BASIC SCIENCE

SCIENCE BOOK 1

LOWER SECONDARY

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT UNIT

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, NATIONAL HERITAGE, CULTURE & ARTS
SUVA, FIJI 2011

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 1

 Acknowledgements

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary has been produced for use at the Form 3 level and as reference at the Form 4
level by the Basic Science Section at the Curriculum Development Unit of the Ministry of Education.

The following teachers and officers are acknowledged for their contribution to the development of this textbook: Ms
Olive Rayawa, Mrs.Premila Kumar, Miss Salanieta Lalagavesi, Mrs. Malikesa Malo, Mrs. Prabha Nair, Mrs. Kelera
Taloga, Mrs.Iva Teilai, Mrs. Serenia Rawalai, Mrs. Elena Seninawanawa, Mrs. Luisa Sigawale and the 2011 Basic
Science Moderation Panel, Lautoka.

A special thanks goes to the CDU Secondary Officers and family members of writers for their cooperation and support,
and also to Stan Sigawale for the cover design and photographs taken.

Copyright @ Ministry of Education, Fiji

All Rights Reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
Retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or means,
Electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
Otherwise without the permission of the
Curriculum Development Unit of The Ministry of Education, Fiji.

2 - Basic Science
 Table of Contents
Introduction 5 Chapter 3: Living Things and the Environment 51

Chapter 1: Skills, Processes and Procedures 6 Unit 1: Living Together 53

Unit 1: Starting Science 6 3.1.1 Ecosystems: Terrestrial and Aquatic 53

3.1.2 Features of the Environment 58
1.1.1 What is Science? 6 3.1.3 Interactions between Living Things 59
1.1.2 Safety in the Science Room 7 3.1.4 Response of Plants to various 61
1.1.3 Working in the Laboratory 11 external stimuli
1.1.4 Laboratory Equipment 17
1.1.5 Keeping Records 18 Unit 2: Biodiversity, Change and Sustainability 64
1.1.6 Measurements 21
3.2.1 Biodiversity and its Importance 64
Unit 2: Investigating 24 3.2.2 Changes in the Ecosystem 64
3.2.3 Human activities that contribute to these
1.2.1 Making Observations 24 changes in the ecosystem 66
1.2.2 Displaying data 24 3.2.4 Sustainability and the need for 68
1.2.3 Fair Testing 28 Conservation

Chapter 2: Matter 30 Unit 3: Structure and Life Processes 71

Unit 1: Investigating Matter 30 3.3.1 Structure of Plants 71

3.3.2 Functions and Adaptive Features of 73
2.1.1 Structure and properties of atoms 30 parts of Plants.
2.1.2 Structure and properties of matter 32 3.3.3 Types of Plants 75
2.1.3 Expansion and contraction of matter 34 3.3.4 Transpiration 76
2.1.4 Effect of heating and cooling on matter 36 3.3.5 Photosynthesis 80
3.3.6 Reproduction in Plants 82
Unit 2: Materials 38
Chapter 4: Energy 87
2.2.1 Properties and interactions of materials 39
2.2.2 Effect of soap and detergents on Water 41 Unit 1: Energy Source and Transfer 87
types
2.2.3 Effect of materials on the environment 43 4.1.1 Sources of energy 87
4.1.2 Renewable and non-renewable energy 90
Unit 3: Reactions 45 4.1.3 Behavior of Light on Materials 93
4.1.4 Reflection 94
2.3.1 Elements and Compounds 45 4.1.5 Mirrors – Plane, Concave, Convex 95
2.3.2 Word and Chemical equations 48
2.3.3 Effects of chemical reactions 50
on the environment

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 3

Unit 2: Energy Transformation, Use and Chapter 5: Earth and Beyond 108
Conservation 97
Unit 1: Our Solar System 108
4.2.1 Types of Energy 97
4.2.2 Forms of Energy 97 5.1.1 Planets of the Solar System 108
4.2.3 Uses of energy 100 5.1.2 The Moon and Phases of the Moon. 113
4.2.4 Conservation of Energy 101 5.1.3 Artificial satellites 115
5.1.4 Eclipses 117
Unit 3: Forces 102 5.1.5 Cause of Day and Night 119
5.1.6 Seasons of the Year 119
4.3.1 Types of Forces 102
4.3.2 Basic Forces that allow movement of Unit 2: Our Changing Earth 121
objects. 104
4.3.3 Strength of force at different Places 106 5.2.1 Climate Change 121
4.3.4 Effect of force on Weight of object and 106 5.2.2 Greenhouse Effect 123
on different surfaces.
Glossary 127

Reference 131

4 - Basic Science
 Introduction

This book provides science information and places emphasis on the basic learning of the three sciences, Biology,
Chemistry and Physics. It is based on five major areas of Skills, Processes and Procedures; Matter; Living Things and
the Environment; Energy; Earth and Beyond.

The first chapter introduces you to the skills you have to acquire and the processes and procedures you need to follow
as a student in science.

In the study on matter, you will learn how matter is made up and how it behaves, the different materials we use, how
they react and how they can impact the environment in which we live. This involves you conducting experiments and
investigating on these different reactions using chemical principles.

In the study of Living Things and the Environment, you will look at the structure of plants and study the processes that
enable living organisms to survive, the use of microscopes to examine the world of organisms invisible to the naked
eye, the study of the ecosystem and its biodiversity, you will establish the impact of man’s activity on the ecosystem
and find ways of sustainably using the present resources.

The study of energy is about the physical world and about light and how it behaves. It investigates forces and how they
behave and affect our everyday life.

The study of earth and beyond is about the planets of the solar system, the earth’s atmosphere and the changing earth
and its impact on our lives.

Using this Book

Each chapter of this book has units with certain sections of text, written exercises, practical activities/experiments and
research investigations or group activities. The icons used, would show you what to do:

Exercise / Activity Experiments Think About

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 5

 CHAPTER 1: SKILLS, PROCESSES AND PROCEDURES

1. STARTING SCIENCE

2. INVESTIGATING

UNIT 1: STARTING SCIENCE

1.1.1 What is Science

Science is an exciting subject, where you can do experiments and work in a laboratory. But what is science?
• Science is doing experiments. Experiments are a way of finding answers to problems.
• Science is knowledge

Study of Energy, Matter

and Movement

Study of Chemicals and how to Study of Living Things

Change them. CHEMISTRY PHYSICS

BIOLOGY
SCIENCE
BBASTRONOMY
Study of the rocks and GEOLOGY Study of Planets, Stars
the Earth ECOLOGY and the universe

Study of how Plants and

Animals interact together
in the Environment

6 - Basic Science
1.1.2 Safety in the Science Room

In the laboratory there are gas taps and burners, glass beakers and flasks, water taps, and electrical power points. The
laboratory could be a dangerous place if there were no safety rules. There are safety rules that apply to everyone in all
laboratories and it is important that everyone remembers these rules and obeys them.

General Safety rules

1. Do not enter the science room unless you are with your teacher. Always wear a lab coat and proper footwear
(closed shoes flat shoes) in the laboratory.
2. No running or pushing. The floor is slippery and hard.
3. Keep your notebook neat and tidy, and away from where you are doing your experiment.
4. Never eat food or lollies or chew gum in the laboratory, or drink from laboratory glassware.
5. Do not taste or inhale any chemicals or lick anything in the laboratory. Always wash your hands after working in the
laboratory, and especially before eating food.
6. Pour waste liquids into sinks or waste bottles. Place waste solids into rubbish bins. Broken glass
should be placed in special bins.
7. Clean all equipment after use and put it back where you got it from. Clean your work bench after doing
experiments.

Safety rules when heating or mixing chemicals

8. When heating or mixing substances, never look inside the flask or beaker .Do not point the open end of test tubes
or beakers towards you or others. Wear safety goggles while heating.
9. Follow the correct method for lighting a Bunsen burner.
10. After heating equipment, let it cool down before picking it up. This will avoid burns.
11. If you have long hair, keep it tied back and away from flames and chemicals.
12. Do not place flammable substances near naked flames.

When accidents occur

13. Report all breakages and damage to your teacher.

14. If you spill acid or other chemical on your hands, wash with a lot of running tap water or ask your teacher for
help.
15. If your clothing should catch fire, smother it with a blanket or coat. Never run.

Create: Choose one of the laboratory safety

rules that you have learned and draw a poster that will
illustrate the rule clearly.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 7

Safety Labels

Hazardous chemicals must be labeled to alert people to their dangerous properties. These chemicals have a symbol
representation to show their properties.

Symbol

Meaning Poison Flammable Corrosive Explosive/ Combustible

Explosion material
hazard

Examples Chloroform Methylated Caustic soda Sodium in Hydrogen

spirit Hydrochloric acid Water
(concentrated)

Mini -exercise: Select the words from the list on the left to complete the sentences below.

(a) Never ………….. any chemicals in the laboratory.

(b) ……….. all breakages to your teacher.
bump
(c) If you spill ……… on your skin, wash immediately with plenty
chemicals
of………, then tell your …………
teacher
(d) Take care not to ……….. anyone who is using chemicals.
water
eat food (e) Do not ………. in the laboratory.
fire (f) Never point a ………… towards your own face or anyone else’s.
taste (g) A ……….. can be wrapped quickly around someone to smother
blanket flames.
instructions (h) Know what you are doing in the laboratory. Read the ………
carefully.

8 - Basic Science
 Assessment
LAB STATION SCENARIO LAB STATION SCENARIO
1: Lab Directions Suppose you are 2: Lab Area Safety 1. Imagine this is your
going to begin a group’s lab area. What
scientific is wrong here?
investigation. What 2. What might happen if
should be one of the your lab group had such
first a cluttered lab area?
things everyone in 3. Write a lab safety
your group should rule for this station.
do?

3: Lab Dress Code 1. What do you think 4: Lab Dress Code 1. Which picture
is the proper clothing accurately shows
to wear when we proper lab safety in the
conduct laboratory lab?
investigations? 2. Write a lab safety
(include hair, shirts, rule for this station.
jewellery, and shoes)
AA
A B

5: Glassware and Sharp 1. What should you 6: Animal Safety 1. If we are conducting
Object Safety do if you break any of an investigation using
the glassware? live animals, how
2. Should you use the should you treat the
flask above? Why or animal and why?
Why not? 2. What should you do
3. What special when you are finished
precautions should handling the animal?
you take if you are
using sharp objects
like scalpels (knives)
from the dissecting
kit?

7: Chemical Safety 1. Take a whiff of this 8: Chemical Safety 1. Taste this unknown
unknown substance, substance, what do you
what do you think the think this substance is?
substance is? 2. If the substance had
2. If this substance been poisonous, what
had been poisonous, might have happened if
what might have you tasted it?
happened if you 3. Write a safety rule
sniffed it? for this station
3. What is the proper
way to smell a
substance in the lab?
4. Write a safety rule
for this lab station.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 9

 LAB STATION SCENARIO LAB STATION SCENARIO
1. If you spilled a 1. What is the name
9: Chemical Safety 10: Chemical Safety
chemical, what would of this safety
you do? equipment?

2. When would you use it?

11: Chemical Safety 1. If you did not 12: Fire Safety 1. Where is the
use all of the nearest fire
substances given extinguisher?
to you for the 2. Where is the nearest fire
investigation, alarm?
what would you 3. Where is the nearest fire
do with it? blanket?
4. What 3 words do you
2. How would you remember about fire
dispose of substances safety if your clothing
used in the lab?
to catch on fire?

13: Clean up 1. What should you 14: Clean up 1. Class is about to end,
always remember to what should happen
do before leaving the here?
Lab?
2. Write a lab safety rule
for this situation.

10 - Basic Science
1.1.3 Working in the Laboratory

When working in the laboratory, you will be expected to use a number of equipment when conducting your experiments.
The two equipment you will often use at this level are the Microscope and the Bunsen burner.

Microscope

A microscope is an instrument that magnifies very small objects that cannot be readily studied using the naked eye.

Types of Microscope:

Simple Microscope - A microscope that uses only one magnifying glass called a lens in a tube.

Compound Microscope:

A compound microscope is one that uses two lenses and is commonly

used in schools. Each lens is at the end of the tube that can be moved up
and down. The lens at the top of the tube, where you put your eye, is called
the eyepiece. The lens at the bottom of the tube is called the objectives.
Compound microscope use glass lenses that focus light passing through
an object.

Stereo or dissecting microscope

A dissecting microscope is used to look at objects that are thicker than

objects looked at under a compound microscope. As its name indicates,
the dissection microscope is used to observe tissues and organs as a
specimen is being dissected. Biologists use it to study the structure of
insects and other invertebrates. Botanists also use dissection microscopes
to observe parts of plants and fungi.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 11

Using the Microscope

To get really good results it is important to go through these steps. They are jumbled here. Write them down in the correct
order but check with your teacher first.

• use the clips to hold the slide

• when finished reset to low power and put the microscope back in its box
• use fine focus for medium power and readjust the light if it helps
• position the lamp and mirror to get good light
• use the course focus to move the objective AWAY from the stage
• always start with low power
• turn to medium power if you need more detail
• looking from the side bring the objective close to the stage

There are two important things you need to know before you start looking at things:

1. how to put the sample on the microscope slide

3. how to find the size of the object
Some extra tips:
• If looking at a thick specimen, ask for a cavity slide
• Some objects, particularly thick ones may look better
if you place a piece of black paper under the slide and
shine your light down from the side.

Observing specimens using a microscope

Specimens need to be thin and transparent so that light can get through. Most specimens are mounted between two pieces of
glass: the thick microscope slide below and a thinner coverslip above. The coverslip is placed on top as in the diagram below.
It keeps the specimen flat, giving a better picture and protects the (microscope) objective from the specimen. Water prevents the
specimen from drying out. Stains enable us to see organelles more clearly.

Preparing a wet mount

12 - Basic Science
Preparing the Slide for viewing

1. Wash and dry the slide.

2. Place the specimen to be observed in the center of the glass slide. If the sample is already in a liquid suspension,
skip Step 3. If not, you will need to add a liquid medium to suspend the sample for viewing.
3. Add a drop of water over the top of the specimen.
4. Add a stain if necessary (iodine for animal cells and methylene blue for plant cells).
5. Place the coverslip on.

Caring for the microscope

1. Carry the microscope with two hands: one hand under it (base) and one hand holding it using the arm.
2. Store the microscope in its box or under a dustproof cover.
3. Do not try to clean the microscope. Wiping the lenses need only special tissue paper.
4. Check that the microscope is working and has all its pieces attached.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 13

 Activity : Microscope Mania
1

2 3 4 5 6 7

10 11

12 13 14

15 16

17

18

19 20

21

22

23

Puzzle Clues

Across: Down:

1. Known as the "Father of Microscopy" 1. Provides light to allow you to view materials on a glass slide
8. Refers to the power of a microscope 2. Developed one of the first compound microscopes by placing several
calculated by multiplying the power lenses in a tube
on the objective by the power on the 3. When viewing objects under -power, the field of view is smaller, but
eyepiece you are able to see more details.
13. Part of the microscope that contains 4. Type of light source that reflects light rays
the ocular lens Type of lens found in 5. Bottom portion of the microscope
the eyepiece 6. Used a compound microscope to discover that living things are
17. When viewing objects under composed of cells
-power, you are able to see a 7. Found on the nosepiece; range from low to high power
larger field of view, but not as much 9. Refers to the amount of a specimen we are able to see; decreases as
detail. the power of magnification increases
19. Small disk found under the stage that 10. Used to hold a slide in place on the stage
regulates the amount of light that 11. Small knob on the side of a microscope that helps you focus the
reaches the specimen. microscope
20. Large knob on the side of a 12. Part of the microscope that holds the objective lenses and is able to
microscope that should be used first rotate to change magnification
when viewing a slide 14. Type of microscope made up of two or more lenses
22. Small glass or plastic piece that is 16. Rectangular glass plate used to view samples of water or other
used to cover a water drop on a slide. materials.
23. Refers to the type of microscope 18. Part of the microscope that should be used when it is carried
Leeuwenhoek created with one lens. 21. Part of the microscope that supports the slide being viewed

Adapted from: T. Trimpe 2004 http://sciencespot.net/

14 - Basic Science
Lighting of Bunsen burner

Bunsen burners were invented by a German chemist, Robert Bunsen, in 1855.They are still pieces of laboratory
equipment that we need today.

