
tensile stress surpass those under compression and the compression force decreases until the core web fails in
one of the core cells (defined as core failure), which is then followed by a plateau in the compression force-
displacement response. The response of the shock-loaded panels under in-plane compression is initially near-
linear, similar to panels subjected to punch indentation. In these panels, the initial shock deforms the panel into
a sagging shape, which intuitively makes the panels’ resistance to in-plane compression much lower compared
than that of an intact panel. Where the effective stiffness of the panel (defined as the slope of the initial non-
linear part of the response) and the maximum compression force decrease with increasing initial shock’s
intensity.
Conclusions:
We studied the performance of shock loaded all-metal honeycomb core sandwich panels in terms of their
residual capacity to withstand secondary quasi-static deformation using finite element simulations. Two quasi-
static loading scenarios were considered that includes quasi-static transverse punch indentation and quasi-static
in-plane compression. The performance of shock loaded sandwich panels was quantified by studying their
plastic energy dissipation capacity, as well as the maximum resisting force achieved prior their failure. Under
punch indentation, a shock-loaded panel was shown to generally fail at a smaller indentation compared to its
corresponding intact panel, while exhibiting a higher resisting force prior to failure. Our results revealed that a
well-designed sandwich panel under in-plane compression can maintain up to half of its original load bearing
capacity even after being exposed to a moderate intensity shock loading. We investigated the role of core
relative density on the performance of honeycomb sandwich panels and constructed failure maps considering
three failure modes.
[ CITATION Ham18 \l 1033 ]

2019
MICROMECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF METAL FOAMS
A wide range of load-bearing natural structures, such as wood, Cork, and bones or bees' honeycombs are made
up of cellular Materials which are porous rigid composites. The motive of this blueprint of existence is the low
ratio of rigidity to weight and the high basic strength of cellular solids. Over aeons, long evolutionary cycles
have Nature has helped to optimize these systems for apps with Unique criteria with regard to lightweight
construction, rigidity and stiffness, The power. Man-made cellular structures are used, by contrast, Only until
recently.
Cellular solids, according to Gibson et al., are built-up by the network of strong struts or plates that are
interconnected, forming the Pores and cells' edges and ears. They can be categorized into Stochastic structures
and periodic ones. Typical stochastic systems There are bones, foams, and sponges. While The random
distribution of these materials is Pores or cells of a non-uniform pore and pore as well as strut or membrane, cell
sizes Dimensions, periodic structures like the honeycombs exhibit a fine geometric Regularity.
Cellular solids that are man-made can be made of Polymers, metals, or ceramics. Describes various metallic
structures Representative of cellular materials for the Variety in the overall cellular structure Buildings. The
literature typically distinguishes between porous metals, metals, Foams and sponges of metal, including
stochastic Buildings. The word porous metal refers to metals with isolated, single pores that have isolated the
density is higher and the porosity is smaller than in metal foams.
Metal foams are an interesting class of foams the Metallic bionic products. They are composed of a Big fraction
of gas-filled pores in volume and imitate the elements of construction of Bones and wood. Foams have been
subdivided into foams with open cells and foams with closed cells. Foams from open cells behave like sponges,
having sponges Three-dimensional, interconnected (3D) Network of pores that are stochastically distributed
Fluid-permeable goods the solid material which forms the edges of the pore is distributed in These are called
struts, small columns, beams, or plates. THE morphology of the strut varies greatly depending on the different
Methods of production Foams from open-cell Metal sponges are often referred to because they have a large
External surface and imitation of bone and natural blueprint from sponges.
Hybrid foams are a special kind of open-cell composite foam. Foams, which are open-cell foams that have been
improved by an open-cell foam, In order to maximize the properties of the struts' metallic coating Foams for
substrate. Hybrid foams of Ni / Al are, for instance, Foams of aluminium that have been electrochemically
coated by [3-5] Nanocrystalline nickel. Closed-cell foams look like foams or bread made from solidified soap.
THE Cells are produced by thin membranes that form different pores. Closed-cell natural equivalents for The
foam is cork or timber

MICROMECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF METAL FOAMS

Cellular solids are typically studied in contrast to bulk materials Based on large specimens using methods of
macro scale to gain Details on the overall properties that are efficient. Nonetheless, the pore regulates the
global, macroscopic properties of foams. Morphology, such as pore size, pore shape, as well as geometry Such
as the properties and geometry of the cell w (Jung)all or strut. In the Past Two decades, many experimental and
micro scale meso and Numerical studies have been conducted to clarify the origin of Phenomena with
macroscopy. The impact on the structure effects and effects of density on the macroscopic properties of foams
were studied in the Numerous experiments using computer tomography with X-rays. Despite thorough
understanding of structure and faults, numerical Models that currently use these structural data as 3D models
Overestimate the anticipated mechanical macroscopic properties of The Actual Foams.
Micro- and mesostructured anomalies are the reasons for this and the strut's mechanical properties are impaired.
The mechanical activity of metal foams is highly influenced and affected by density anomalies, Microstructural
malfunctions, and Properties of the substance of the cell wall or strut. the reasons for these effects can emerge
from the development of Deviations including density gradients, anisotropies, and defects or from variations in
the properties of the base material caused by the Method for production, such as solidification.
In compliance with Gibson and Ashby 's scaling laws, the Relative density has a major impact on the
mechanical operation. Effects of foams. In homogeneously varying, there can be Densities in a specimen due to
the method of production. This is the for closed-cell foams, which have a large pore, typically the case is
Distributing scale. Gradinger et al analyzed the influence of Various distributions of density on the mechanical
properties of Foams of closed-cells. Daxner et al. using the Gradinger findings to build a model based on many
interconnected ones, et al. Springs, with varying stiffnesses in order to model those rigidities Inhomogeneities
with regard to the action of energy absorption. Tailored distributions of inhomogeneous density were provided
by Li et al To research the impact experimentally and numerically,
The stiffness and strength of the open-cell combination of dual-size cells Foams of aluminium. There have been
more experimental and computational research on such so-called density-graded foams. For open-cell
aluminium foams, carried out by Brothers et al. Graded pore sizes for Ni / Al hybrid and Jung et al.
The primary impact of mechanical overestimation Changes in the properties of foams computed from
simulations are Investment casting is a common production method for open cell aluminium foams. Investment
casting is a common manufacturing process for open cell aluminium foams. Different production processes are
induced by micro material properties. he conditions of solidification, additives, impurities, micro stresses, the
high surface-to - volume ratio contributes to improvements in the volume ratio and Structures of grain and grain
sizes that cause significant Comparison of changes in the properties of the micro material strut to the material
properties of the bulk. Films made of oxide are an Additional source for micro-material changes Assets.
Properties The oxide films, as opposed to bulk materials, cover a significant fraction of the struts in volume,
leading to substantial Changes in the properties of the substance of the whole strut. In view of this, material
properties for use in numerical applications It is important to classify micro models or mechanistic models by
Person struts or cell walls micromechanical examination, instead of following bulk material properties to
Ensuring practical and accurate outcomes for simulation. These facts, however, are generally knowingly
ignored, as the experimental method is too complicated and demanding and there is no for the micromechanical
characterization and testing of single struts and struts, standardized experimental methods exist.
Direct experimental micro material strut calculation The properties and properties of the cell wall, respectively,
are very much Task demanding. Conventional test for tensile or compression Due to the complicated, irregular
form of the limited dimensions, low loads, and high loads, struts and cell walls, Required precision. In addition,
the resulting dynamic boundary Conditions make it impossible to split between the elastic and the Properties of
plastic. Micromechanical processes, therefore, Sub-micrometer recording force-displacement curves needs
precision.
Such micromechanical methods of metal characterization Foams include techniques of indentation, such as
nanoindentation and micro indentation, as well as actual micro-experiments such as Tests of microtensile, micro
compression, and micro bending on Cell walls and individual struts.
A very recent yet very new micromechanical characterization is the new research area, which can be seen from
the Publications assessment in Figure 5. The figure explains the Number of papers per year after the beginning
of Micromechanical metal foam characterization in 1997 with Initial nanoindentation experiments on closed
cell walls.
(Anne Jung)

LASER FORMING OF METAL FOAM SANDWICH PANELS: EFFECT OF

PANEL MANUFACTURING METHOD
For its special properties, metal foam has long been celebrated, Its ability to withstand shock and noise and its
high level of absorption Force-to-weight ratio. In a sandwich configuration, where the metal foam on both sides
is encapsulated by sheet metal, the material will realize its fullest potential. Not only do the solid metal "face
sheets" of sandwich panels shield the foam core from wear and tear, but they also provide a material of high
rigidity that still has a great capacity for shock absorption despite having a relatively low weight.
Many possible sandwich applications have been identified. Metal foam panels with cores, ranging from
parabolic mirrors in the Solar power plants, parts for rockets and space equipment, telescopic arms for building
equipment. In the aviation industry, the material mainly has great potential, where it can be used for turbine
casings to arrest failed turbine blades, for lightweight engine nacelles, or for aero plane noses to absorb shock
during bird impacts. The material can also replace honeycomb structures that are typically used in aircraft today
in some applications, as it allows for greater versatility in its geometric and structural characteristics and has a
uniform stiffness over all.
Limit and Bending Performance.
This research was launched by Investigating the effect on the bending behavior of the sandwich composition
and production process, specifically the bending behavior, Performance and maximum achievable angle of
bending. At a small laser spot size (D = 4 mm, v= 30 mm/s) and a large laser spot size (D = 12 mm, v= 10
mm/s), both sandwich panel forms were laser shaped, and the bending angles were reported over 8 scans (Fig.
5). At D=4 mm, over 8 laser scans, the two forms of sandwich panels bent by about the same number. Even,
with the limit the bending angle obtained was similar, being ~15 deg for the panel of type I and ~12 deg for the
panel of type II. On the other hand, at D=12 mm, the panel of type I bent at a far higher rate than the panel of
type II. Furthermore, for the type II panel, the maximum achievable angle was about 65 deg (Fig. 6(a)), while
the maximum angle was around 45 deg (Fig. 6(b)).
Therefore, some sandwich panel attribute(s) induced a major deviation in the efficiency and bending limit at a
wide spot. Because of the many variations between the sandwiches, to determine the cause(s) of the
aforementioned deviations, panel forms, a series of experiments and numerical studies were conducted.
The influence of the composition of the facesheet was examined first. The thermal properties of the Type I (AW
5005) and Type II (Al1060) facesheets are hardly different, but they have two significant variations in their
mechanical properties. Next the yield strength of the facesheet of type I is nearly twice the yield strength of the
facesheet of type II. Second, at elevated temperatures, the type II facesheet undergoes considerably more
softening than the type I facesheet. Intuitively, owing to its softness, one would expect the type II sandwich to
bend more. The laser forming "isolated" facesheet experiments (facesheets cut from the sandwich panel)
showed the opposite (Fig. 7). An unintuitive outcome that is characteristic of laser formation, however. The
TGM that is induced in this state of the process (D = 4 mm, v = 30 mm/s) depends on The reality that the heated
material's thermal expansion is "Limited by the "cold" surrounding material, a requirement best fulfilled by a
stiff material such as AW 5005, and less so by a significant thermal softening material such as Al 1060.
The same reason applies when the whole panel of the sandwich is Bent at a broad spot size of D = 12 mm:
deformation of the facesheet via the UM is more effective if the thermal expansion of the heated material is
limited by the "cold" surrounding material, which is again better fulfilled by the form I facesheet. This was
verified by numerical simulations showing that for the type I facesheet, the plastic compressive strain in the y-
direction is much higher (Fig. 8(a)) than for the type II facesheet (Fig. 8(b)). The simulations also showed that
when compared to the sandwich panel with type II facesheet properties that only bent by 0.56 deg (leaving all
remaining properties the same), the sandwich panel with type I facesheet properties bent by 0.68 deg compared
to the sandwich panel with type II facesheet.
Overall, the comparison of the facesheet revealed that the facesheet of type I bends at a higher rate than the
facesheet of type II, which is partly responsible for the bending efficiency discrepancy in Fig. 5. The difference
between the facesheet deformation behavior, however is relatively small and does not fully explain why the two
types of sandwich panel reacted significantly differently at D = 12 mm in Fig. 5. Therefore, there are other
variables that have affected the performance of bending more significantly.