Rules for lighting a Bunsen burner:

1. Push the rubber tube on to the gas outlet.

2. Close the air hole. You do this by turning the collar.
3. Light the match and hold it over the top of the barrel (refer to diagram above).
4. Turn on the gas. Always turn on the gas last. (Note: When the air hole is closed, no air gets in and the colour of the
flame is bright yellow. This flame is called the safety flame. It is not very hot and not good for heating).
5. Open the air hole, so that air mixes with gas to produce a hotter, pale blue flame. This flame is used for heating.
6. When the Bunsen burner is not being used for heating, the yellow safety should be used.

Rules for Heating in Test tubes:

1. Never have the test -tube more than one third full.
2. Always use a test- tube holder.
3. Point the test-tube away from yourself and others.
4. Heat the side of the test-tube, not the bottom.
5. Move the test-tube in the flame as you heat it.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 15

Rules for using Thermometers

1. Always keep the thermometer in its case unless it is being used. Make sure the cap of the case is attached tightly
as it is made of glass and can break easily.
2. Do not shake the thermometer because it is long and can snap easily.
3. Do not drop it into any container you are using as it could break the bottom of the container.
4. Do not leave it at the edge of the bench, it could roll off and break.
5. Hold it in the middle-never by the bulb as you do not want to measure the temperature of your hand.
6. Do not use it for stirring liquids.

Mini-exercise

1. Given below is a list of five steps (not in the correct order):

A. Hold the test tube in the flame and move it to and fro.
B. Light the burner.
C. Open the air hole on the burner and turn down the gas.
D. Pick up the test tube using a test tube holder.
E. Rotate the collar on the burner so that it is closed

Tick √ the alternative below which shows the correct sequence of steps for this activity.

B E D A C D E B C A

C B E D A E B C D A

2 Why is it necessary to:

(a) Use a small flame?

(b) Move the test tube to and fro?

Mini -exercise

The can be rotated, which changes the size of the hole. When the air hole is _, air gets in
and mixes with the .This makes the gas burn , and the colour of the flame is
pale_ . When the air hole is _, no gets in, and the colour of the flame is
bright_ .This flame is called the flame. It is not as hot as the flame, and it is
very sooty. This means that it is not good for_ . But it can still burn you.

16 - Basic Science
1.1.4 Laboratory Equipment

In a science laboratory you will be using different equipment. Equipment is the name given to the beakers, burners,
flasks and stands you use in the laboratory to do experiments. The diagrams below show the names of commonly used
equipment. When you put together equipment for an experiment, it is called an apparatus.

Common Laboratory Apparatus

Equipment/Name Use Equipment/Name Use

1. Used for holding
and mixing small Used to hold test tubes when
volumes of liquids. they are hot and untouchable
2. Used to hold test
tubes while
reactions happen in
1. Test tube them or while they
2. Test tube Rack are not used. Test tube Holder

Used for holding and heating Used for holding objects

large volumes of water. above the Bunsen burner.
Multipurpose and useful in
the lab.
Beaker Tripod Stand

Used in the lab but not Used for measuring large

confined to the lab. Used to volumes of liquids.
target liquids into any
container so they will not be
lost or spilled.
Measuring Cylinder
Filter Funnel

Used for holding objects Used for heating and

above the tripod stand exposing items to flame.

Gauze Wire
Bunsen burner

Used for finding the mass of Used to heat and store

chemicals liquids. The bottom is wider
than the top so it will heat
quicker because of the great
surface area exposed to the
Conical Flask heat.
Triple Beam Balance

Used to take temperature of Used to measure the weight

solids, liquids and gases. of an object by opposing the
They are usually in ºC but force of gravity with the force
can also be in ºF. of an extended spring

Thermometer
Spring Balance

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 17

 Used for moving small Usually made of glass and
amounts of solids from place used to stir things.
to place.

Spatula
Stirring Rods

Used to magnify an object or It is a circular concave glass

make things appear closer used generally for
evaporating liquids or for
holding small samples.

Hand lens Watch Glass

Activity
Identify as many pieces of equipment as you can from the table above. List them in your book.

1. Alongside each write what you can use it for.

2. You want to measure exactly 55 mL of water for an experiment. Which piece of equipment
would you use?

1.1.5 Keeping Records

Everyone keeps records. At school you keep records of your lessons in note books for each subject. There are two
parts to keeping records in science experiments. One is a record of the equipment you have used in an experiment.
This is drawn in a diagram. The other part is a written story of what you did. This is called the report.

Rules for drawing in Science

1. Always use a pencil (HB or B pencils are good because they rub out easily)
2. Always use a ruler for straight lines
3. Draw outline diagrams – no sketches or perspectives
4. Draw the diagram big enough so that it can be seen clearly (a quarter to a whole page depending on the object)
5. Label the object clearly. Sometimes you need to label parts of the object. Point to these with lines.
6. Do not colour the diagrams

18 - Basic Science
Writing Practical Reports

Your report should include the following information under the correct headings. Not all of these areas will necessarily
be needed for every report. Your teacher will inform you if a shorter format is required for a particular place of work.

Title
The name of the experiment, e.g. Making Soap in the Laboratory.

3. HYPOTHESIS
2. AIM Your best educated guess of
1. INTRODUCTION A statement about the what you thought you would
purpose of the discover.
General background to
experiment
the topic being
investigated. 4. MATERIALS
List of the equipment and
5. METHOD chemicals that were used.
An account of what was done;
usually include a diagram showing
how equipment was set up. Provide
enough details to allow the reader 6. RESULTS &OBSERVATIONS
to repeat your experiment. A presentation of your data. This
might include a list of observations
and calculations or tables and
7. DISCUSSION graphs
An explanation of your results and a
description of any difficulties that
you had with the experiment and
suggestions for improvement.

Conclusion
This section should be short and to the point. The conclusion should relate directly to the aim. Has the hypothesis been
supported or disproved?

Bibliography
If you used books or other written sources, eg. Journals, encyclopedia, internet, etc. to obtain information, it should be
referenced. A list of these sources, if used, must be included in a bibliography.
Example: Begon, M., & Harper, J. &. (1996). Ecology Individuals, Populations and Communities. London: Blackwell
Science Ltd.

Acknowledgements
Any other assistance obtained from people should be acknowledged here.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 19

SAMPLE REPORT Dissolving Salt

Aim:
To compare how much salt will dissolve in hot water compared to cold water.

Hypothesis:
A lot more salt will dissolve in hot water compared to cold water.

Materials:
Beaker, heatproof mat, Bunsen burner, tripod, wire gauze, matches, spatula, stirring rod, salt, water.

Method:
1. A spatula was used to add salt to 100 mL of cold water in a beaker. The salt was stirred and more added until no
more would dissolve. The amount of salt dissolved was recorded.
2. The mixture of salt and water was heated in a Bunsen burner for 4 minutes and the salt added one spatula at time
until no more would dissolve.

stirring rod

beaker
wire gauze

tripod

Bunsen burner

Results and observations:

Amount of salt dissolved in cold water = 2 spatulas
Extra amount of salt dissolved in hot water = 4 spatulas
Total amount of salt dissolved in hot water = 6 spatulas

Discussion:
I was able to dissolve more salt in the hot water than in the cold water. A thermometer could have been used to measure
the temperature of the water. The amount of salt that could have dissolved could have been found more accurately by
adding small amounts at a time.

Conclusion:
Three times as much salt dissolves in hot water as in cold water.

20 - Basic Science
 Experiment: Heating of ice/water mixture
The sentences below are not in the right order. Work with a friend to sort them into the correct order. Sort them into:
AIM sentence(s)
METHOD sentence(s)
RESULT sentence(s)
Now do the experiment. The figure given will help you. Make sure you read the “Rules for drawing graphs’ before plotting the
graph.

• We half-filled the beaker with ice

• We continue measuring until the water started boiling.
• We plotted a graph of the temperature against time on a line
graph. We joined the points with a smooth curve or straight
line to show what was happening.
• We added tap water and left the ice/water mixture to stand
for 5 minutes.
• We measured the temperature of the ice/water mixture.
• We wanted to fine out what happened when ice was turned
into steam.
• We heated the ice/water mixture, recorded its temperature
every two minutes (or longer if we had a slow Bunsen.
• We took a 250mL glass beaker, crushed ice, a Bunsen
burner, tripod, gauze and a thermometer

Heating Ice

1.1.6 Measurements

We use measurements every day. To make sure measurements are consistent, we use standards measuring amounts,
called units of measurement. The system of measurement we use in Fiji is called the metric system. Another system
used in some other countries is called imperial system.

Writing measurements
Every measurement has two parts: the number and the unit. 3 metres is written as 3 m. Writing 3 ms is wrong,
because s means seconds, and 3 ms means three milliseconds.

Prefixes are added to the units when very large or small things are being measured. A large mass would be measured
in kilograms, or a very short length in millimetres. The prefixes that are used in measurements are shown in the table
below.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 21

 Prefix Symbol Multiply by
mega M 1 000 000
kilo k 1000
hecto h 100
deca da 10
deci d 1/10
centi c 1/100
milli m 1/1000
micro μ 1/1 000 000

Volume
• Volume is how much space something takes up.
• It is measured in the units called litres (L) and millimetres (mL).
• Beakers and measuring cylinders are used to measure the volume of liquids.
• In a glass container, water is pulled up where it touches the glass. This is called the meniscus. When you measure
volume, always read the scale from the bottom of the meniscus.

Length
• Length is measured in the unit called metres (m)
• For long distances, kilometers (km) are used.
• For short distances, centimeters (cm) or millimetres (mm) are used.
• Trundle wheel, metre rule and tape measure are used to measure length.

Mass
• Mass is how much matter is in an object.
• It is measured in the units called grams (g) or kilograms (kg)
• Tiny masses are measured in milligrams (mg)
• Beam balances, spring balances and electronic scales are used to measure mass.

Time
• Time is measured in the unit called seconds (s)
• Other units of time are minutes and hours.
• It is measured with a watch or a clock.
• A stopwatch measures time in seconds.

Temperature
• Temperature is measured in the unit called degrees Celsius (ºC).
• It is measured with a thermometer or a thermistor.

22 - Basic Science
 Activity: Reading from a meniscus

Water pulls up at the sides of a glass tube due to “adhesion”. We call this
curving a “meniscus”. In order to correctly read the volume of the water
you should look from which of the three angles?

A. ?
B. ?
C. ?

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 23

UNIT 2: INVESTIGATING

1.2.1 Making Observations, Inferences and Hypothesis

An observation is something that you notice using any of your senses. Being observant means using all your senses
to notice things around you. It is important to be accurate in your observations. Some observations are:
• Smelling onions in the kitchen
• Finding that a fabric feels like satin
• Seeing a man running down a street
• Hearing an electronic alarm
• Finding that lemon juice tastes sour.

An inference is a likely explanation of what you observed. It is how you explain the observation. The explanation may
or may not be true. Here are some inferences you might have made about the observations above:
• You will have onions with your dinner
• Mum bought the fabric for the concert
• The man is scared of dogs
• A cat caused the alarm to sound
• Lemons contain acid

A hypothesis is a guess at an answer, which you can test by doing an experiment. Some things cannot be tested by
experiment such as personal likes and dislikes. Some hypotheses you might make about the observations above:
• Onions smell more on a hot day than on a cold day.
• The fabric feels smooth because the fibres are close together
• The man running from the dog was bitten last year.
• Cats climb onto cars, and the movement activates the car alarm.
• Lemons are sour because they contain citric acids.

A control is the part of a science experiment that acts as a standard by which to compare experimental observations.

Before starting an experiment, it is important that you plan what you are going to do. Write it in your notebook. It is
important to check with the teacher so that time taken and materials used is not wasted.

1.2.2 Displaying Data

Data is information that has been collected. It can be represented in the form of a table or a graph so any trend shown
is easily seen. Sometimes the information we have needs to be sorted.

Tables
A table is a grid of rows and columns into which data (information) is placed. It is used whenever at least two sets of
data are collected. Tables are suitable for data that involve both words and numbers. Tables are used as it is often
easier to read information when it is organized in a table, rather than described in lines of text. Tables make it easier
to:
• study relationships between pieces of data
• make conclusions
• use the data for other activities, such as graphing.

24 - Basic Science
Creating tables

A table should have:

• a clear and simple title

• a set of rows and columns
• heading for the columns with unit if data have been measured in units.

Graphs

Values or measurements obtained from an investigation are called data. After collecting a set of data, it is important
to present them clearly so that other people reading or studying them can understand or make some meaning out of
them. Organizing data as a graph makes the information easier to read, interpret, show trends and make conclusions.
A graph is a diagram that shows the connection between two or more things using dots, lines or bars. The four different
types of graph are histogram, bar graph, line graph and pie chart.

When drawing graphs:

• Each graph must have a title – what the graph shows

• The graph should fill most of the graph paper
• Start graph at 0 on vertical axis (horizontal axis as well if it is part of data)
• Scale should be regular – each increase should be the same
• Plot the data points clearly, and join with a ruler
• Label the x-axis and y-axis with their appropriate name and their units within brackets.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 25

Bar graphs

A bar graph is used to display and compare data.

• Bar graphs have a horizontal X-axis and vertical Y-axis. The X-axis represents the group of data being
graphed. The Y-axis represents the value or number of each group.
• The height of each bar represents a certain amount of data of each group. The higher the bar, the bigger the
value or number of each group.

Line graphs
• Line graphs are used to show how data changes over a period of time.
• Line graphs, like bar graphs have an X-axis and a Y-axis. The X-axis usually represents time. The Y-axis
represents quantity.
• Line graphs are made of points on the graph that are connected by a single line.
• Most graphs used in science are line graphs.

26 - Basic Science
Pie graphs /charts

• Pie charts are used to represent data as portions of a whole.

• All segments of a pie chart added together equal 100%.
• Segments are organized by size from smallest to largest in a clockwise direction.
• Use the following formula to convert a percentage (X) into a degree (Y): 3.6º x X% = Yº.

USING DATA
Liti and Leilani performed an experiment to find out how effectively two plastic cups maintain the temperature of
near boiling water. Their measurements are shown below:
COMPARING PLASTIC CUPS
Time (mins) Temperature (0C) Liti’s cup Temperature (0C) Leilani’s cup
0 90 90
10 47 58
20 29 39
30 22 31
40 20 26
50 20 23
1. Draw a graph to display the data in the table above.
2. Which cup maintained the temperature of the water more effectively?
3. Estimate the temperature of the water in Liti’s cup 15 minutes after timing commenced.
4. Use your graph to estimate how long it would have taken the water in Leilani’s cup to drop to a temperature of 200C.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 27

1.2.3 Fair Testing

All experiments have to fair and valid, so that someone else can repeat them and get the same answer. In some
experiments you must use a control. A control experiment is a comparison that is used to make sure a fair test is
carried out.

Each experiment must have two parts. One part is what you test is called the variable and the other is the control that
you will compare it with. A series of steps that have to be followed is called the scientific method. The steps are:

• Observing – note as much as you can about a situation.

• Inferring – think of an explanation of what you observed.
• Hypothesis – make a guess at the answer that you can test by an experiment.
• Design a fair experiment, with a control to test the hypothesis.
• Do the experiment, and study the results.
• Form a conclusion – say if your results agree with (prove) or disagree with (disprove) your hypothesis. A good
conclusion must answer the hypothesis.

How to conduct a fair test

Planning a Fair Test

Science investigations usually involve predictions about how one thing affects another thing. For example, students
might be interested in things that affect the bounce of a ball.

Will the type of ball affect this bounce?

Will the surface on which it bounces affect the bounce?
Will the height from which you drop the ball affects its bounce?

TYPE OF BALL

SURFACE
BOUNCE OF BALL

DROP HEIGHT

Things that can be changed or measured in an experiment are called variables. In fair science investigations we:
• change one variable at a time
• measure another variable
• keep all other variables the same.

28 - Basic Science
Example: If students predict that a solid rubber ball will bounce higher than a tennis ball, their investigation would test
whether ball type affects bounce.

So the investigation would:

Think About this:

If the tennis ball was dropped on concrete and the rubber ball on
grass, would it be a fair test? Discuss.

ACTIVITY: Outline the procedure that you would use to investigate the following questions.

1. Do snails prefer light or dark conditions?

2. Do thicker candles burn longer than thin ones?
3. Does a soccer ball bounce higher than a basketball?
4. Is new paper better than recycled paper?

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 29

 CHAPTER 2: MATTER

1. INVESTIGATING MATTER
2. MATERIALS
3. REACTIONS

Introduction

• Matter is everything around you! Anything that takes up space, and has mass.
• Matter can be living such as trees, insects, and humans. It can also be non-living like wood, rocks, metal, air,
water.
• Matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
• Everything on our Earth is in one of three states – solid, liquid or gas. We can explain the properties of these states
by looking at what is happening to the particles making up the materials.

UNIT 1: INVESTIGATING MATTER

2.1.1 Structure and Properties of Atoms

Since the early 1800’s, scientists have been coming up with different models of the atom based on experimental
evidence. Shown below are some of these models.

Model Structure

Dalton’s model (1807): Model shows the atom

as a hard dense sphere.

+ e- e-
Thomson’s model (1903): Model shows the
e- + e-
electrons scattered throughout the atom.
+ e- +

Rutherford’s model (1911):Model shows the e- e-

atom with a dense nucleus, made up of protons e-
and neutrons and surrounded by negatively e- e-
charged electrons.

30 - Basic Science
• Atoms are building blocks of all matter.
• An atom consists of a central nucleus that contains two main particles: protons and neutrons.
• Protons are positively charged.
• Neutrons have no electrical charge.
• Electrons, have a negative charge and are arranged in shells (orbits) of different energy levels around the
nucleus.
• Number of protons in an atom is equal to its number of electrons to make them (atoms) electrically neutral.

The structure of an atom

Two numbers tell us important things about an atom:

• The atomic number (Z) of an element gives the number of protons in the atom and determines which element
the atom is. For example, atoms of hydrogen always have one proton, those of helium always have two, those of
carbon have six and those of oxygen have eight.
• The mass number of an element is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in an atom of that element.
For example: Magnesium has 12 protons and 12 neutrons in the nucleus of its atoms. It would have a mass
number of 12 + 12 = 24.( Since the electrons have insignificant mass, they are never counted but must always be
equal in number to the protons)

Mini exercise: Make at least seven true sentences by choosing an entry from each column.(Note the
order cannot be changed.

All atom is not a and atom (s)

An matter is not found many charged nucleus
The electron shell composed of protons in particle (s)
A electron made up of in a/an neutron (s)
atomic orbiting the orbit
nucleus electrons small
neutron two kinds of electrons

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 31

2.1.2 Structure and Properties of Matter

Matter comes in three forms, or state: solids, liquids and gases. Each kind of matter can, under certain condition exists
as a solid, a liquid or a gas. The particle theory of matter states that everything is made up of particles which are in
constant motion. These particles vibrate, or move. How much they move depends on how much energy they have. The
theory can be used to explain different the properties of matter. We probably all know what to expect from a solid, a
liquid and a gas. But how do we quantify (discover) the differences in a scientific way?

• The easiest way to understand the properties of solids, liquids and gases is to imagine what is happening to
the particles they are made up of.

Solids
• The particles in a solid are arranged in a fixed pattern and held very closely together. They do not have
enough energy to break out of this structure, so only vibrate. They have a fixed volume and retain their shape
unless you do something to change them. In a solid the particles are packed relatively close together and do
not move very much- just a gentle vibration.

Uses of Solids: Complete the table

Solid Property Use

Plastic
Iron
Glass
Aluminium

Liquids
• The particles in a liquid possess more energy than the particles of solids. Therefore, the particles have some space
between them and so can move easily or flow. Liquids have no definite shape. They have no fixed volume, but their
shape depends on the shape of their container. In a liquid the particles have more energy- they move around more,
but still linked together. This explains how a liquid flows and fits, but does not necessarily fill the shape of any container
you put it in.

Surface Tension and Effect RESEARCH

EXPERIMENT:COMPARING of Water Pollution by Detergent.
Investigate how to make Virgin
DENSITIES OF DIFFERENT Coconut Oil
LIQUIDS. 1. Pour some clean water into a
basin.
1. Measure equal volumes of 2. Slowly lower a clean razor
vegetable oil, water and syrup. blade on the surface of the
2. Mix them in a tall cylinder. water.
3. Let the mixture stand for some 3. Place a few drops of
time and observe. detergent in the water.
4. Record observation 4. Record your observation and
5. List the liquids in order of their explain what must have
density. happened.

32 - Basic Science
Gases
The particles in gases are very loosely held together. Unlike solids and liquids, gases have no fixed volume and no
fixed shape. Gases have these properties because their particles have so much energy that they move around freely.
In a gas the particles are moving freely with so much energy that they break free of one another and move anywhere.
This explains how a gas will fill any container it is put in.

Properties of Matter
Matter is recognized by their properties. An object can be identified and classified according to its properties. Common
physical properties of matter which are clearly observed include colour, size and shape. Other physical properties
include elasticity, strength, hardness, solubility, density, melting point, electrical conductivity and heat conductivity.

Physical Properties Explanation

Elasticity The ability of a material to return to its original shape and size after being
stretched or compressed.
Strength The ability of a material to support a mass or heavy load without
breaking or collapsing.
Hardness The ability of a material to withstand scratches and wear.
Solubility Is the maximum quantity of a substance that can dissolve in a given
quantity of the solvent (e.g 10g/100g water).
Melting point The temperature at which a substance changes from solid to liquid.
Electrical conductivity A measure of how readily electric current flows through a substance.
Substances that allow electricity to pass through them are called
conductors. Those that do not allow electric current to pass through them
are called insulators.
Heat conductivity A measure of how readily heat flows through a substance.

Property of Matter
Identify the physical properties you should look for in materials to make the following products:

(a) Furniture (b) airplane body (c) electric plug cover (d) pajamas

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 33

2.1.3 Expansion and Contraction of Matter

In the world around us materials are constantly getting bigger and shrinking again in response to changes in temperature.
The particle model can be used to explain changes in the size of substances as well as changes in state. When
substances are heated, the particles gain energy, move faster and moving further apart, taking up more space. This
makes the substance expand. Gases usually expand much more than solids or liquids because their particles are not
strongly attracted to each other and are far apart or spread out.
When solids, liquids and gases are cooled, their particles lose energy, slow down, move less and become more
strongly attracted to each other.

Effects of Expansion and Contraction in Everyday Life:

The expansion and contraction of objects have caused a variety of problems in our everyday life. In solids, this expansion
and contraction may be small, but the forces experienced can be tremendous.

Engineers and architects allow for expansion and contraction of materials when designing bridges and buildings.
(a) Bridges have gaps at each end of large sections to allow the metal and concrete to expand in hot weather
so they will not buckle. Rollers and sliding joints allow for the movements of the bridge as it expands and
contracts.
(b) Railway lines also have gaps to allow for expansion in hot weather. A continuous track of metal rail if used,
will expand in hot weather and buckle. To prevent this, there are gaps laid in between sections to allow for
expansion.
(c) Electrical wires or overhead power lines are hung loosely from poles so that when the weather cools, they will
not become too tight and break as they contract. Overhead cables expand and sag on hot days, but contract
and tighten in cold weather. Allowance has to be made for thermal expansion and contraction of the overhead
wires during their installation.

The amount by which each structure will expand will depend on the material it is made from.

Bridge Railway line Electrical Wires

Source: primary

Liquids expand more than solids. This property makes them useful in thermometers. Most thermometers that we use
in the lab are made up of thin tubes and a bulb containing a liquid. As the temperature increases, the liquid expands
and moves up the tube. The two common liquids used in thermometers are mercury and alcohol. A clinical
thermometer is specially designed to measure human body temperature.

34 - Basic Science
 Exercise

1. Explain what happens to the particles in:

(a) ice-cream as it melts
(b) the air bubbles trapped in dough as it is cooked to make bread.
2. Why does sugar dissolve more quickly in hot than in cold tea? Explain what happens to the sugar particles.

Metal Ball and

Expansion in solids investigation Ring Set

Aim: To observe the effect of heat on the volume of a solid.

Materials: metal ball and ring set, Bunsen burner, pair of tongs (heat proof).

• Try to put the ball through the ring.

• Use the Bunsen burner to heat the ring and use tong to try to put the ball
through it. Take care not to touch the hot metal.
• Let the ring cool and try to put the ball through the ring again.

1. What has happened to change the size of the ring?

2. Use the particle model to explain the change that took place in the ring.

Expansion in Liquids investigation

Aim: To observe the effect of heat on the volume of a liquid.

Materials: 500ml conical flask, narrow glass tube, rubber stopper
with one hole, Bunsen burner, tripod and wire gauze, eye dropper,
food colouring, marking pen.
• Place 2 or 3 drops of food colouring in the flask and fill it with
water up till the top.
• Place the stopper in the flask with the tube fitted .Some
coloured Water should rise up into the tube. Mark the level of
the liquid in the tube using the marking pen.
• Place the flask on the tripod and gauze mat, light the burner and gently heat the liquid.
• After about 5 minutes of heating, turn off the burner and watch what happens to the level of the liquid.
1. What happens to the level of the liquid while it is being heated?
2. What happens to the level of the liquid while it is cooling down?
3. Use the particle model to explain why liquids expand

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 35

 Expansion in Gases investigation

• Cut across the centre of three rounded balloons.

• Stretch these smoothly over the top of three wide-mouthed jars.
• Hold them in place with rubber bands.
• Place one jar in iced cold water and another in hot water for a few minutes. Leave the third jar at room
temperature.

1. What happens in the two set-ups when compared to the one just left at room temperature?
2. Use the particle model to explain your results.

Exercise

Based on your knowledge of expansion in solids, liquids and gases, investigate why
some eggs crack when they are placed in boiling water.

Source: Primary
2.1.4 Effect of Heating and Cooling on Matter

Changes of State

Substances can exist in more than one physical state. They change from one state to another due to the behavior their
particles. This change happens with a change in temperature. If a solid is heated, its particles have more energy and
can move around more freely. Finally they break of their fixed positions, and the solid turns into a liquid.

Conversion diagram for the three states of matter

HEATING

Melting Boiling/Evaporation

Freezing Condensation

COOLING

36 - Basic Science
 (a) Water
Kettle boiling (b) Candle burning
Exercise time!

1. Boiling and evaporation are not quite the same.

Can you explain the difference?

2. What change of state do diagrams (a) – (d)

show? (Use the correct scientific word, eg solid
melting to a liquid.) Some pictures may show (c) Clothes hanging (d) Dew on windscreens
more than one change of state. Where is the in the sun
energy coming from or going to?

3. Create a concept map (spider diagram) around

the phrase CHANGES OF STATE using the
terms: freezing, condensation, reverse
sublimation, melting (fusion).

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 37

UNIT 2: MATERIALS

A material is a substance that is used for making objects. Some objects are made from naturally occurring materials
and are used as they are found or processed in some way. For example, the cotton in your school uniform is processed
more than the wood used in furniture. Other objects are made from synthetic or manufactured materials, for example,
the plastic containers. Synthetic materials are made from raw materials by changing them chemically. This is done by
heating them together or reacting them with other substances.

Materials from naturally occurring substances

These can be from non-living sources and from living sources.

Non-living sources Living sources

• Building materials from rocks, such as slate • Wood from trees for buildings and furniture
,marble ,stone, gravel and for making paper and cardboard
• Metals from ores, eg. Iron, copper • Canvas and ropes from plants
• Silk, wool and cotton fibers for clothing from
silk worms , sheep and cotton plants
• Rubber from latex of rubber trees
• Leather from animal skins

Classes of Materials: synthetic or manufactured materials

Material Manufactured from Examples

Ceramics Clay, Sand and other minerals chinaware, concrete, bricks, tiles
Plastics Crude oil and other substances polythene, polystyrene, formica
Glass Sand, limestone and other minerals soft soda glass, glass fibres, pyrex glass
Alloys Mixtures of metals and other substances steel, brass, bronze
Synthetic fibers Crude oil and other substances Nylon, terylene, polyester
Composite materials Two or more materials such as plastic Plastic reinforced with glass fiber for
reinforced with glass fibre canoes, baths and plastic reinforced with
carbon fibers for tennis rackets

38 - Basic Science
2.2.1 Properties and interactions of materials

Properties of Materials
How a material is used depends on its properties. The properties of a material describe how it behaves and what it is
like. Given below are properties of the main group of materials.

Group of Materials Properties

Glass • Transparent,brittle,unreactive,high melting point, non-conductor of
heat and electricity
Metals and Alloys • Usually hard,strong,dense,malleable, ductile, have high melting
point, conduct heat and electricity
Plastics • Flexible, low density,moulded when warm, many melt easily and
some burn on heating, good insulator of heat and electricity
Ceramics • Brittle, hard, high melting point, unreactive, non-conductors of heat
and electricity
Fibres • Flexible, low density, many burn on heating, long strands
Composites • Have the properties of the materials making them

When describing the properties of materials, the following words are used:

Property Meaning
Transparent Clear, can see through it, for example, glass and some plastics
Strong Resists the effect of forces, for example, steel.
Brittle Hard but breaks easily for example, glass
Dense A large mass compared with its volume, for example, lead.
Flexible Can be bent or twisted without breaking for example, some plastics and fibres.
Malleable Can be hammered into shape, for example, copper.
Ductile Can be drawn out into wires, for example, copper.
Conductor of heat (or electricity) Lets heat (or electricity) pass through it easily, for example, copper
Non- conductor (insulator of heat Difficult for heat (or electricity) to pass through it, for example, P.V.C
(or electricity)

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 39

Plastics

Plastics are man-made raw materials. They are made from chemical compounds obtained from plants, coal and
petroleum. They are soft or liquid-like when first made and can be moulded into different shapes under heat or
pressure before they harden. Plastics have been replacing many materials in the making of useful products as they
can be shaped into almost any form and has a wide range of hardness and colour.