Conclusion:
The conduct of two types of sandwich panels with metal foam cores during laser formation was similarly
analyzed in this research. They differed in the facesheet form, foam core structure and composition, as well as
the adhesion process. It was shown that the two sandwich panel forms have a similar bending efficiency and
bending limit when established at small laser spot sizes (D =4 mm). It was demonstrated at large laser spot sizes
(D = 12 mm) that sandwich panels of type I bend at a much higher rate and achieve a higher bending angle.
Two important reasons for this disparity were found. First, it's going to be It has been shown that the facesheet
type I bends at a higher pace, due to its heightened power and rigidity. Second, it was shown that during laser
formation, the foam core structure defines how the top facesheet thickens. The top facesheet will penetrate into
the foam core in the type I sandwich panel, allowing for more successful deformation via the disturbing process.
On the other hand, the top facesheet often thickens away from the foam core in the form II sandwich panel,
raising the overall Sandwich panel thickness and making it more resistant to bending deformation.
Overall, this study showed that a wide range of types of metal foam sandwich panel can be laser-formed, given
that the bond between the facesheets and the foam core is strong enough to withstand the high temperatures and
stresses that grow during the process. The efficiency and threshold of the bending depend on the interactions
between the properties of the panel and process conditions. Potential applications in industry can be further
explored using the understanding built in this report.
(Tizian Bucher)

ON THE DESIGN REQUIREMENTS AGAINST EXTERNAL BLASTS FOR

NAVAL SHIPS
This thesis attempts to assess the existing design guidelines (by Lloyd ‘s Register) for sizing the outer plating of
a ship superstructure to resist an external air blast. Three-dimensional finite elements (FE) simulations and
single degree of freedom (SDOF) analytical model were developed in this thesis that could model the dynamic
structural response of the platings and to perform parametric investigations.
Naval ship structures are designed to resist different military loads – one example is external blasts. In contrast
to a near-field explosion which is characterized by high over-pressure and short loading duration, an external
blast event is a massive far-field explosion in air with relatively lower over-pressure but longer loading
duration.

The objective for design is to provide an appropriate plating thicknesses that would have sufficient strength to
maintain water or air-tight integrity of a superstructure post deformation. The definitions of key parameters and
scantling equation used to calculate the plating thick-ness are explained below.
FE analysis:
The finite element (FE) method is used to study the large inelastic deformation and failure of ship plating. The
FE model incorporates Progressive Damage and Failure which enables ductile damage of an element to be
captured; making it possible to model tensile tearing of the ship plating from its support.
A marine Grade A mild steel was chosen since this is commonly used in marine structures and has one of the
lowest yield stress σ0.

A design case study is shown to illustrate the key steps in using the FE model for designing a ship plating. The
blast wave generates a bilinear pressure pulse as shown, and the plate is made from mild steel.

There is good agreement between the FE predictions and the experimental results. A procedure to use the FE
model in designing ship plating against the external blasts is implemented.
Apart from this, the plate dimensions must cover nearly all the conceivable geometric combinations that might
be used to construct a naval ship superstructure. The platings of a naval ship superstructure are determined by
the arrangements of its underlying primary structure.
Conclusion:
This thesis assesses and provides a rationalization of the different approaches for de-signing superstructure
plating against external blasts. The main thing was that Lloyd’s Register (2014) design procedure achieves the
purpose of maintaining water or gas-tight integrity of a plate, but simultaneously create significant redundancy.
(Liu)

EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL ANALYSES ON THE DYNAMIC

RESPONSE OF ALUMINUM FOAM CORE SANDWICH PANELS
SUBJECTED TO LOCALIZED AIR BLAST LOADING
This paper presents experimental and numerical investigations into dynamic responses of aluminum foam core
sandwich panels subjected to localized air blast loading. It mainly focused on the effects of face-sheet thickness
and mass allocation on the deformation responses and energy absorption characteristics.
The upgradation of ship protection level attracted a great many attentions from the naval departments and
related scholars. The onset of light weight sandwich structures provides an attractive alternative solution to the
problem.
Experimental procedure:
A schematic of the sandwich specimen with in-plane dimensions of 452 mm (L, length) × 440 mm (B, width). It
was fabricated from two 304 stainless steel face-sheets bonded to an aluminum foam core using epoxy resin. All
the blast tests were conducted in an explosion chamber with an inner diameter of 5 m and a height of 7.5 m.
During experiments, the test panels were mounted horizontally and bolted onto a 30 mm thick supporting plate.

Three-dimensional finite element calculations were performed using ANSYS/Autodyne to simulate the dynamic
response of the aluminum foam core sandwich panels, and to identify the temporal sequence of panel
deformations, as well as to get insight into the energy absorption characteristic.
As we know that he Euler solvers is well suited for modelling the hydrodynamic behavior, such as explosion. he
calculation of material flows through cell faces of Euler solves is very time-consuming while adopting a fine
mesh. In order to save computational time, the blast load could be modelled in three different stages.
Based on the configuration of sandwich panels, the deformation/failure modes of specimens observed in the
tests can be classified with respect to the front and back face sheets, as well as foam core, respectively.
To learn the intrinsic mechanisms of foam core sandwich panels thoroughly, not only the whole process of
energy dissipation but also the effects of face-sheet thickness and mass allocation on the energy absorption
characteristics were analyzed. The time history curves of plastic energy dissipation of the typical panels
namedAFP-2andAFP-12 is given below.

Conclusion:
We concluded from the report that the aluminum foam core sandwich panels under localized air blast loading
and their response was investigated by a combination of experiments and simulations in this paper. We also
examine that the increase of front face thickness would vary the failure mode of front face from petaling failure
to large localized inelastic deformation. Although increasing both front face thickness and back face thickness is
beneficial to reduce the maximum permanent deflections. Also The onset of light weight sandwich structures
provides an attractive alternative solution to the problem.
(GanchaoChen)
DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF SANDWICH PANELS WITH MULTI-
LAYERED ALUMINUM FOAM/UHMWPE LAMINATE CORES UNDER
AIR BLAST LOADING
The air blast responses of sandwich panels with multi-layered aluminum foam/UHMWPE laminate cores were
analyzed experimentally and numerically. Multiple failure modes were exhibited by the panels, including local
indentation and global bending deformation of face sheets, crushing and fragmentation of foam core, deboning
of adhesive, and delamination and fracture failure of UHMWPE laminate.
Numerical results demonstrated that deploying the UHMWPE laminate as a first layer core significantly
lowered the center velocity of front face. The existence of UHMWPE laminate would change the response
modes of the panels. Most of the blast energy was dissipated by the multi-layered cores. The UHMWPE
laminates exhibited less efficient in absorbing energy than the aluminum foam.
The sandwich panels are composed of two face sheets and a multi layered core. The in-plane dimensions of the
panel are 452mm(L)×440mm(B). Two groups of multi-layered sandwich panels with different core
configurations were designed. One is the multi-layered aluminum foam core sandwich panel. The other one is
the multi-layered hybrid aluminum foam/UHMWPE laminate core sandwich panel.