Plastics Products

PVC (polyvinyl Pipes Raincoats Toys

chloride) ,
Strong, flexible,
easily
coloured,
resistance to
chemicals and
weather.

Polystyrene Cups, bowls Computer disks Packaging material

Lightweight,
odourless,
cheap

Polythene Bags Pails Food Wrapper

Lightweight, flexible,
feels waxy.

Bakelite Radio Camera Plugs

Tough, withstands
heat, resists wear.

Source: primary

40 - Basic Science
 Activity Properties of Materials
1. Name the raw materials used to manufacture
the following: bricks, nylon, glass, paper. Do you think nylon or cotton thread is stronger?
2. Give the properties of the following materials
which make them suitable for the use given: Plan an experiment to test your idea. Remember
(a) Glass in windows to make it a fair test. What results do you expect
(b) Wooden or plastic handle on a saucepan from the experiment?
(c) Metal used for making airplanes.

PLASTICS
1. List and describe the two major types of plastics 2. Differentiate between the four common plastics.
3. What is wrong with society using plastics? What can be done to solve (or reduce) the negative points or impacts associated
with using plastics?
4. Compare the advantage and disadvantages of plastics. 5. Using examples, discuss how important plastics are to humans
6. It has been estimated that, worldwide, there are between 500 billion and 1 trillion plastic bags discarded each year. That’s about 1
million bags per minute. Many businesses encourage to use reusable shopping bags to help reduce the amount of plastic in the
environment. Should we put a ban on the use of plastic shopping bags? Why or why not? Defend your position by considering both
sides of the argument.

2.2.2 Effect of Soap and Detergents on Water Types.

Sources of Water

Wells, Lakes, Springs, Streams, Swamps, Rivers, Sea.

Types of Water

Water is the basic necessity of life. But how well do we know it? Not many people out there are familiar with terms like
hard water and soft water. These are basically two classifications of water based on its chemical content.

Hard Water

This type of water contains mineral salts of calcium and magnesium, mainly bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates and
sometimes irons. Temporary hardness is caused by calcium bicarbonate. This is removed by boiling as it converts
bicarbonates to the insoluble carbonate. In homes, the hardness of water is often indicated by non-formation of lather
when soap is shaken in a water sample. Generally, hard water is not harmful to one’s health but can pose serious
problems in industrial settings, where water hardness is monitored to avoid costly breakdown in boilers, cooling towers
and other equipment that handles water.

Soft Water
This type of water contains very few or absolutely no traces of minerals such as calcium and magnesium. Among
the ground water sources, soft water is derived from igneous rocks such as granite or sedimentary rocks such as
sandstone which have low mineral content.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 41

Differences between hard and soft water.

Hard Water Soft Water

• Does not lather with soap • Lathers well with soap
• Ions dissolved in water react with chemicals present • Reacts well with soap making the skin smooth
in soap and produces an insoluble residue (scum) and glowing.
making the clothes look dirty. • Saves money by increasing the efficiency of
• Important source of minerals such as magnesium cleaning by more than 200 percent.
and calcium.

Exercise: Choose the best word(s) to complete the statement.

Hard water is water which does/does not lather easily with soap .Soft water is water which does/ does not
lather easily with soap. Hard water is caused by soluble/insoluble substances which get into the water when it
passes over rock/sand. Hard water is a nuisance because it saves/wastes soap and forms a
soluble/insoluble “scum” which can make clothes look dirty. It also forms a layer of solid on the inside of
containers in which it is frozen/ boiled. This is called pot scrub/kettle fur .Hard water can be softened by
boiling/warming or adding baking/ washing soda.

Soaps and detergents have different effect on water. To decide if a substance is soap or a detergent, we shake it up
with some hard water and if lather forms, we know it is a detergent. This gives detergent a bigger advantage over soaps
where we can use them in any type of water.

Soap when swallowed, reacts with stomach acids to form harmless substances as soap completely loses its soapi-
ness. However, detergents do not react with stomach acids and our bodies cannot digest or change it. If swallowed,it
remains as detergent to form foam and froth inside our bodies. This can interfere with our intestines make us sick as
detergents are poisonous. It some cases, it may even cause death.

When soapy water is thrown away it finds its way into streams, creeks, ponds, lagoons, rivers, or the ocean. On the
way, natural processes particularly the work of bacteria, quickly destroy it. Soap is not likely to poison fish or spoil our
water supply. Unfortunately, this is not true for detergents. Most of them are not easily destroyed by bacteria. They stay
as detergent and water containing them stays frothy and bubbly. This may be harmful to living things in the water, and
may spoil drinking water. When many people in a village or town use too much detergent, the water supply and the
rivers and lagoons may become dirty or “polluted.”

Detergents and soaps are different because of the way they are made. Soap is made from vegetable oils and caustic
soda while detergents are usually made from petroleum or mineral oils from under the sea. They are made from a
different process to soap and this gives them their different properties.

Some detergents have “Biodegradable” written on their labels. This means that when they go into the rivers or into the
ground, bacteria can break them up into harmless substances. These detergents are made by a different process, and
do not pollute water.

42 - Basic Science
 Exercise Exercise
Draw 2 columns in your book. Head one of them
1. Imagine you are living on an island where
Soap and one Detergent. Write the following
the only water you can use for washing is
statements in the correct column.
sea water. What would you use in the
(a) Lathers with hard water
water, detergent or soap? Give reasons for
(b) Does not lather with hard water
your answer.
(c) Is destroyed in the stomach
(d) Is not destroyed in the stomach
(e) Is poisonous 2. Eroni went to stay with his aunt in Sigatoka.
(f) Is harmless When he came back to school, he told his
(g) Is destroyed in the stomach teacher that there is hard water in Sigatoka.
(h) Is not destroyed by bacteria What observation would he have made to
(i) Pollutes water supplies make him think that.
(j) Does not pollute water supplies

2.2.3 Effect of materials on the environment

Every material we use effects the environment. All the materials we use were originally extracted from, or grown on
the earth’s surface. Wherever materials originate, they have an effect on the environment. Sometimes the effect on the
environment is positive but often it is negative. Often the environmental effect is obvious but sometimes it is hidden.

From cell phones and computers to bicycle helmets and hospital bags, plastic has
moulded society in many ways that make life both easier and safer. But the synthetic
material also has left harmful imprints on the environment and perhaps human health.
Plastics are very long-lived products that could potentially have service over decades,
and yet our main use of these lightweight, inexpensive materials are as single-use items
that will go to the garbage dump within a year, where they’ll persist for centuries.

Evidence is mounting that the chemical building blocks that make plastics so versatile are the same that might harm
people and the environment. Its production and disposal also contribute to a number of environmental problems like:
• Chemicals added to plastics are absorbed by human bodies. Some of these compounds have been found to
alter hormones or have other potential human health effects.
• Plastic debris, laced with chemicals and often ingested by marine animals, can injure or poison wildlife.
• Floating plastic waste, which can survive for thousands of years in water, serves as mini transportation
devices for invasive species, disrupting habitats.
• Plastic buried deep in landfills can leach harmful chemicals that spread into groundwater.

People are exposed to chemicals from plastic a number of times each day through the air, dust, water, food and
use of consumer products. It is therefore important to find ways to minimize the use of plastics or recycle and use
biodegradable plastics.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 43

 Activity

Study the photographs below and identify the types of materials pictured. In groups, suggest ways of
how these materials may be disposed of properly. This suggestion may be through posters, flyers etc that
the group decides.

Source: primary

Activity
1. Choose one of the materials used to make the outside seating. Choose steel, softwood, hardwood,
plastic or concrete.
2. Find out from the internet or books:
a) where the raw materials to make the seat comes from;
b) what processes occur to change the raw material into the chair.
c) if there have been any environmental problems in obtaining and processing the raw material.

3. From your research try and identify the occasions when energy derived from fossil fuels has to be
used to make the finished product. List the occasions.

44 - Basic Science
UNIT 3: REACTIONS

2.3.1 Elements, Ions and Compounds

Elements

An element is a pure substance made up of only one type of a particle or atom. The element iron is made up of iron
atoms which are all alike .Sulphur is made of sulphur atoms which are all alike. But iron atoms are not like sulphur
atoms.

Scientists use symbols to represent elements. Most of the symbols are the first letters of the element’s name.

Element Symbol Element Symbol

Carbon C Iron Fe
Oxygen O Zinc Zn
Nitrogen N Copper Cu
Hydrogen H Aluminium Al
Sulphur S Sodium Na
Chlorine Cl Calcium Ca

Ions
When an element reacts during a chemical reaction, it can either lose or gain electrons. When it loses or gains an
electron, what results or forms is an ion. All elements have equal number of protons which are positively charged and
electrons which are negatively charged. Therefore if an element loses its electron(s) in a chemical reaction, its ion
has more positive charge on it, thus called cation. If the element gains electron(s), its ion has more negative charge
on it, and is called an anion. Most metal elements lose electrons when they react while non- metal elements gain
electrons.

Molecules
Not all atoms move around by themselves. Many especially gases, join up to make pairs. A molecule is made up of two
or more atoms of the same kind or of different kinds chemically combined together. Molecules exist in both elements
and compounds. We write an oxygen molecule as O2.Hydrogen usually exists as H2 molecules, nitrogen forms N2 and
ammonia exist as NH3.

Models of some molecules

Hydrogen oxygen water carbon dioxide ammonia

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 45

 Exercise:

What do you notice about the water, carbon dioxide and ammonia molecules? Are these substances elements?
What type of atoms is found in water, in carbon dioxide and in ammonia?

Compounds

Compounds are substances which are made of more than one type of atom joined together. A compound may be made
by chemically combining two or more elements. Compounds may be decomposed (broken up) by the use of heat,
electricity or by the action of other chemicals.

A compound is represented using a chemical formula. The formula of a compound shows the type of atoms present in
the compound and how many of each atom.

Exercise:

The formula of the simple sugar, glucose is C6H12O6. Which elements are present? How many atoms of each
one? How many atoms altogether make up one molecule of glucose?

Acids and Bases

Acids and bases are very important compounds in everyday life. Acids and bases are defined by what they do. This
is referred to as operational definition and specifically based on their properties. Acids can be divided into two groups:
mineral acids and organic acids. Organic acids are found in plants or animals. Mineral acids are the ones used commonly
in the laboratory and in industries. They are known for their corrosive nature and must be handled with care.

Properties of Acids
• Most acids are corrosive (‘burns’ your skin) and react with many materials.
• All acids have a sour taste (e.g. lemons, vinegar).Do not detect acids by tasting them.
• Acids contain hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water and have pH less than 7.
• Acids turn blue litmus paper to a red colour.
• Aqueous solutions of acids are good electrical conductors.
• Acids react with alkalis to form salt and water.
• Dilute acid reacts with metals to produce hydrogen gas.
• Dilute acid reacts with carbonates to produce carbon dioxide gas.

46 - Basic Science
Common Acids and their Uses

Acid Formula Uses

Acetic acid or CH3COOH Preserving food and for cooking. Found in vinegar and used to be made by the
ethanoic acid souring of wine
Citric acid C6H8O7 Making health food. Found in many fruit and vegetables, particularly citrus and
Ascorbic acid C6H8O6 source of vitamin C.
Hydrochloric HCl Cleaning metallic surfaces before they are coated. Found in the stomach and
acid called spirits of salts. A mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids is known as “aqua
regia’- literally ‘royal water’ because the mixture is the only substance that will
dissolve gold.
Sulphuric acid H2SO4 Function as electrolyte in batteries, electroplating, making plastics and fertilizers.
Nitric acid HNO3 Manufacture of nitrogen-based fertilizers and explosives.
Carbonic acid H2CO3 Very weak acid formed when carbon dioxide dissolves in water. When carbon
dioxide in the air dissolves in rain, it dissolves in limestone (calcium carbonate)
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 Making fertilizers and inhibiting the rusting of iron.

Test for Hydrogen Gas Test for Carbon dioxide Gas

Introduce a burning splint into a tube Pass some carbon dioxide gas through
containing the gas. clear Limewater. Carbon dioxide is
Hydrogen gas is identifies by a ‘pop’ identified by the limewater turning
sound. ‘milky’ or by the formation of a white
precipitate.

Bases
Bases are commonly considered as the opposite of acids. When an acid and a base mix they cancel out each other
and this is known as neutralization. Bases come in two forms:
• Soluble bases are called alkalis. These dissolve in water.
• Insoluble bases do not dissolve in water.
• Both soluble and insoluble bases react the same way with acids.

Properties of Bases and Alkalis

• Concentrated alkalis are corrosive (‘burns’ your skin). They must be handled with care.(example- caustic
soda)
• All alkalis have a bitter taste and a soapy feel.
• When heated, alkalis react with ammonia salts to form ammonia gas.
• Alkalis turn red litmus paper to a blue colour
• Alkalis are good electrical conductors.
• Many alkalis (soluble bases) contain hydroxyl ions (OH-) and have a pH more than 7.
• Alkalis react with acids to form salt and water only.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 47

Common Alkalis and their Uses

Alkali Formula Uses

Sodium hydroxide NaOH Making soap, washing powders and drain cleaners.
Calcium hydroxide Ca (OH)2 Making mortar and reducing the acidity of soil.
Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH Making fertilizer and cleaning liquid (agent).
(ammonia solution)
Potassium hydroxide KOH Making paint removers and dyes for fabrics
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 Making indigestion tablets and ‘milk of magnesia’

Activity Mini exercise

1. Make a list of five elements Arrange the following in a table to show which
which are found in your home. Describe are elements and which are compounds:
each one and give its use. copper, water, salt, magnesium, oxygen,
2. Give the name and symbols of two carbon dioxide, zinc chloride
liquids, four solids and three gaseous
elements.

2.3.2 Chemical Reactions: Word and Chemical equations

Chemicals react together to form new substances or break up to form new ones. The evidence that a chemical reaction
has taken place can be:
• a gas given off
• heat or light given out
• a new substance forms

The chemicals or substances used to start a reaction are called reactants and the substance that is formed or we finish
up with are called products. In the equation, the reactants are on the left-hand side (LHS) and the products are on the
right-hand side (RHS) of the arrow.

The process can be written as: Reactant 1 + Reactant 2 Product

A verbal description of what happens in the reaction is called a word equation. In a word equation, a plus (+) sign is
used to show that two things (reactants) are joining together, or there are two or more products. An arrow is used to
show that a chemical reaction takes place. For example, when iron rusts, iron oxide is formed.

The word equation for the reaction is: Iron + Oxygen Iron oxide

48 - Basic Science
Chemical Equation

A chemical equation is a brief way of summarizing what has happened in a chemical reaction. In a chemical equation,
symbols and formulae are used. They do not only show which atoms and ions are involved in the reaction but how
many as well. Chemical equations are always balanced. This means that there must be the same number of each kind
of atom on LHS and RHS of the equation. To balance an equation, whole numbers are place in front of the various
symbols and formulae in the equation and not anywhere else.

Steps in writing Balanced Chemical Equations.

1. Identify the reactants and products by looking at the information given or by observing the reaction carefully.
2. Write a word equation. In a word equation, the reactants and products are named.
3. Decide on the symbols and formulae for the reactants and products and write a chemical equation using the
symbols and formulae.
4. Balance the equation if necessary.

Poster Design Exercise time!

Make a poster about kitchen Write word and chemical equations for the following:
chemistry. Include pictures of
drawings of at least 5 common (a) Sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride.
kitchen procedures that depend on (b) Carbon burns with oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
acid-base reactions. Write captions (c) Iron reacts with sulphur to form iron sulphide.
explaining what the reaction is and
(d) Calcium carbonate decomposes to form calcium oxide.
what it does. (Write the reaction
using word and chemical equation)

Exercise time! Instruction: Copy the chart below. Fill in the answers. Then discuss it with the class. You
may change your answers if you want to.
What happens when the following Is it a chemical reaction? My reasons What I think after class
activity occur? Y/N discussion
• Removing the top off a soft
drink bottle
• Frying an egg
• Brewing tea in a teapot
• Water freezing
• Compost being made
• Bread covered with mould
• Fireworks exploding
• Stirring sugar into water
• Cassava rotting
• Curtains fading

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 49

2.3.3 Effect of Chemical Reactions on the Environment

A large number of chemical substances from different sources have been introduced into the environment by humans
over the century. Some are wastes from industrial and agricultural processes. Some were used as structural materials
and others have been designed to perform various functions such as healing the sick or killing pests and weeds.

Some chemicals are useful but many are toxic and their harm to the environment far outweighs their benefit to society.
To manage the risks better, we need to only use chemicals which are safe.

Chemicals enter the waterway as effluent and air as emissions .Motor vehicle and industrial emissions of nitrogen and
sulphur oxides cause acid rain, which poisons fish and other aquatic organisms in rivers and lakes and affects the
ability of soil to support plants.

Carbon dioxide causes the greenhouse effect and climate change. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) cause the destruction
of ozone in the stratosphere and create the possibility of serious environmental damage from ultraviolet radiation.

Chemical fertilizers and nutrients run-off from farms and gardens cause the build up of toxic algae in rivers, making
them uninhabitable to aquatic organisms and unpleasant for humans. Some toxic chemicals find their way from landfill
waste sites into our ground water, rivers and oceans and induce genetic changes that compromise the ability of life to
reproduce and survive.

ACTIVITY: GROUP RESEARCH

1. Find out ways in which harmful chemicals in the environment enter our bodies.
2. Discuss what you can do to minimize the effects of such chemicals in our bodies and environment

50 - Basic Science
 CHAPTER 3: LIVING THINGS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

1. LIVING TOGETHER
2. BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE
AND SUSTAINABILITY
3. STRUCTURE AND LIFE PROCESSES

Introduction

Biology is the study of living things. To decide if something is living or non-living, we can use the phrase MRS GREN.
M is for movement, R is for respiration, S is for sensitivity, G is for growth, R is for reproduction, E is for excretion and
N is for nutrition.

What are living things?

• Are made up of organic matter (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids)
• Trap energy from their surroundings, store energy, release energy in a controlled manner and use the released
energy to maintain their living state.
• Exchange matter with their surroundings including supplies of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur
(Kinnear, 1992).

NON- LIVING
THINGS
LIVING
THINGS Substances
Algae and that never
microscopic show any
organisms factors of
(Microbes) being alive
(living).
.
Bacteria
Fungi
ANIMAL and PLANTS that:
• Grow
• Reproduce
• Respond to stimuli
• Move
• Feed
• Respire (Take in air)
• Excrete

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 51

What is the Environment (of the living thing)?

• The conditions in which the organisms live in.

• The environment is everything around us including both the living and non-living parts. (Wilkinson, 1992)
• The external surroundings in which an organism lives and are influenced by abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living)
factors. (Kinnear, 1992)
• Some abiotic factors include soil, water, air ,light intensity, temperature humidity (climatic conditions) and some
biotic factors or the influences of other organisms (Begon & Harper, 1996) are competition for food /space/mates,
density and population to name a few.
• The environment in a habitat (a place where an organism lives) is produced by the action and interaction of the
biotic and abiotic factors and it affects the organisms that live there. (Kinnear, 1992)

ENVIRONMENT

Changes in the environment affect all organisms

HABITAT
• Food availability
• Enemies
(predators)
• Competitors
• Suitable climate
• Weather conditions

PRODUCERS (make their own food) CONSUMERS (eat organisms)

(e. g plants) (e.g herbivores and carnivores)

In general the study of living things and the environment basically involves the study of the relationship between living
things themselves and also with their environment. This is shown by how they interact, how they depend one another
for survival and how they influence one another.

52 - Basic Science
UNIT 1 LIVING TOGETHER

Introduction
This unit will help us understand, recognize and appreciate the nature in which living things and their environment are
interdependent and how each contributes to the survival of the other, especially organisms.

3.1.1 Ecosystems

Ecosystems are living systems which link together these five components, three of which are alive: energy, chemicals,
producers, consumers, consumers. A natural forest is an ecosystem, so is a mangrove forest or your garden at home.
An ecosystem is more than just a collection of plants. It is sort of a ‘mega life’, made up of many kinds of plants,
animals, decomposers, together with water, soil chemicals and all these energized by sunlight. The chemicals move
from one life- form to another and are continuously recycled.

A community consists of all the finds of living things which naturally live in a particular place, like a fish pond or a forest.
All plants and animals living in one place are normally linked in a food web. The exact place where it lives is called a
habitat. If it is very small, like a damp area under some leaves, then it is called a micro-habitat.

Terrestrial Ecosystems

Grassland Forest Garden

Aquatic ecosystems

Reef creek Coastal

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 53

CORAL

Corals are colonial animals which mean that each “head” is made of thousands of individual interconnected polyps.
They survive where temperature is between 20 0 C – 300C. There are several kinds of corals but only those with
zooxanthellae build reefs. Zooxanthellae is a type of algae that live in corals.

Diagram of a Coral Polyp

As the coral colony grows, new individuals build on top of old skeletons. The old
skeleton consists of the evident massive structure. Only a little living tissue is present
on the top. As a result of this, corals are so easily damaged if they are touched by
divers, anchors or other rough things. Coral grow in shapes that reduce the impact
of water movement.

CORAL REEFS

Coral reefs are unique as the geological structures are built by living communities. They are formed by the combined
effort of billions of tiny marine organisms ranging from algae, protozoa through to coral animals.

Types of Coral Reefs

1. Fringing Reef - border the shores, surrounding the islands.(Commonly found in Fiji).
2. Lagoon - enclosed flat-topped reefs
3. Barrier Reef - Found at some distance off-shore
4. Platform Reef - accumulated small patches found inshore of the barrier reef.

IMPORTANCE OF CORAL REEFS

• Homes/Habitats to a variety of marine organisms eg. Fish, worms, clams, starfish, crustaceans
• Protect island shorelines from strong waves
• Important part of the ocean food web
• Income Earner (Families/Country – revenue)
• Source of employment
• Tourist Attraction
• Contributes to the formation of islands
• Has an Impact on Climate Change
• Contributes to the rate of climate changing taking place today

54 - Basic Science
COMMON CORALS FOUND IN FIJI

Hard coral

Hard corals have calcium carbonate; they feed on algae and are found in clear waters.

Type Diagram Features

Fragile Coral - Needle coral

- The fragile branches interlock to produce
a very dense thicket.
- Colours include pink, brown, green and
grey, often with whitish tips.
- Home to small fish
- Common on reef flats and in the lagoon.

Staghorn Coral - The commonest corals on the reef

(Lasetagane) - Grows quite tall and form branches as well
as cup- shaped and plate-like structures.

Mushroom - Each coral is a solitary polyp of large size

Coral - The skeleton it produces resembles an
(Coroga) upturned mushroom.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 55

 Brain Coral - Coral looks smooth and the growth form
( Vatubuso) large rounded heads or brain-like shape.
- Colours include pink, purple, grey and
brown
- Widespread over the reef

Vase Coral /
Scroll Coral - Usually light grey, brown or green
- Like coral, can be about 20cm in diameter
- They grow into thin curving sheets which
look like scrolls.

Fire Coral - Can deliver a nasty burn on humans

(Lasekata)

Source [Pictures of Types of Hard Corals] : Internet

56 - Basic Science
Soft Coral

The following corals are classified as soft corals. Soft corals lack calcium carbonate skeletons so they do not contribute
to the growth of a reef.

Type Diagram Features

Horny - Named not because of their sex

Corals drive but because their skeleton
is made of a horny substance
called gorgonin.
- Often very colourful – orange
and red.

Stinging - Consist of a series of flattened

Corals branches
- Usually yellow-brown or orange
- If you get stung by one of these,
the best treatment is to cover
infected area with vinegar or any
diluted acid.

Source [Pictures of Soft Corals]: Internet

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 57

 Activity 1: Observing Organisms Living Together Activity 2: Comparison of an Aquatic and a
Terrestrial
In manageable groups, select a freshwater ecosystem (e.g Ecosystem
stream or nearby creek) and a terrestrial ecosystem (land).
Observe the organisms (plants and animals) in each ecosystem. In groups, discuss the similarities and differences between a
Predict possible interactions and relationships that may be present fresh water/marine and land ecosystem. Findings of Activity
and record observations on the recording sheet. 1 can be used as reference examples.
1. How are the ecosystems similar?
1. How many types of organisms are present? 2. How are the ecosystems different?
2. Are the organisms living together or have their separate 3. Are the organisms present in each ecosystem the
habitats? same/different?
3. Are there any special features, relationships in the ecosystem 4. Are there any special relationships/interactions in
e.g walai /wabosucu (mile a minute) growing on other plants. this habitat that enable organisms to survive?
4. Are there any visitors to the habitat e.g a man, mongoose or 5. Give examples of how the environmental
manulevu who might eat organisms living there. conditions in the habitats (water & land) affect the
5. What special features are present in the freshwater organisms.
ecosystem that is present or absent in the land/marine 6. Does the organism affect its environment or does
ecosystem? the environment affect the organism?

3.1.2 Features of the Environment

The environment is everything that is external to the organism. Both nonliving and living factors interact to make up
the total environment of organisms. Abiotic features of the environment vary greatly from place to place. The greatest
diversity exists between the abiotic features of an aquatic (water) environment and a terrestrial (land) environment. The
distribution, diversity and numbers of plants and animals found in ecosystems are determined by the biotic and abiotic
factors.

Abiotic Factors

Abiotic factors are the non-living features of the environment. These factors rarely threaten the survival of a species but
will greatly affect their populations. They affect the type of ecosystem and therefore the distribution and abundance of
organisms within that ecosystem.
• Physical factors include temperature, light, landform, tides, and shelter
• Chemical factors include amount of water, salinity, soil nutrients

Biotic factors

Biotic factors are the living organisms that occur in the environment. The distribution and abundance of organisms in
an ecosystem is greatly affected by the organisms that live in the ecosystem. An organism may be affected by:
• Activities of members of the same species: competing for resources/A mate for reproduction.
• Activities of members of different species.
– A source of food
– A predator or a parasite
– A disease causing organism

58 - Basic Science
 TESTS OUTLINE
• Activities of members of different species.
– A source of food
Humidity
– A predator or a parasite Place a strip of
– A disease causing organism Temperature Cobalt chloride
Measure temperature paper on leaf and
using a thermometer. record time taken
for paper to turn
pink
Activity 3: Carrying out Tests on
the Abiotic factors of the environment
Conduct tests and carry out observations and
tabulate your results to determine the Salinity
differences in the following abiotic features of Turbidity Weigh empty beaker. Heat
an aquatic and a terrestrial environment: Use a secchi disk
100mL of seawater in weighed
Light, water, buoyancy, oxygen availability, to measure the
beaker until all water has
nutrients, and temperature variation turbidity of
evaporated. Work out salinity by
the water.
using the formula below:
Salinity = mass of salt
100mL of seawater

3.1.3 Interactions between Living Things

Living things (organisms) are not isolated in their environment. Organisms must interact with other individuals of their
own species, with other species, and with their physical environment. The study of the interactions between organisms
and their environment is called ecology. Ecology encompasses all aspects of biology; from physiology to behavior,
because any change within an organism has the potential to affect its relationship with the environment. Likewise,
ecological interactions can be studied at many different levels; between an organism and its environment, between an
organism and a group of organisms, or between two groups. The survival of an organism depends on its relationship
and how it adapts to its environment.

Organisms interact with each other all the time, whether we know it or not. Many of the interactions between species
involve food: competing for the same food supply, eating or avoiding being eaten.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 59

Types of Interactions

The three main types of interactions are competition, predation and symbiosis.

TYPE OF INTERACTION DESCRIPTION EFFECT

Competition In competition, organisms struggle to Competition limits the populations of
survive as they attempt to use the limited the organisms involved because the
resources of the environment such as resources for which they compete are
food, water or shelter. limiting factors.
Predation One organism, called the predator kills At first the prey population decreases
another organism called the prey for food. but the number of predators will also
decline, as the predator’s food supply
is reduced. Predator-prey population
go through related cycles of increase
and decrease.
Symbiosis In symbiosis, there is a close relationship Mutualism – both species benefit.
• Mutualism between two species that benefits one of Commensalism – one benefits and the
• Commensalism them. There are three types of symbiotic other is neither helped nor harmed.
• Parasitism relationships, mutualism, Parasitism – one organism (parasite)
commensalism and parasitism. lives in or on another organism (the
host) and it harms it.

Food Chains

Within an ecosystem, animals eat organisms and are in turn being eaten. The food relationship among organisms in an
ecosystem is called a food chain. Every plant and animal in a food chain is called a link. The number of links may vary
from one food chain to another. Most food chains start with green plants. Green plants are called producers because
they make their own food. They provide food in the form of energy for the rest of the organisms in the food chain.

Food Chain example: CABBAGE LEAF CATERPILLAR BIRD

Animals get their food by eating plants or other animals because they cannot make their own food. They are called
consumers since they consume other living things. A herbivore is a primary consumer because it feeds directly on
plants. A carnivore is a secondary consumer because it feeds on other animals which are primary consumers.

The further away a consumer is from the producers in the food chain, the less energy is obtained from the sun. Animals
that eat both animals and plants are called omnivores. The decomposers (bacteria and fungi) feed on decaying
matter. This speeds up the decaying process that releases mineral salts back into the food chain for absorption by
plants as nutrients. In reality, many food chains are connected to each other to form ‘food webs’. In any ecosystem,
the webs are so complex. Energy move through food webs from the sun to chemicals in plants and animals. When
anything is eaten, about 90% of the energy is lost and about 10% is carried on. This causes a pyramid effect so top
carnivores are always rare.

60 - Basic Science
 Food Webs

Every food chain in an ecosystem will end up with a lot of interconnected food chains. This is because many animals
eat more than one type of food. Likewise, each animal or plant can be eaten by different animals. This results in the
formation of a network of interconnected food chains which is called a food web.

Food Chains &Food Webs Activity: Decomposers

Bury some rubbish in a hole in the soil,
Instruction: Survey organisms (plants and animals) around your e.g. disposable plastic and paper
school/home. plates, fruit peelings etc. One month
later, dig up the rubbish and observe
1. Construct food chains for the ecosystem in your school or home locality what has happened to it. Which type of
2. Describe what would happen if food chains and food webs are broken. rubbish has been broken down? Which
3. How can food chains and food webs be protected? has not been broken down? What
4. Perform a role play as organisms in a food chain or a food web. Act out broke the rubbish down?
what will happen when one of the links of the food chain or food web is Discuss effects of improper rubbish
affected by changes such as poisoning or drought. disposal in a group.