The air blast experiments were conducted in an explosive chamber which has dimensions of 5 m inner diameter
by 7.5 m height. The panel was peripherally clamped between a rigid supporting plate and a picture frame by
M16 bolts. he blasts wave was generated by the detonation of a 55 g cylindrical TNT explosive with a diameter
of 35 mm and a height of 37.2 mm.
Experimental results
All the tested panels were cross-sectioned by water-jet cutting to reveal the failure modes of the multi-layered
core. Additionally, the details of the failure of the UHMWPE composite were examined through the Dino-Lite
Microscope.
The front faces of the tested baseline panels. Local indentation was the dominant deformation mode of the front
faces due to the localized blast wave. For the Sod of 100 mm, a relatively mild indentation deformation was
formed by local plastic bending in the front face of panel AF-1.
 When the Sodas decreased to 50 mm, the blast load intensified and became more localized. Accordingly, the
indentation in the front face of panel AF-2was more evident than that of panel AF-1. It caused the occurrence of
stretching deformation within the indentation area. The thinning phenomenon was obvious in the central area.
The thinning level reached up to 30% original thickness

RESPONSE OF METALLIC SANDWICH PANELS TO BLAST LOADS

Metallic sandwich panels dissipate blast energy through large plastic deformation of the core and plates, making
them more effective than a single metallic plate of similar density. This study evaluated the effectiveness of
using woven shapes as a new core topology in sandwich panels for resisting blast loads. The results of the
proposed wovenshapes were compared to honeycomb and folded shapes to examine their effectiveness in blast
mitigation. The effect of changing the front layer’s thickness and the back layer’s thickness was investigated.
The results show that woven shapes achieved the best energy dissipation capability compared to the honeycomb
and folded shapes. Moreover, woven shapes achieved less back layer deflection than the folded shapes and
more back layer deflection than the honeycomb shapes.
Sandwich panel systems are the most common structural elements used in blast loading dissipation applications.
These panel systems usually consist of front, core, and back layers. The core can have several topologies. For
metallic sandwich panels, the most common topologies are honeycomb, folded, and lattice truss shapes. Under
these main topologies, many configurations can be used to form the core of the sandwich panels to provide
adequate stiffness and strength for structural load support. For example, the honeycomb topology can have
triangular, square, and hexagonal configurations. The front layers possess a high tensile strength capacity,
which develops a negligible global deformation and minor tearing. The influence of the front layer thickness is
more important on the deflection of the panels than the influence of the back layer thickness. Many studies have
investigated the difference in performance between the various core topologies when subjected to blast loads.
Theory:
This study evaluates the effectiveness of metallic sandwich panels with the proposed woven shape core in
resisting blast loads. The paper also compares the response of the newly proposed woven shapes with that of the
existing honeycomb and folded shapes.
Finite-Element Analysis:
The finite-element model simulated in this study was conducted using dynamic nonlinear explicit software
ANSYS Autodyn (SAS IP version 15). A three-dimensional explosion was modeled, and the blast wave
propagation with its multiple reflections and refractions were tracked.
Core Topologies:
The current study investigated three core topologies, namely, the honeycomb, folded, and woven shapes. For
the honeycomb shape, three specific shapes were studied: the triangle honeycomb shape (TH), square
honeycomb shape (SH), and hexagonal honeycomb shape (HH). Fig. 3 shows the three different honey comb
topologies with the dimensions and thickness of each topology. To verify and
the thickness of TH, SH, and HH were 85.8, 94.3, and 96.7 mm, For the folded shape, five shapes were
considered: the diamond folded shape (DF), the Y-frame folded shape (YF), the triangle folded shape (TF), the
sinusoidal-corrugated folded shape (SF), and the trapezoidal-corrugated folded shape (ZF). The relative density
of each core topology was calculated by dividing the volume of material in each core by its total volume,
Material Properties:
The strength model parameter was defined as a hydro (i.e., no strength), while no failure model was defined.
Finally, for air the EOS was defined as an ideal gas and the strength model parameter was defined as a hydro
(i.e., no strength), while no failure model was defined.
Varying the Front Layer Thickness:
To investigate the effect of varying the front layer thickness on the performance of the sandwich panel, the
second scenario included a constant back layer with four different front layer thicknesses: 0.3, 0.5, 0.8, and 1
mm. Fig. (a) Shows the effect of changing the front layer thickness on the front layer deflection. From Fig. (a),
it can be seen that the front layer deflection decreases upon increasing the front layer thickness. The figure also
shows that the maximum deviation between the LS-DYNA and Autodyn models for honeycomb shapes is
8.6%, while the maximum deviation for folded shapes is 8.9%. Fig. (b) Shows the effect of changing the front
layer thickness on the back layer deflection. From Fig. 8(b), it can be noted that the back layer deflection
decreases when increasing the front layer thickness. Additionally, the deflection of the DF and YF shapes
occurs in the opposite direction to the applied blast loads due to the overall behavior of the core elements. Fig.
(c)shows the effect of changing the front layer thickness on the energy dissipation. The figure shows that upon
varying the thickness of the back layer, the folded shapes absorb more energy than the honeycomb shapes.

Varying the Back Layer Thickness:

For the first scenario, the following four different thicknesses for the back layers were used: 0.3, 0.5, 0.8, and 1
mm. Fig. (a) Shows the effect of changing the back layer thickness on the front layer deflection. From Fig. (a),
it can be seen that changing the back layer thickness has a negligible effect on the front layer deflection, and the
average changing percentage for the considered five panels is 4%. Fig. (b) Shows the effect of changing the
back layer thickness on the back layer deflection. From Fig. (b), it can be seen that the back layer deflection
decreases upon increasing the back layer thickness. Comparing the deflection when using a back layer with a 1-
mm thickness with the deflection when using a back layer with a 0.3-mm thickness, the deflection decreases by
an average of 44.3% for the two proposed folded shapes and by an average of 29.1% for the proposed woven
shapes. Fig. (c) Shows the effect of changing the back layer thickness on the energy dissipation. From Fig. (C),
it can be noted that, similar to the front layer deflection, changing the back layer thickness has a negligible
effect on the energy dissipation.
Force Transfer:
Sandwich panels were designed to reduce the force transmitted to the main structure through large plastic
deformations and energy absorption before collapsing and transferring the remaining energy. The material and
the core configurations of the sandwich panels are the factors that control the magnitude of the force transfer.
The force transfers for the 11 core configurations (three honeycomb shapes, five folded shapes, and three woven
shapes) were evaluated. The force transfer was determined by calculating the reaction force in the X-direction
experienced at the clamped boundary condition. The SH, HH, TWV, SWV, and ZWV configurations were
symmetric in the Y- and Z-directions; therefore, the force transfer had the same value in the four boundary
sides. In contrast, TH, DF, YF, TF, SF, and ZF were asymmetrical in the Y- and Z-directions.
This study investigated the effectiveness of three different core sandwich panel topologies (honeycomb, folded,
and woven) in blast load resistance. A numerical model was simulated using a nonlinear explicit finite-element
program and was validated using experimental data available in the literature.
Conclusions:
The following observations and conclusions were drawn:
• Increasing the back layer thickness does not significantly affect the front layer deflection and energy
dissipation. In contrast, back layer deflection decreases upon increasing the back layer thickness.
• Increasing the thickness of the front layer decreases the front layer deflection, back layer deflection, and
energy dissipation.
• Using woven shapes leads to less front layer deflection compared to using folded shapes. However, woven
shapes dissipate up to 49.3% more energy. Nevertheless, the woven shapes show more front layer deflection
and energy dissipation compared to the honeycomb shapes.
Upon applying two successive blast loads on the same panel, all the folded panels with a 0.3-mm thickness
suffer from a fracture at the edges. In contrast, for honeycomb and woven shapes, all the panels sustained the
successive blast loads without any fracture.[ CITATION Samrs \l 1033 ][ CITATION Shu13 \l 1033 ]

Effect of foam core gradation:

The results indicate that it was more advantageous to limit the back face deformation by placing the UHMWPE
layer near to back side of panels. The present section aims to exploit the potential in blast performance
improvement by introducing the graded foam cores. The multi-layered core of panel TP-4consistedofLF foam
layer, HF foam layer and UHMWPE layer from front face to back face. Panel TP-5wasconstructed by switching
the locations of the two foam layers of panel TP-4.
Graph comparing the measured cross-section profiles of the back faces of panel TP-4, panel TP-5and panel AF-
2
the UHMWPE laminates had an inferior energy absorption capacity than the aluminum foam core under the air
blast loading. It was probably why the best ones of Panels and Panels still underwent undesirable back face
deformation.
Conclusion:
In this paper, air blast experiments and finite element simulations were conducted to investigate the dynamic
responses of multi-layered aluminum foam core sandwich panels (AF) and multi-layered hybrid aluminum
foam/UHMWPE laminates core sandwich panels (TP and PP).
At the present stage, it can be concluded that the introduction of UHMWPE laminates into the core of sandwich
structures failed to upgrade the performance under bare blast loading. (Cheng)

2020
FAILURE ANALYSIS ON OCTAGONAL HONEYCOMB SANDWICH
PANEL UNDER AIR BLAST LOADING
The high energy absorption capacities of the honeycomb structure render honeycomb Sandwich Panels
commonly used against a high intensity blast load. In this research paper the structural behavior of the
honeycomb sandwich panel is subjected to the blast loading was determined. The minimum deflection on top
and back panels, and as well as the maximum energy absorption on the sandwich panel are calculated by
different cores for a wave, such as square and octagonal structures. The sandwich panel contains two powerful
plates (top and bottom plate) and a structure of the honeycomb core shell. The blowing is applied from the top
of the sandwich panel at a constant standing distance.
The sandwich panel is exposed to a constant stop-off point distance from the top plate of the sandwich panel
using the various masses of the explosion charges of the trinitrotoluene (TNT) to cause explosion in air.
ABAQUS software executes the finite element model to assess the sandwich panel's dynamic response. The
fourth part of the structure of the sandwich was modelled and the honeycomb sandwich panel was subject to
symmetry conditions to decrease the system's storage and the calculation duration for the study was reduced.
The top and back faces of the carated sandwich panel were confirmed by experimental findings in the square
sandwich panel in the literature. If honey comb structures are not called octagonal sandwich panels for various
blast loads, there is a risk of underestimating the front and the back face deflexions for the sandwich panel.
In contrast to the solid plate of equal mass, the sandwich plate displayed high strength. The panel was used to
absorb the shock wave during the blast load to secure the defensive layer and decreased the structure's thrust
power. Some researchers have also examined the superior mechanical features and energy absorption at the
blow rate of the sandwich structures. Xue and Hutchinson analyzed the sandwich structures of the honeycomb
failure and concluded that the sandwich panels had about the same weight with up to 30 times the rigidity of the
honeycomb sheets. ABAQUS and LSDYNA tools were used for finite element modelling and analysis They
also found that large elastic deformation, tearing and transverse shear failure on support was shown by the
structures affected by the blast wave. The mathematical displaying of the honeycomb structure performed
submerged impact stacking. They found that the hexagon centers are more viable in contrast with the square
center sandwich structures. The sandwich structure conduct of honeycomb structure examined exposed to air
and the water impact load. They found that the sandwich structure gave the great extent of obstruction under the
water impact load. The dynamic reaction contrasted for the sandwich board and without solidified composite
plate exposed to the impact load
Patm is an air pressure and Pmax is the highest air pressure produced. The graph from Patm to Pmax
unexpectedly leaps because of the shock wave. The shock wave began at the time and then the pressure dropped
to the atmospherical pressure during td. Positive pressure occurs up to the td time. After it occurs, negative
pressure occurs. The shock wave decayed from ta to td exponentially, then collapsed under negative strain
(suction phase).

The air blast load characteristic

Pressure-time response of air blast is also explained by modified Friedlander equation
Modeling of sandwich panel
Figure 5(b) shows the strong core deformation with the extending action of the plates and Figure 5(c) shows the
core crush, the plate stretch and the deboning effect of the front side. The sandwich panel Figure 5(a) shows the
main buckling actions and the plastic deformation of the core. At 3 kg TNT blast core is crushed completely and
the bottom plate also bend to large. But at this stage due to deboning effect between the front plate and the back
plate, the large separation showed in Fig 5 (c). It is also called the spring back effect of the top face plate. In
view of the figure 5(c) it is seen that the 3 kg TNT load in the wider separation between the front and core band,
weakening the overall strength of the plate, is different from experimental findings. The TNT 3 kg back
deflection is different
In furthermore, the edges of the sandwich board were utilized in test in reality more adaptable than the fixed
condition that was embraced in the present mathematical reenactment. The FE reproduction was performed for
the quarter modular to decrease the computational time for the mathematical reenactment.
Similarly, for an octagonal honeycomb sandwich panel deflection also determined for the same blast load and
showed that the lesser deformation in octagonal honeycomb sandwich panel.