3.1.4 Responses of Plants to External Stimuli

The response or growth movement of plants towards external stimuli is called tropism. Plants generally use environmental
stimuli for orientation in growth and movement. The response of plants may be toward (positive) or away (negative)
from the external stimuli. The different external environmental stimuli that plants respond to are light, water, gravity and
touch.

This plant growth process is caused by a plant growth hormone called auxin which not only regulates the growth of the
plant but also control the movements towards or away from the external stimulus.

Phototropism is a plant’s growth response to light. Plants need light to grow.

With more light, the plant is able to photosynthesize and produce more organic
compounds that plants need to grow. The stems and shoots of most plants grow
towards light and their roots away from light. When a plant is exposed to light,
auxin is released into the cells on the plant’s shady side. This lets the plant bend
and grow towards the light source.

Source: http://images.the scientist.com/content/ images/articles/phototropism

Phototropism

Source: http://images.the scientist.com/content/

images/articles/phototropism

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 61

 Geotropism is also called gravitropism because plants use the gravitational pull
for orientation. The roots grow downwards into the soil (positive geotropism)
while the shoots grow into the opposite direction towards the light (negative
geotropism).

Geotropism

Source: http://www.desktoclass.com/wp-content/
uploads/2011/05/geotropism

Hydrotropism is a plant’s response to water concentrations. Roots for example

grow towards moist soil to avoid drought stress. On a root cap has sensed
water, it beds and the root grows towards it. This ability is essential because
plants need water to grow. Water and soluble mineral nutrients are taken up
by the root hairs. Then, in vascular plants, the water is transported through the
xylem vessels.

Hydrotropism

Source: http://virtualastronaut.tietronix.com/text only

/act25/images/hydrotropism

Thigmotropism is a plant’s response to physical contact. Climbing plants with

coil- like structures (tendrils), first bend and turn until they touch a suitable
supporting object. Once a tendril touches this support, it releases the hormone
auxin into the tendrils growing to the other side.Auxin makes the cells in these
tendrils longer and stronger thus helping the tendril to find support to grow
around. The part of the tendril that is in contact with the object do not have
auxin and so are weaker, allowing them to coil around the supporting object.

Thigmotropism

Source: primary

Types of Climbing Plants

• Twining stem around a support

• Clinging root
• Twining petioles
• Tendrils (shoots, leaves)
• Hooked structures (thorns, hooked branches

62 - Basic Science
 Activity: Identify the type of climbing plant shown in the pictures below. Discuss
the advantage of this response for the plant.

Source: primary

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 63

UNIT 2: BIODIVERSITY,CHANGE AND SUSTAINABILITY

3.2.1 Biodiversity and its Importance

The varieties of living things in different ecosystem like the rainforest, reef etc. Refers to the diversity of life in area.
Biodiversity can be described in terms of its genetic composition, species diversity and ecosystem. Genetic diversity
refers to the variety of genetic information contained in all individual plants, animals and micro-organisms. Species
diversity refers to the variety of living species and ecosystem diversity relates to the variety of habitats, communities
and ecological processes and the diversity that is found within them.

Research: Medicines from Plants

Over a quarter of modern medicines are from plants or were

first discovered in plants. Most of the knowledge comes from
indigenous people who have their own traditional plant
remedies. A lot of this old knowledge is in danger of being lost.
Also one of the tragedies of rainforest destruction is that many
plants and animals are becoming extinct before we discover
anything about them- or even know that they exist.

Importance of biodiversity in an ecosystem

• Provide humans and organisms with food, medicine and shelter

• Helps to keep our water clean – Natural vegetation around water catchment areas, help maintain healthy water
systems, regulate and stabilise water runoff, and help to prevent extreme events such as flood and drought.
• Helps to form and maintain soil structure a n d helps to keep the soil moil moist and rich in nutrients. Dead
and decaying organic matter breakdown with the help of fungi and bacteria leaving nutrients in the soil.
• Nutrient storage and recycling
• Breaking down and absorption of pollutants created by human activities such as oil spills, rubbish and waste water.
All parts of the ecosystem from decomposers to higher life forms are involved in the breakdown and absorption
of these pollutants.
• Contribute to stability in climate. Studies have shown that undisturbed forest helps to maintain rainfall in an area by
recycling water vapour in the atmosphere as well as locking away some of the harmful greenhouse gases released
through burning of fossil fuels, intensive agriculture and clearing of land which cause climate change.

3.2.2 Changes in the ecosystem:

The changes in an ecosystem cause threats to the biodiversity of that ecosystem. This result in:
• Using up of natural resources before they can be renewed e.g. overfishing in oceans, over-harvesting of trees on
land.
• Habitat destruction like clearing forest or How can you help Biodiversity?
9 Do not use pesticides- they kill plants and animals
draining wetlands for new developments or 9 Use cloth napkins
agricultural purposes. 9 Recycle old newspapers and buy recycled paper
• Releasing invasive species into foreign ecosystems products
9 Always use eco-friendly cleaning products
like African tulip in forest, tilapia in Rewa river etc.

64 - Basic Science
• Any kind of pollution
• Failure of food chains

Habitat destruction

Clearing of Forest for development Invasive Species: African Tulip

Source: primary Source: primary

Mini –exercise: Short term and Long Term

Effects of Change in Biodiversity

A. Instruction: Work in pairs and complete a similar table Exercise 2: Compare and Contrast
in your science exercise book.
Use diagrams or words to distinguish between
Short Term Effects Long Term Effects the meanings of the following terms:
1
2 1.. Exotic species and native species
3 2. Overharvesting and sustainable yields
4 3. Degrading and Restoration Activities
B. Imagine you are an organism that has been affected 4. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable
by the destruction of the ecosystem in which you 5. Conservation and destruction
live. Write your story using cartoon illustration of the
challenges you faced.

Effects of changes on Organisms

• decrease in number of species: endangered

• decrease in food supply
• loss and degradation of habitat

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 65

3.2.3 Human Activities that contribute to these changes in the ecosystem

• Improper waste disposal and polluting of environment

• Reclamation of land for use through development
• Burning and deforestation/Logging

The Work of Biosecurity Authority of Fiji

Biosecurity Authority of Fiji is mandated to:

• protect Fiji’s agricultural sector from the introduction and spread of animal and plant pests and diseases.
• manage quarantine controls at our borders to minimise the risk of exotic pests and diseases entering the country.
It also
• provide import and export inspection and certification to help retain Fiji’s favourable animal, plant and human
health status and wide access to overseas export markets.

Foreign pests and disease pose a huge danger to Fiji’s plants, animals and environment. The American iguana is a
declared pest in Fiji. It is said to have been brought illegally into the country and released in Qamea Island. Now almost
10 years later, it has spread to Laucala, Taveuni and Matagi Island as well. If the American iguanas are not controlled
and eradicated it could have disastrous effect on our environment, biodiversity, food security and the economy.

They pose an immediate threat to food security in villages and islands where they are present as they eat plants such
as dalo leaves and cassava tops, bele, tomatoes, cabbage, beans and yam vines. If American iguana numbers are left
unchecked, food sustainability in Fijian villages will be a great risk in the near future. These iguanas could also affect
Fiji’s biodiversity having a serious impact on endemic plants and bird eggs and nestlings. American iguanas post risk
to our endangered native iguanas through possible transmission of iguana-specific diseases, parasites and pathogens
from American iguanas to the endemic Fijian iguanas.

The eradication of these iguanas is a challenge as they are arboreal (tree dwelling), well camouflaged and have
excellent eyesight thus they able to avoid detection. They are also excellent swimmers and usually climb a tree and
drop into water where they can stay submerged for an hour or more. A good way of eradication would be locating all
American iguana nesting areas and controlling the breeding by destroying the eggs.

Natural Solution on Biodiversity Conservation and Protected Areas

Fencing
Marine Protected areas
Community involvement

66 - Basic Science
 EXERCISE: BIODIVERSITY

1. Identify human activities that lead to the destruction of loss of habitat.

2. Explain how loss of habitat affects plant and animal species.
3. Define and use the terms endangered, threatened and extinct and give examples of endangered,
threatened and extinct species.
4. Investigate some species of plants and animals whose populations have been reduced because
of human activities.
5. Identify ways in which humans pollute the environment and explain the effects of pollutants on
biodiversity.
6. Define the term invasive and give examples of invasive species and discuss the impact they have on
biodiversity.
7. Investigate the causes of climate change and its impact on biodiversity.

Write your story or dramatize this!!

Exercise : Appreciating different sustainable uses of plants and animals 1. Which two organisms are talking?
2. What are they talking about?
3. Are they happy or sad about what
happen?
“I am a bit better but my 4. What possible uses could the ‘arms
How are you ‘be for?
shoulders are still
today Dogo? 5. Were the organisms given a choice
bleeding from the attack. to be cut or not? As a member of the
I hope it will heal soon.” ecosystem where the organisms live
in ,do you ever take time to think or
Oh Tiri! A group came and cut all our realise or imagine how hurting it is
What attack? Did
arms off and put it in trucks. They just for the organism when parts of their
someone attack you?
came with a chain saw and starting ‘bodies’ are used for human
With what? And what
cutting, didn’t even stop to check if consumption?
did you do? How many
they were cutting the small children’s 6. Imagine if a group of people came to
people?
arms too. There was a lot of noise and your home or village and cut off all
the arms of those present, young
and old ...HOW WOULD YOU
FEEL?

Source: primary

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 67

3.2.4 Sustainability and the Need for Conservation

Sustainability

Sustainable means taking no more from nature than is naturally replaced in the long run. Sustainable use can keep
going for a long time. It simply means keeping things in a state of balance, but is not the same as leaving nature
untouched..

Conservation

Conservation is the protection of valuable resources and management of forests, oceans, swamps and many more. It
is the protection of our planet’s biodiversity and the protection of many of the things we consider very useful.

Kinds of conservation

• Wildlife conservation
• Soil conservation
• Energy conservation

Conservation is needed because it is important for the entire planet, especially for biodiversity, and it protects
endangered species from becoming extinct. Some ways that may contribute to helping in conservation include donating
to organizations that promote conservation, planting a tree, picking up rubbish and encouraging people to help with
conservation and many more.

WildLife Conservation

This is where people try to protect various endangered species from becoming extinct. This includes both plants and
animals that have been identified as being at risk. Wildlife conservation includes protecting not only the particular species
but their habitats as well. Several factors could lead to the extinction of such species. These include deforestation,
overhunting and even various types of pollution. These animals and plants therefore need to be protected, and therefore
a large number of government and non-government organizations have taken up this important cause.

Conservation Groups in Fiji

There are a number of conservation groups both government and non-government organizations which play a role in
the conservation of biodiversity of plants (flora) and animals (fauna) in Fiji.

1. World Wildlife Fund (WWF)

This organization is one of the world top organizations when it comes to preserving wildlife. It works in several
countries all over the world and uses the best scientific knowledge available to protect ecosystems and to come up
with various development options with regard to preservation, efficient use of natural resources and also to deal with
other environmental issues that have a great impact on the lives of endangered species. The WWF also work with
governments, providing them with advice, policy alternatives, etc.

68 - Basic Science
2. BirdLife Fiji

Since 2005, the forest of the Natewa Peninsula, part of the island of Vanua Levu was identified as a site of National
Significance in the National Biodiversity Action Plan and the area was also designated as an Important Bird Area
(IBA) by BirdLife International. It was also assigned as a Key Biodiversity Area (KBA) by Conservation International in
2005. Since then, BirdLife Fiji has been working with the communities of the Natewa Tunuloa Peninsula to promote
conservation of avifauna and biodiversity. The High biodiversity of gobids and birds and the presence of the seven of
the nine subspecies endemic to Vanua Levu island, such as the Silktail (Lamprolia victoriae), make this an important
area to conserve.

3. Mareqeti Viti ( NatureFiji)

NatureFiji – MareqetiViti was Fiji’s first NGO, established in 2006 for terrestrial conservation. It works solely for the
conservation and sustainable management of Fiji’s unique natural heritage. Its role is to:
• Raising the level of conservation and environmental awareness and education in all aspects of wildlife conservation
and management.
• Providing opportunities for children to learn of the remarkable natural heritage of our islands and seas.
• Recognize the key role of Fiji’s indigenous landowners and promote to them a better understanding and awareness
of Fiji’s wildlife.
• Assist in conservation projects, wildlife management and island restoration projects.

Exercise : School Compound Survey

1. Identify an area in your school that you think is an environmental problem.

2. Make a list of the factors that your group thinks is causing the problem.
3. For each factor come up with possible solutions or ways to improve the current state of the area in
order to make it environmentally friendly.
4. Draw up an action plan on how your group can help improve the area.
5. Put the plan into action and help beautify your school.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 69

 Exercise: Demonstrating Care for the Environment

In groups, collect recent newspaper articles (of Fiji) that describe how the environment is or ecosystems are
being damaged or managed or protected.
Scan through the article to summarise what is being explained and then fill in a table similar to the one below.

Brief description of what the article is about

HEAD LINE

1.Polluters face fines Eg. Suvavou people are complaining to the Department of Environment to
(The Fiji Times ,10th fine ship owners whose ships are berthed on their beachfront as they pose
September,2010) a threat to the marine life. etc.

Note:
1. The Model should be made of materials
Exercise 3: Waste management that are regarded as rubbish around your
classroom or school. e.g paper, pencil
In groups, make a model based on the themes shavings etc
shown below. 2. The Model should be able to be used in
REFUSE (what you do not need)
REDUCE (what you do need) the School science lab for at least two
REUSE (what you cannot reduce) (2) years.
RECYCLE (what you cannot 3. If models are well done, it can be modified
reuse)
to be a source of income for the student.
RECOVER (what you cannot
recycle)

70 - Basic Science
UNIT 3: STRUCTURE AND LIFE PROCESSES

Structure of Plants

Anatomy is the study of the internal structure of plants.

Morphology is the study of the external structure of plants.

PLANT STRUCTURE (External) Part of How does it help the Plant

Plant Function
Root • Provides anchorage in the soil
• Absorb and conduct/transport
water
and minerals/nutrients
Root Hairs • Increase the absorption of water
Stem • Support the leaves, flowers and
fruit
• Carry water, minerals and
Leaf • A plant’s food factory
• Main site of photosynthesis
where sugars are made from
water, carbon dioxide using
sunlight energy.
Flower • Reproductive part of the plant
Fruit/Seeds • Dispersal and continuation of
species

Source(picture):http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/plants/basic

Internal Structure of a Leaf

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 71

 Research

Activity: Find out!

Fold a thick leaf such as viavia or purple wandering jew Functions of these parts of a leaf:
and cut a thin slice using the slicing method. Use a hand Upper layer, Dark green layer, Spongy
lens to look carefully inside the leaf. If the thin slice is Layer, vein, stomata. Lower layer
placed under the microscope, the parts could be seen in
much more detail.

Internal structure of a Stem

The internal structure of the stem reflects its function. There are conducting and supporting tissues.

phloem

xylem

conducting bundle

A section across a stem

Source: primary

Internal structure of a Root

phloem xylem

protecting layer

food storage area

A section across a root

72 - Basic Science
 Exercise : Internal Structures of Plants

(a) Using the same kind of plants (aquatic and terrestrial), examine internal structures of the
plants using a microscope. Examine and draw the following cross-sections of the plant :
stem, root, and leaf.
(b) Also examine stomata on lower and upper surface of leaf and compare the abundance
of stomata on both surfaces. Tabulate your findings.