In contrast with the square honeycomb core structures, the octagonal sandwich panel has also been studied. The
octogonal sandwich structure has therefore shown better protection than the square honeycomb for the sandwich
panel. It has therefore been tested. In addition, the octagonal sandwich panel showed that the front side and
back side effects are present in the spring
The honeycomb structures are increasingly evaluated for failure to establish the deterministic technique for
various blast charges. The quarter portion of the honeycomb structure was modelled and the panel had a
symmetry limit to decrease the system's storage memory and to reduce the analysis calculation time. The top
and back face deflections of the square honeycomb sandwich panel have been validated with experimental
results available in the literature for the square honeycomb sandwich panel. (Rajesh Kumar)

EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL STUDY OF THE BLAST WAVE

DECREASE USING SANDWICH PANEL BY GRANULAR MATERIALS
CORE
Among the inborn properties of certain materials, e.g., foams, porous materials, and granular materials, are their
ability to mitigate shock waves. This paper analysed a sandwich panel with a granular centre to reduce shock
waves. The auto-dyn hydro-code and a shock-tube have been used to carry out numerical simulations and
studies, respectively. A method for modelling granular material is used for smoothed particle hydrodynamics
(SPH). Sawdust and pumice, whose properties were controlled by a few pressure tests, were utilized as granular
materials in the sandwich board center. These granular materials have numerous components, including
compacting (e.g., sawdust) and pounding (e.g., pumice) that alleviate stun/impact wave. The outcomes showed
the ineffectualness of utilizing a center with low thickness, yet it was shown to be viable with high thickness.
Low-size pumice provided better wave mitigation performance. The use of these materials with the right centre
lowers the shock wave to 88 percent. The results of the experiments were compared and the numerical
simulations showed a strong consensus. It shows that the SPH method can model granular materials under
shock loading and the accuracy of the simulation. The impacts of grain size and the coefficient of erosion
between grains have likewise been researched utilizing reproduction, suggesting that expanding the grain size
and coefficient of contact between grains both diminish overpressure.
Shock waves include several phenomena considered by mathematics, physicists, mechanical and aerospace
engineers in two or several phases of the environment. In some designing plans, there is a need to lessen the
intensity of waves. Wave dampers are needed to assemble structures and reinforcement to alleviate the shoot
wave in the military business and the damping of the sound wave in the development business. These cases are
not limited to the use of explosive wave dampers. The effect and damping of the blast wave have also been
minimized using foams, porous granular materials and layers of material. These abilities are because of their
high energy ingestion, among the energy-engrossing materials, moderately reasonable grain materials, for
example, pumice, iron filings, and wood chips can be thought of. The simulations were performed with an
established FORTRAN code. The powder was modelled by particulate film theory and the research results
contrasted. According to the results, the propagation of waves in the particle powder indicated a diminishing
pattern in the gas stage pressure.
In view of certain assumptions for simplification, the compression test may obtain other characteristics required
for numerical simulation. Only the volume changes with the length of a cylinders in the compression tests are
appropriate in order to describe a granular material model as a nonlinear elastic plastic model (homogeneous).
The bulk module k in the elastic section depends on the material density and can be constant and at approx.
0.29.
the relation between the elastic constants

In this relation, G is the shear modulus. The speed of sound in the elastic state in a grain material is

The bulk modulus is obtained by Eq

Where P is the pressure and εv is the volume strain. To calculate the yield stress of granular materials which for
non-adhesive granular materials

The Coulomb yield criterion for the granular material can be written as

The pressure can be calculated using the bulk modulus and instantaneous density
It is obvious that increasing the core density of specimens did not have a major effect on increasing the blast
wave overpressure. However, it has been found that with the increasing core thickness, the deformation rate of
the plate center decreased significantly.
The effect of the grain size parameters and the friction coefficients between grains were investigated using
numerical simulation after the observation and comparison of the results for experimental and numerical
research. One of the factors influencing the wave's propagation speed may be the particle size of granular
materials as a factor directly related to sample porosity. The granular material's particle size has a strong
relation to porosity. The excess pressure is further minimised by increasing the particle size, which means more
porosity.
According to Fig. 27, it is clear that with increasing the friction coefficient, the amount of overpressure is
slightly reduced, so that for friction coefficients of 0.3, 0.5, and 0.7, the overpressure is equal to 1290 kPa, 1480
kPa, and 1500 kPa, respectively is observed.
Pumice had a more critical impact at a similar center thickness on impact energy retention contrasted with
sawdust for more grounded waves, and its impact was recognizable even at lower thicknesses. Utilizing these
materials likewise greatly affected diminishing the sound of the impact. Be that as it may, if the weight factor is
additionally thought of, sawdust would do well to execution, prompting more damped wave energy at a higher
thickness, which can be exceptionally viable. On account of utilizing a center with fitting thickness,
overpressure diminished to 88%, which demonstrates the capacity of these materials (sawdust and pumice) to
alleviate the impact wave. The misshaping of the plate community shifts fundamentally with the adjustment in
center thickness. By and by, it is seen that the level of decrease in [shock/blast] wave overpressure has not
changed fundamentally. The SPH technique was utilized for recreation. The outcomes uncovered the fittingness
of this technique in displaying granular materials under stun stacking. An assessment of the impacts of grain
size demonstrated a lessening in impact wave moderation with a decrease in grain size. Exploring the
coefficient of contact between particles showed that expanding the coefficient of rubbing between grains
additionally prompted a slight decrease in overpressure
(MasoudRahmani)

RESPONSE OF METALLIC RIBBON-CORE SANDWICH PANELS

SUBJECTED TO AIR BLAST LOADING
Sandwich structures provide a quite promising solution for blast alleviation techniques owing to their
lightweight, high strength, and impressive energy absorption capabilities relative to solo metallic plates with
equivalent density. The ability of the sandwich structure to withstand blast loading relies on its core topology.
This paper numerically investigates the effectiveness of using ribbon shapes as an innovative core topology for
sandwich structures subjected to blast loading. The hydro-code program (Autodyn) supported by the finite
element program (ANSYS) is adopted to study the dynamic response of various sandwich panels. The accuracy
of the finite element (FE) models were verified using available experimental results for a field blast test in the
literature. The results show that the developed finite element model can be reliably exploited to simulate the
dynamic behavior of the sandwich panels. The trapezoidal (TZ) and triangular (T) corrugated core topologies
were selected to highlight the blast-resistant performance of the new ribbon core topology. Applying the ribbon
topology to the traditional corrugated core topologies improved their blast performance. The facing front-plate’s
deflection of the trapezoidal corrugated ribbon core sandwich structure (TZRC) has been improved by 45.3%
and by 76.5% for the back-plate’s deflection, while for the triangular ribbon corrugated core (TRC), the front
plate’s defection has been enhanced by 69.3% and by 112.1% for the back plate. The effect of various design
parameters on the blast behavior of the Ribbon-Core Sandwich Panels (RCSPs) was investigated. A parametric
study was conducted to evaluate performance indicators, including energy dissipated through plastic
deformation and plate deflections. Finally, based on the parametric study, the results of this paper were
recommended to be used as a guide for designing metallic ribbon sandwich structures with different protection
levels.
To model the TNT explosion in Ansys Autodyn, the surrounding air and the product of the TNT explosion were
assumed to behave like an ideal gas. The Johnson–Cook (J–C) material model was elected to describe the flow
stress of the annealed 304 stainless steel. This model is ideal for a material subjected to large strains, high strain
rates, and high temperatures.
Generally, permanent deformation/failure of the face plates is considered the most important attribute of the
structural response, as all other parameters (impulse transfer and energy dissipation) rely on it. From the field
blast test, it can be observed that for the 150-mm and 100-mm SoD, the face sheets plastically deformed and no
failure has occurred. However, for the 50 mm SoD, the panel was damaged. Experimental and numerical central
deflections of the corrugated core sandwich panels were compared and summarized in Table 5. Figure 4 shows
the comparison of the deformation/failure modes of the experimental and numerical models. The comparison
was focused on the permanent deflection between simulation and experiments. The differences expressed high
accuracy since the standard deviation varied between 1.83% and 11.93%. So, the numerical model was assumed
with this accuracy to be able to capture and predict the deformation and failure modes for the field blast test. At
this point, the proposed models can be used reliably to investigate the performance of the ribbon topology as
new core configuration for sandwich structures subjected to air blast loading.
A parametric study was conducted to investigate the effect of design parameters on the blast performance of the
novel core configuration, and the following was observed:
 • The back-plate deflection decreases with increasing front-plate thickness due to the increased stiffness. When
using a front sheet with 2.6 mm thickness, the deflection decreases by an average 70% for the rear face sheet.
• The back-plate thickness has a negligible effect on the front-layer deflection however, the back-plate
deflection decreases upon increasing the back-plate thickness. • The sandwich panel with the thinner front-face
plate could improve the energy-absorbing capabilities of the structure. However, under large blast loading,
tearing damage may take place on the thinner front face.
• Increasing the core thickness has a negative impact on the blast behavior of the structure and also increasing
the angle of corrugation more than 45◦ reduces the efficiency of the structure under the impact of blast loading.
To conclude, the newly proposed ribbon core panels have shown superior blast performance than the traditional
folded cores. The parametric study provides guidelines for designing the ribbon core sandwich structures
according to the required protection level.
(Abada)

MARINE APPLICATION OF FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES: A

REVIEW
This research paper mainly comprises of the details of the uses of composite materials that have been a
milestone in the marine industry and changed the course of this industry with many dominating characteristics.
The construction of boats and ships, offshore and pipelines, renewable energy devices, and repairing of
structures. In the current industrial sector, the main objectives are to make the essential parts up of the fiber
reinforced composites instead of the conventional materials so the composite materials are used for hulls,
ships, and submarines to produce components, such as masts, propellers and internal parts of ships and
submarines. Around 1950’s the use of composites was really in use to cater many different problems regarding
corrosion and the adverse effects on the surfaces. In this way the structures made up of composites could be
optimized in a way to get the maximum resistant against many adverse effects. In the repairing sector,
composite materials are effectively applied and used for the repairing or restoration of corroded structures from
the saltish and submerged marine environments in the case of the sub marines, due to chemical agents and
marine organisms such as reinforced concrete, steel or wood. So, the long and short is that the use of composites
is very useful and opening many ways to success. Depending on different structures different types and
percentages of composites are used. These studies aim to gain a thorough knowledge of weight and cost
differences between the potential materials and structures configurations adopted by shipbuilders for a range of
ship lengths, loads and structural components and to define the bases for design decisions during the process to
produce cost- and weight-efficient products. Advanced composite materials have encountered a reduced use to
manufacture larger commercial vessels due to their high initial costs and stringent performance requirements,
e.g., air-blast and underwater shock resistance, fire resistance, ballistic protection, etc. However, the
development of new materials and novel manufacturing processes are constantly diminishing the impact of
these obstacles promoting wider use of composites in this sector. (Rubino)