3.3.2 Functions and Adaptive Features of parts of Plants

Leaves: The primary function of leaves is to obtain light and make food for the plant. A leaf’s shape, colour, size and surface
texture all play a part in transpiration and photosynthesis. Leaves have adaptations or features that enable them to perform this
role effectively. These features include:

(a) A waxy cuticle on the upper surface of the leaf to prevent water loss.

(b) Plants have tiny openings or pores, especially on the lower surfaces of their leaves. These openings are called stomata
(one pore is called a stoma).A stoma is a hole surrounded by two special cells, called guard cells. These cells can change
their shape to open or close the stoma. Stomata let water vapour leave the plant in transpiration. They also let carbon
dioxide and oxygen enter or leave the plant as they are needed.

Stems: The primary function of the stem is to hold the rest of the plant by supporting the leaves, flowers and fruit. The stem lifts
the leaves up where they can obtain enough sunlight, moves food and water from place to place in the plant.

Roots: The primary function of the root is to provide anchorage in the soil, absorption of water and minerals and transport these
upwards for the plant.

Some leaves, stems and roots are special because they carry out other functions in addition to
their primary basic function. Study the photographs given and identify if they show leaves, stem or
roots, and explain their special functions.

Source: primary

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 73

 Exercise time! . Exercise:
1. A lot of words in science are borrowed from other Re-write each sentence so that each
languages especially Greek and Latin. Write out these six function correctly matches a design
words: photo-synthesis, chloro-phyll, bio-olgy, sapro- feature.
phyte, epi-dermis, stoma. Structure (design feature)
Under the two parts of each word write down what it Most leaves are broad and flat because
means in plain English. Use this list: bio=life, phyll= leaf, this……
chloro= green, phyte= plant, dermis= skin, sapro= rotten, The outer surface is waxy, because this…..
epi= on, synth= to make, logos= knowledge, stoma= There are many stomata because they…..
mouth, photo= light. Inner cells have chloroplasts because
these…..
There are veins (with xylem cells) going to
leaves because they….
There are also sieve tubes in the veins
because they…
Activity : External Structure of Plants Function (task which does it)
cuts down water loss in dry conditions.
Select an aquatic and terrestrial plant . Examine the external carry water to leaves.
structures of each plant and note how they are similar and how carries sugar away to the rest of the plant.
they are different. helps the plant collect more light.
help CO2 get into the leaf.
are where sugars are actually made.

3.3.3 Types of Plants

74 - Basic Science
3.3.3 Types of Plants

Green plants are put into groups depending on certain features they possess.

Algae are the simplest plants. They grow in water. You may know them as seaweeds
like lumi, nama or as slimes that grow in drains and ditches around your school. Algae
do not have proper stems and leaves and do not reproduce by seeds. Sometimes they
are made up of a lot of fine threads, like green hair. In the ocean there are many
different algae. Some of them may have a red or brown colour which hides their
chlorophyll. Many of them are so tiny that they can only be seen with a microscope.
These algae float on top of the sea and are called plankton. All of these seaweeds are “Nama”
very important as the producers in food chains which are taken up by fish or man. Source: primary

Mosses live in moist, shady places. You may find them on rotting logs in the forest.
They are very small plants and grow very close together. Sometimes they make a soft
green mat on the forest floor. Mosses reproduce by spores which are found in a small
container called a capsule. This is at the end of a hair-like stalk. When the capsule dries,
the spores are scattered and grow into new moss plants.
Source: primary

Ferns
Ferns come in many shapes and sizes ranging from tiny delicate “filmy ferns growing
on tree trunks to the tall tree ferns or balabala. Ferns mainly live in moist, shady places.
Some even live on water. Most ferns have underground stems which grow horizontally.
From this, roots grow down and leaves grow upwards. The new leaves of a fern uncurl
as they grow. This is sometimes called a ‘fiddle head’ or “shepherd’s crook” and is easy
to find in the forest. The leaf or frond may be very large, over 3metres in some tree
ferns. It is usually divided into leaflets. The back of the leaflets contain spores. Different
Source: primary
types of ferns have different shaped spot of spores. The spores are scattered and grow
into new plants.

Conifers
Conifers are plants which reproduce by seeds. However their seeds are not formed by
flowers, but are found in cones. Dakua, nokonoko and pine are some of the conifers that
grow in Fiji. Many conifers have needle-shaped leaves and all of them have two
types of cones. The small ones make pollen, and the larger ones are where the seeds
are formed. The seeds are protected by woody scales. When the scales open, the
seeds are scattered. Conifers are important trees in our industrial world. Some of them
are used for timber, others for making paper, and others produce turpentine, charcoal
Source: primary
and tar.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 75

Flowering plants (Angiosperms)
Flowering plants are the most common of all plants. They have roots, stems, leaves and
flowers. They reproduce by seeds which are formed from flowers. The seeds are found
inside a fruit. There are many different types of flowering plants of all shapes, sizes and
colours. All of the fruit and vegetables we use for food, most of our timber trees; and
most of the plants that makes environment and compounds so attractive are flowering
plants.
Source: primary

3.3.4 Transpiration

Transpiration is the evaporation of water into the atmosphere from the leaves and stems of plants. Plants absorb soil
water through their roots and this water can originate from deep in the soil. Plants pump the water up from the soil to
deliver nutrients to their leaves. This pumping is driven by the evaporation of water through small pores called “stomata”,
which are found on the undersides of leaves. Transpiration accounts for approximately 10% of all evaporating water.

Importance of Transpiration
1. It helps to keep the plant cool when temperature and sunlight cause the rapid
evaporation of moisture.
2. Helps to draw more water and minerals upwards from the soil.
3. Allows for photosynthesis to occur by helping the plant obtain the carbon dioxide it
needs from the atmosphere as it releases oxygen contained in water vapour.
Source: primary

Environmental factors that affect the rate of transpiration

1. Light
Plants transpire more rapidly in the light than in the dark. This is largely because light stimulates the opening of the
stomata. Light also speeds up transpiration by warming the leaf.

2. Temperature
Plants transpire more rapidly at higher temperatures because water evaporates more rapidly as the temperature
rises. At 30°C, a leaf may transpire three times as fast as it does at 20°C.

3. Humidity
The rate of diffusion of any substance increases as the difference in concentration of the substances in the two
regions increases. When the surrounding air is dry, diffusion of water out of the leaf goes on more rapidly.

4. Wind
When there is no breeze, the air surrounding a leaf becomes increasingly humid thus reducing the rate of
transpiration. When a breeze is present, the humid air is carried away and replaced by drier air.

76 - Basic Science
5. Soil water

A plant cannot continue to transpire rapidly if its water loss is not made up by replacement from the soil. When
absorption of water by the roots fails to keep up with the rate of transpiration, loss of turgor occurs, and the stomata
close. This immediately reduces the rate of transpiration (as well as of photosynthesis). If the loss of turgor extends
to the rest of the leaf and stem, the plant wilts.

Exercise 1 Transpiration
Complete the following sentences by choosing the correct words from the box:

Transpiration is the evaporation of from leaves. The water escapes through tiny pores called
. These are mainly found on the of the leaf. It is cooler under the leaf and there is less air
movement. This means that the plant doesn’t lose too much water though its stomata. If the plant is short of water
the stomata will to reduce water loss.
close bottom stomata water

Activity 1: The rate of transpiration can be measured using a potometer.

Potometer

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 77

The rate of water loss from the plant through transpiration is found by measuring how far the water travels along the
scale in a given time. Simon set up an experiment to compare the amount of water lost by the plant when it was light
and when it was dark. These are his results.

Distance water travelled along tube (mm)

In light In dark
0 0 0
5 10 2
10 20 4
15 28 5
20 38 8
25 50 10
30 60 12

1. Plot the results for the light on a line graph. Then add the results for the dark onto the same graph.
2. What happens to the stomata of a leaf during the day? Why does this happen? How would this affect the rate of
transpiration (would it increase or decrease)?

Activity 2: Leaves & Transpiration

You are going to investigate how much water a leaf loses in different conditions. You need to plan your investigation
carefully.

Apparatus
• some leaves of similar size
• hairdryer
• fan
• 4 clamp stands
• balance
• cotton ties
• marker pen

Method
1. Take your leaves and mark each one with a number using a marker pen.
2. Measure the mass of each leaf. Record the masses in a table like the one below.
3. Using a piece of cotton, tie each leaf to a clamp stand.
4. Place each leaf in different conditions. Record the conditions you are using and how you made them in your
table.
5. Measure the mass of each leaf after 45 minutes.

78 - Basic Science
Prediction
1. Write down what you think will happen.
2. Why do you think this?

Results
1. Make a table like this one.

2. Why do the leaves lose mass?

3. Which leaf lost the most mass? Why do you think this is?
4. Do your results agree with your predictions? If not, say why.
5. How precise do you think your results were? Were your leaves the same size?
6. How do you think the experiment could be improved?

Activity 3

An experiment was set up using four identical leaves. Different parts of each leaf were covered with grease, which is
waterproof and blocks the stomata. The leaves were hung on a line and left for a week.

4 Which leaf do you think would lose the most water? (Hint: Think
about where most of the stomata are in a leaf) Explain why this
would happen.
5 Which leaf do you think would lose the least water? Explain why this
would happen.
6 Look at leaves B and C. Which of these two leaves do you think
would lose the most water? Explain why this would happen.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 79

3.3.5 Photosynthesis

The word photosynthesis is formed from the words ‘Photo’ which means light and ‘synthesis’ which means ‘joining
together. Therefore photosynthesis in plants means ‘using light to join molecules together to make food’. Photosynthesis
is a very important process to all living things for a number of reasons: First, it is a way in which all animals get their food
and energy through food chains. Secondly, it provides us with all the oxygen which we need for breathing and burning
and thirdly, it uses up the carbon dioxide which is released into the air when animals breath and fire burns.

Photosynthesis can be summed up like this:

carbon dioxide + water + light sugars + oxygen

(from the air) (from the soil) ( energy source) (for many purposes) (goes in the air)

Factors That Affect Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the chemical reaction that takes place inside green plants in the presence of chlorophyll and sunlight.
Caron dioxide and water are converted into plant food and oxygen with the help of chlorophyll and sunlight. Besides
these two factors, there are other factors such as carbon dioxide, pH levels, light intensity, and temperature that affect
photosynthesis.

Light Intensity

The intensity of light affects the rate of photosynthesis. A low light intensity would mean low rate of photosynthesis.
Increased intensity of light leads to a high rate of photosynthesis. Once the intensity has reached 10,000 lux, it does
not affect the photosynthesis rate. A very high intensity of light can bring down the photosynthesis rate as it can bleach
chlorophyll.

The Concentration of Carbon Dioxide

High concentrations of carbon dioxide lead to efficient photosynthesis. The atmosphere normally has a carbon dioxide
concentration of 0.03 to 0.04 percent. This concentration is sufficient for photosynthesis. It has been observed that
plants grow faster and better in a greenhouse where the carbon dioxide concentration is nearer 0.1 percent. The crops
grown in greenhouses are bigger and yield more by comparison with field grown crops.

Temperature

Very high or low temperatures are not suitable for the photosynthesis process. Enzyme activity is essential for the two
stages of photosynthesis. Temperatures ranging near 0 degrees C deactivate the enzymes affecting photosynthesis.
Similarly, very high temperatures denature the essential enzymes prohibiting photosynthesis. The ideal temperature
range is 25 to 35 C.

80 - Basic Science
Chlorophyll

Chlorophyll absorbs light, without which photosynthesis cannot take place. An absence of chlorophyll will mean that
photosynthesis will not take place at all. Certain diseases, mineral deficiency, and aging may lead to chlorophyll
deficiency.

Water

Water is the life source for plants; plants cannot survive without it. Lack of water leads to lack of carbon dioxide as the
leaves refuse to open their stomata to keep water they have stored logged inside.

Polluted Atmosphere

A polluted atmosphere can lead to a 15 percent decrease in the rate of photosynthesis. Industrial gases are the major
culprit. Soot, which settles down on leaves, blocks the stomata, making it difficult to take in carbon dioxide. Polluted
water affects aquatic plants and their photosynthesis process. For photosynthesis to occur at a constant rate the
presence and levels of various factors are essential. Photosynthesis needs all of them at optimum levels to produce
the best results.

Exercise time! Experiment

PLANNING YOUR METHOD DRAWING WITH LIGHT
To find out if a plant has been making new chemicals, you simply Once you have worked out steps ABCD, you can test
have to test a few leaves for starch. Here are four simple steps some leaves for starch. This works best if you use a
which are used to find if a leaf has starch in it – but the order A to plant with soft leaves- many types of weeds are good;
D has been scrammbled. Decide what the correct order is, then tough leaves are useless. Make sure that the plant
write these steps down unscrammbled as a proper plan. Add your has been in good light for a few days. This experiment
own drawing of what is done at each stage. Check your plan for is more interesting if you cover parts of the leaves with
correctness and safety before you actually do the practical. black paper.

A. Pour some iodine solution over the leaf, and let it soak
for 2 or 3 minutes. Any starch in it will turn bluish black.
Gently rinse off the iodine.
B. Boil your leaf in methylated spirit for 1 or 2 minutes.
(Important!! There must be no flames nearby! For
safety sake, use a water-bath).When the leaf is pale
looking, place in warm water.
C. Gently spread out the softened leaf in a Petri dish, with
a little warm water. Take care- the leaf has just had a
hard time.
D. Boil the leaf for 3 or 4 minutes, to burst the cells and
soften the leaf before starting.

Source: primary

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 81

3.3.6 Reproduction in Plants

The two types of reproduction in plants are asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction. A sexual reproduction is
also called vegetative reproduction. This form of asexual reproduction involves growth of plant parts which eventually
become detached and grow into new plants. A sexual reproduction does not introduce variation in a plant species,
however, it is a means of maintaining continuity of a group of plants and is also a quick method of increasing their
numbers.

Natural Vegetative reproduction

All plant organs have been used for vegetative reproduction, but stems are the most common. Reproduction from a
stem usually involves the buds. Instead of producing a branch, the bud grows into a complete plant which eventually
supports itself. Vegetative reproduction can be either natural or artificial (man-made). The main types of natural
v e g e t a t i ve reproductive structures that arise from stems are runners, stolons, rhizomes, bulbs and corms.

Runners

These are horizontal stems that grow above the ground from the parent plant. When their
terminal buds touch the ground, they form roots and produce new plants.

Source: primary

Stolons

Stolons are modified stems whose purpose is to spread the plant over the surface of the
ground. A type of runner in which the main shoot forms the new individual.

When the growing end of a shoot arches over and touches the ground, the terminal bud
curves up, reproducing a new shoot which soon develop adventitious roots. Source:internet

Rhizomes

These stems grow horizontally under the ground. In some cases the underground stems
are swollen with food reserves e.g. ginger. The terminal bud turns upwards to produce
the flowering shoot and the lateral buds may grow out to form new rhizomes. 80

Source: primary

Bulbs
Bulbs have very short stems with closely packed leaves arranged in concentric circles
around the stem. These leaves are swollen with stored food. e.g. onion. A terminal bud
will produce next year’s flowering shoot while the lateral or axillary buds will produce
new plants.