TENSILE PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE METAL FOAM AND

COMPOSITE METAL FOAM CORE SANDWICH PANELS
Metal foams are known for their special compression energy absorption capabilities as well as their intrinsic
insulating thermal and acoustic properties. Due to their wide surface area, the use of metal foams in different
applications can be restricted by their strength under stress and susceptibility to corrosion. The porosities in
metal foams hinder their tensile strength and enable the structure to produce rapid crack growth. In order to
optimize their strength to density ratio, metal foams can be produced in a number of ways. Currently, most
metal foams are manufactured inside the structure with varying cell size and inhomogeneities that result in
mechanical properties for structural applications less than desirable. However, since they have a relatively high
strength with a low density, metal foams are optimal materials for use as sandwich panel cores. For a range of
engineering and structural applications that include enhanced thermal, radiation and acoustic shielding, the
porosities in the center may be an essential feature.
In Figure 1(a) and (b), digital images of the top surface and cross section of a dog bone sample cut from the
bare SS-CMF using wire EDM are shown. A smooth continuous face at the machined edge is given by the wire
EDM operation, as shown in Figure 1(a). Prior to research, the top and bottom of each plate were machined flat
to produce smooth parallel faces on either side of the samples. As it was developed with added powder on the
top and bottom of the panel for post-process machining to ensure flat and smooth surfaces, the surface of the
sample does not display open porosities as shown in Figure1(b).
Bare SS-CMF and SS-CMF-CSP SEM images are presented in Figure 2(a) to (c and d) to (f). In Figure 2(a), the
general SSCMF microstructure is shown with multiple spheres at each corner of the image and the sintered
matrix between them. Figure 2(a) not only illustrates the macroporositites created by the hollow metal spheres,
but also the macroporositites identified by white arrows that exist inside the matrix . The metal matrix fills the
area between matrix fills the area between the spheres and micro-porosities that form during the manufacturing
phase of powder metallurgy are their own. Using a powder metallurgy process, the spheres are also created and
contain micro-porosities in their sphere wall. A slight gap between the sphere wall and the matrix shown by the
thin arrow in Figure 2(a) can be seen in some areas, whereas other areas show maximum bonding, marked by
the thicker arrow Under Figure 2(a). Prior to SEM imaging, spontaneous gaps between the spheres and matrix
may have been caused by cutting, machining, and grinding of the samples. Strong bonding between the walls of
the spheres and the matrix covering most of the spheres is seen. In the higher magnification picture in Figure
2(b), different forms of porosity can be seen and are outlined by white arrows. As stated in our previous studies,
exposure of spheres to high temperatures associated with SS-CMF manufacturing causes sphere wall grain
growth.
We can see from Figure 2(d) the clear bond line between the heart (marked as CMF) and the face sheet of
stainless steel (marked as SS FS). The bond line is hard to distinguish, but the white arrows at the center of the
figure point to it. A separate bonding area at the interface of the sandwich panel between the SS-CMF matrix
and the steel face sheet is shown in figure 2(e). The bond is semi-continuous along the exposed surface, marked
by white arrows, showing in some places a small gap between the center and the face layer. During secondary
treatment (cutting/grinding) of the sandwich panels for SEM imaging, the gaps most probably emerged,
indicating a lower bonding intensity in that area. The distance was estimated at its widest opening region to be
approximately 20 mm. The distance differs along the surface and further disappears entirely along the length of
the sample, giving the face sheet sufficient strength to remain bonded. The greater magnification of the grains in
the SS-CMF-CSP sphere wall is shown in Figure 2(f). The grains of the wall of a sphere in Figure 2(c) shows
that the SS-CMF-CSP is much larger than those in the bare SS-CMF samples. This is due to the additional heat
period during diffusion bonding encountered by the hollow spheres. As has been documented in previous
studies of SS-CMF, due to the greater carbon content of the spheres, the heat cycle is also expected to increase
carbide formations along the grain boundaries. These studies have shown that the carbide formations within the
sphere wall consist mainly of Cr rich M23C6 carbides known to form in 316 stainless steels.
Conclusion
The solid-state diffusion bonding of an SS-CMF panel with stainless steel face sheets was provided by SS-CMF
core sandwich panels. SEM imaging was used to analyze the microstructure and interfacial bond of the SS-
CMF between the SS-CMF core and stainless-steel face sheets. The two bodies demonstrate strong adhesion
and form a cohesive body at the matrix/face sheet interface. In certain areas with intrinsic gaps that exist where
a cut sphere lies open to the surface, minor gaps have been identified.
It investigated the mechanical properties of SS-CMF and SS-CMF-CSP By quasi-static measuring of stress. The
bare SS-CMF samples had an ultimate tensile strength of 75-85MPa and a 7.5-8% failure strain. Approximately
24 MPa/(g/cm3) was the normalized tensile power, 410 percent more than equivalent metal foams. The SS-
CMF core under stress was effectively protected by the face sheets while maintaining reasonably stable
adhesion along the bond axis. The SS-CMF-CSP's ultimate tensile strength was 115% higher with an average
failure strain of 23% than the bare samples at 165 MPa. The SS-CMF-CSP normalized intensity was 52 percent
higher than the bare SS-CMF.
Digital image analysis of the tensioned SS-CMF samples revealed the crack initiating inside the matrix, largely
due to micro porosity coalescence. Surface fractography of the samples shows weakness through the walls of
the sphere as the crack progressed to the bare SS-CMF samples through the sample thickness. With some
spheres cracking and some debonding from the matrix around the fracture surface, the SS-CMF-CSP had a
blended mode of failure. Due to the additional heating period for producing the sandwich panels, debonding of
the spheres is caused by reinforcement inside the sphere walls. Under stress, the sphere walls stiffen and allow
the crack to expand around them rather than through the thickness of the sphere wall.
The bare SS-CMF and SS-CMF-CSP elastic modulus have been approximated
Using the Mixtures Law. The mixture rule provides a good approximation for the Young's module, with the
calculated values between the estimated lower and upper bound values for both the SS-CMF and the SS-
CMFCSP. In addition to improving the mechanical efficiency of the SS-CMF core, the face sheets on the SS-
CMF-CSP often include a non-porous surface that can protect against corrosion and be used in a number of
engineering applications.
(Marx)

SALIENT FEATURES OF SANDWICH PANELS

 Excellent thermal insulating properties
 Cost-efficient processing
 Chemical and biological resistance
 Light weight and durable
 Fast and easy to install
 Nice aesthetic features
 High intensity and large rigidity
 Non-water absorbent
 Cold and heat resistance
 Dimensional stability
 Environment friendly
  Sound insulation properties of sandwich panels are mentioned hare in detail:

A schematic view of the methods that generally adapted for the enhancement of the insulation properties
of sandwich panels are here:

[ CITATION VIE20 \l 1033 ]

ENERGY ABSORPTION
With the development of engineering science and
technology, the problem of buffer energy absorption caused by
mechanical collision in industry has become more
prominent. Since the 1970s, attention has been paid to
research and development into energy-absorbing structures and
materials that dissipate kinetic energy from collisions (or from
strong dynamic loads), especially in the automotive, marine and
military industries. At present, the composite devices with good
performance and a wide range of application include metal tube
structures, aluminium honeycomb, foamed metal materials, and porous materials used to infill thin-walled
structures. These buffer energy absorption devices are all based on the principle of irreversible deformation of
materials and absorption of energy through plastic deformation. [ CITATION Ros20 \l 1033 ]
So energy absorption is defined as the surface below the load-displacement curve. The average load is identified
as one of the determination parameters of absorbed energy capability based on the definition of energy
absorption and peak load value, which was attained in the first step of a quasi-static test. There are two types of
energy absorption capability, which are specific energy absorption (SEA) and volumetric energy absorption.
SEA is described as cross-section areas in which the material is in contact with the top platen at any
deformation, or in other words, SEA can be defined as the total of absorbed energy per unit mass. Meanwhile,
an essential parameter for energy absorber system design where space is restrained is known as volumetric
energy absorption capability. Energy absorption is a different means to evaluate toughness and gains unanimity
in decisions regarding the acceptance of the values obtained. The results are analyzed in a number of ways. The
minimum energy absorption is often specified, but it must be noted that typical values differ significantly.
The solar energy absorption efficiency (ηabsorption) is defined as the net rate at which energy is being absorbed by
the solar reactor divided by the solar power input through the aperture of the solar reactor. The η absorption can be
calculated as:

Where, σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant, I = normal beam insolation 1(kW/m2), C = solar flux concentration
ratio of the solar concentrating system (5000 suns), Qreactor–net = net energy absorbed in the solar reactor,
Qsolar = solar energy input. For SnO2/SnO based syngas production process, at TH = 1783K, the η absorption was
observed to be equal to 88.53%. [CITATION MRN17 \l 1033 ]

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