Source: primary

82 - Basic Science
 Corms

Corms also have short stems which swell and stores food. As with bulbs, the terminal
bulb grows into a flowering shoot and the lateral buds produce now plants.

Source: primary

Artificial Vegetative Reproductive Structures.

Grafting

A bud or shoot from one plant is inserted under the bark on the stem of
another closely related variety. The rooted portion is called the stock, the bud
or shoot being grafted is called the scion.

Source: https://www.google.com/#q=image+of+grafting+of+plants

Cuttings
This method produces new individuals from certain plants by putting the cut end of a shoot into water or moist earth.
Roots grow from the base of the stem into the soil while the shoot continues to grow and produce leaves.

Layering

Layering is a means of plant propagation in which a portion of an aerial stem grows roots while still attached to the
parent plant and then detaches as an independent plant. Natural layering occurs when a branch touches the ground
and it produces adventitious roots. Later the connection with the parent plant is cut and a new plant is produced as a
result.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

The flower is the reproductive part of a plant. Most plants have both the male and
female parts on the same flower, some have separate male and female flowers
on the same plant while others have separate male and female parts on different
plants. A flower
consists of :
• sepals and petals, Source: primary

• stamen, the male part that consist of the anther

• which produce pollen and the filament or stalk.
• pistil, the female part that consist of a stigma, a column of tissue or style and ovary (produce eggs or gametes).

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 83

The two processes that are involved in reproduction in plants are pollination and fertilization.

Fertilization
Pollination

Pollination

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower or to the same
flower. The transfer of these pollen grains may be by insects or wind. Some plants have flowers that are pollinated by
insects while others have flower that are pollinated by wind. This depends on the features of the flowers.

Fertilization

Fertilization in plants involves the fusion of the male and female nuclei to form the fruit and seeds.

Steps:
(a) Insects collect pollen from one flower and when they get to another flower of the same type, some of the pollen
rubs on to the stigma of the flower.
(b) The pollen grain grows a tube down to the ovary where it can fertilise the egg to form a zygote.
(c) The ovules become the seeds.
(d) The ovary wall swells to become the fruit.

Dispersal of seeds

A seed must get away from its parent plant to be able to germinate and grow into a new healthy plant. This is because
the new plant will need space, light, water, minerals and it cannot compete with the well-established parent plant.

Some ways that seeds are dispersed:

1. Wind – this method of dispersal is for seeds that are light of have wings, eg grass seeds, invasive species like
African Tulip.
2. Water – The seeds in this mode of dispersal may float away, eg mangrove and coconut.
3. Animals – the seeds may stick to the coat of animals or go through the digestive system.. If it goes through the
digestive system, it must provide a food source eg pawpaw, tomatoes.
4. Explosive Mechanism – the seeds are contained in pods and are thrown away at a distance from the parent plant
when the pods dry and open. They could also be helped by wind currents in dispersal.

84 - Basic Science
 Activity Group work

1. Make a collection of different plants seeds showing the ways they are dispersed.
2. What part of the potato plant do we eat? What is the fruit of the potato and can we eat it?
3. Imagine you are a seed. Describe how you were formed and how you came to your particular plot.

Exercice

(a) Research in groups, information of wind- pollinated flowers and insect-pollinated flowers,
features and examples.

(b) Present research on a brochure or a book mark.

Concept map for Photosynthesis as a Life process in plants.

Process of making
Food Leaves

Leaf where food for Water comes

the plant is made through the xylem of
roots
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Needs carbon Light is absorbed by

dioxide, water and chlorophyll
light
Carbon dioxide enter
through stomata of
leaf

Draw Concept Maps for other Life Processes

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 85

 Exercise Exercise: Setting Up Exercise:
Life Processes Controlled Experiments Respect for Plants

1. Are the processes dependant on 1. Design a controlled A. In your school or home, make
each other? experiment to investigate a a flower garden to
2. Can one process occur without factor ( of your choice ) that beautify your environment.
the other? is needed for the life process Attend to your garden
3. What main structures are (Photosynthesis or regularly so that it can beautify
included in the processes? Transpiration) to occur.
your school throughout the
4. Are the structures similar or year before you go to the next
2. In your design, clearly state
different aquatic and terrestrial plants? the aim, materials needed class or form.
5. What factors affect the rate of and write a science report B. Invite a member of the
the processes? on the results obtained community who is talented at
flower arranging to teach the
class on flower arrangement.

86 - Basic Science
 CHAPTER 4: ENERGY

1. ENERGY SOURCE AND TRANSFER

2. ENERGY TRANSFORMATION, USE
AND CONSERVATION
3. FORCES

UNIT 1: ENERGY SOURCE AND TRANSFER

Energy is the power to change things. It is the ability to do work. Energy lights our towns and cities, powers our vehicles
and runs machinery in factories. It warms and cools our homes, cooks our food, plays our music, and gives us pictures
on television. Joule is a unit of energy and is equal to 0.2388 calories.

When man lived in caves and began to hunt, he would make a fire to roast the animal he had hunted. He used the
firewood he found in his surroundings for this purpose and thus man began to make use of heat energy. The substance
that produces energy on burning is called “fuel”.

4.1.1 Sources of Energy

The Sun is our principal source of energy. Other sources of energy are Fossil fuels, Hydro power, plant Biomass, Wind
Energy, Solar energy, Geothermal energy, Ocean thermal energy, Tidal energy, Wave energy, Nuclear energy.

Wood firewood is used as fuel in rural areas. One kilogram wood gives about 1700
kilojoules of energy. It is a matter of concern that the use of wood for fuel is causing the
destruction of forests and has endangered the environment. Charcoal is formed when
wood is burnt in insufficient air. Charcoal burns without producing smoke.

Source: primary

Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of atmospheric air. It
has been used for hundreds of years for sailing, grinding grain and for irrigation. Wind
energy systems convert this kinetic energy to more useful forms of power. Wind turbines
transform the energy in the wind into mechanical power which can then be used directly
for grinding etc. or further converting to electric power to generate electricity. Wind
turbines can be used singly or in clusters called ‘wind farms’. Example as in Butoni Wind
Farm (on-trial basis)

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 87

 At the Hydro Power Plant, electricity produced from generators driven by water turbines
converts the energy in falling or fast-flowing water to mechanical energy. Water at a
higher elevation flows downward through large pipes or tunnels. The falling water rotates
turbines, which drive the generators, which converts the turbines mechanical energy
into electricity. The advantages of hydroelectric power over such other sources as fossil
fuels and nuclear fission are that it is continually renewable and produces no pollution.
Source: http://www.eastasia.forum.org Example in Fiji is the Monasavu hydro power.

Solar energy is the radiant light and heat from the Sun that has been harnessed by
humans since ancient times using a range of ever evolving technologies. A solar cell
changes light energy from the sun directly into electricity. Solar cells are found in solar-
powered calculators, watches and even satellites. Solar panels are usually found on
rooftop of houses or tall buildings. Solar panels are painted black to trap the heat energy
from the sun. Heat trapped is used for heating the water flowing through the panels. The
hot water is either used or stored in insulated tanks for use in the future. A partial list of
Source: primary solar applications includes space heating and cooling through solar cooker, solar cell,
solar heater etc.

Geothermal energy is heat from within the earth. We can use the steam and hot water
produced with the earth to heat buildings or generate electricity. Geothermal energy
is a renewable energy source because water is replenished by rainfall and the heat is
continuously produced inside the earth. Geothermal energy is generated in the earth’s
core, about 4 miles below the surface. Temperatures hotter than the sun’s surface are
continuously produced inside the earth by the slow decay of radioactive particles, a
Source: primary process that happens in all rocks. An example is the Savusavu Hot Spring.

The main objective of Ocean Thermal Energy or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
(OTEC) is to turn the solar energy trapped by the ocean into useable energy. This kind
of energy is found in tropical oceans where the water temperature differs from surface to
deeper into the sea. On the ocean surface it can be at least 20ºC hotter or cooler than
the temperature at a deeper sea level. Ocean thermal is also relatively clean and will
not produce more pollutants that contribute to global warming. OTEC plants are most
suitable for islands around the tropical region of the East Pacific Ocean. This is because
Source: primary
OTEC plants can provide both energy and pure water at the same time with a relatively
low cost.

In many areas of the world, the wind blows with enough consistency and force to provide
continuous waves. There is tremendous energy in the ocean waves. Wave Power Devices
extract energy directly surface motion of ocean waves or from pressure fluctuations below
the surface. Wave technologies have been designed to be installed in near shore, offshore,
and far offshore locations. While all wave technologies are intended to be installed at or
near the water’s surface, they differ in their orientation to the waves with which they are
interacting and in the manner in which they convert the energy of the waves into other
Source: primary
energy forms, usually electricity.

88 - Basic Science
 Changes can occur in the structure of the nuclei of atoms. These changes are called
nuclear reactions. Energy created in a nuclear reaction is called nuclear energy, or
atomic energy. Nuclear is produced naturally and in man-made operations under human
control. In nuclear fission, the nuclei of atoms are split, causing energy to be released.
The atomic bomb and nuclear reactors work by fission. The element uranium is the main
fuel used to undergo nuclear fission to produce energy since it has many favourable
properties. Uranium nuclei can be easily split by shooting neutrons at them. Also once
Source: http://www.mathies.com/ a uranium nucleus is split, multiple neutrons are released which are used to split other
blog/nuclear energy
uranium nuclei.

This phenomenon is known as chain reaction. In nuclear fusion, the nuclei of atoms are joined together or fused. This
happens only under very hot conditions. The Sun like all other stars, creates heat and light through nuclear fusion. In
the Sun, hydrogen nuclei fuse to make helium. The hydrogen bomb, humanity’s most powerful and destructive weapon,
also works by fusion. The heat required to start the fusion reaction is so great that an atomic bomb is used to provide
it. Hydrogen nuclei fused to form helium and in the process release huge amounts of energy thus producing a huge
explosion.

Advantages and Dis-advantages of Energy Sources: Copy and complete the Table

Source Advantage(s) Disadvantage(s)

Firewood
Wind Energy
Hydro Power
Solar Energy
Geothermal
OTEC

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 89

Classification of Energy Sources

CLASSIFICATION OF
ENERGY SOURCES

Limited Unlimited Renewable

Coal Solar, Wind Wood
Oil Gravitational, Tidal Biomass Gasification
Natural Gas Geothermal Biomass fermentation
Uranium Animal Power

4.1.2 Renewable and Non-renewable energy

Renewable energy sources

A renewable energy source is energy that comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, falling water, tides and
geothermal heat and biofuel. An advantage of using renewable energy is that:
• It is renewable, therefore sustainable and energy supply will never run out.
• Facilities used generally require less maintenance that the generators.
• As fuel is derived from natural and available resources, the cost of operation is reduced.
• Renewable energy produces little or no waste products such as carbon dioxide or other chemical pollutants, so has
minimum impact on the environment.

Some disadvantage with renewable energy is that:

• it is difficult to generate the quantities of electricity that are as large as those produced by traditional fossil fuel
generators therefore we need to reduce the amount of energy we use or simply build more energy facilities. It
also indicates that the best solution to our energy problems may be to have a balance of many different power
sources.
• the reliability of supply. Renewable energy often relies on the weather for its source of power. For example, hydro
generators need rain to fill dams to supply flowing water, wind turbines need wind to turn the blades, and solar
collectors need clear skies and sunshine to collect heat and make electricity. When these resources are unavailable
so is the capacity to make energy from them. This can be unpredictable and inconsistent

Non-renewable energy sources

Coal, oil and gas are called “fossil fuels” because they have been formed from the organic remains of prehistoric
plants and animals. Crude oil (called “petroleum”) is easier to get out of the ground than coal, as it can flow along pipes.
This also makes it cheaper to transport. Natural gas provides around 20% of the world’s consumption of energy, and
as well as being burnt in power stations, is used by many people to heat their homes in countries that have very cold
nights during winter. It is easy to transport along pipes, and gas power stations produce comparatively little pollution.

90 - Basic Science
Fossil fuels are not a renewable energy resource. Once we’ve burnt them all, there isn’t anymore, and our consumption
of fossil fuels has nearly doubled every 20 years since 1900.This a particular problem for oil, because we also use it to
make plastics and many other products.

Coal

The formation of coal needs anaerobic environment. A swampy, heavily vegetated environment is therefore ideal for
forming coal. Trees and other plant matter that fall into pools are quickly covered with mud. This mud prevents air and
fresh water from attacking the chemical structure of the sugar chains. Much of the coal we are using today were formed
between 300 - 400years ago, a period referred to as the Carboniferous period as conditions then were ideal for coal
formation.

Over time the plant matter is compressed as more and more mud is deposited on top of it. The weight of all this
extra mud eventually squeezes the water, sap and other liquids out of the plant matter, leaving just the sugar chains
squashed together.

Environments on earth are constantly changing. When the wet swamp eventually changes into a different environment,
like grassland, the old plant matter is now well buried. It can no longer be reached by the oxygen in the air. With more
time and more compression, this plant matter goes through a series of transformations.

Coal Formation

The following diagrams show the stages on the formation of coal and their fuel content.

Stage Diagram Descript

Peat Low value fuel

Brown Coal Peat turns to Lignite

Fuel is drier and higher in energy content than peat
Can contain up to 70% moisture

Black Coal Further compression and aging of the brown coal results in black
coal, a denser and drier fuel than brown coal.
Black coal, also called bituminous coal, is valued as a household
fuel source and is also used to manufacture coke for the steel
industry.
It is however a far rarer resource than brown coal.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 91

 Anthracite forms by further compression and heating of black coal.
Anthracite Glossy and almost metallic in appearance.
Has very high fuel content than black coal due to more C-C bonds.
Used primarily in homes and other heating
Purer source of carbon than other types of coal.

Graphite is the final stage of this forming fossil fuels process of

Graphite compression and heating.
All impurities are driven off leaving hexagonal rings of carbon
bonded to each other in two dimensional sheets.
This type of bonding is incomplete and results in one free
electron per carbon atom. These free electrons form "seas"
between the sheets of carbon atoms, allowing graphite to
conduct electricity.
These electrons also give graphite its shine and slippery feel.
Graphite is not generally used as a fuel as it is very difficult to
ignite since it has a high activation energy. Instead it is used as
an industrial lubricant and also a major component in pencil
l d
Source: Pictures adapted from <a href="http://www.green-planet-solar-energy.com/forming-fossil-fuels.html">Forming Fossil
Fuels: Coal</a>

Formation of Oil

Oil was formed in a similar way to coal. Millions of years ago , small plants and animals that lived in the seas sank down
to the sea-bed when they died. They were crushed under layers of mud , and gradually turned into oil. As oil formed
it gave off natural gas. The oil and gas flowed upwards until they reached layers of hard rock and became trapped
under the rock.

Activity 1: Identification of Components of Oil

Collect pictures/samples of different components of oil and find out their different boiling points.

Activity 2: Making Crude Oil

Collect all the components of oil and mix them (proportion?) to obtain crude oil.

Activity 3: Research Work

Find out more about “Fractional Distillation”

92 - Basic Science
4.1.3 Behavior of Light on Materials

Behaviour of light

• Light is a form of useful energy that supports life.

• It can be detected by our eyes and transferred from one place to another.
• Light does not need a medium to travel in, therefore can travel in a vacuum.
• Light travels in different speeds in different medium. In the same medium, light travels in straight lines.

Investigate a property of Light

Materials: Candle or Lighted bulb, plasticine, 3 square cardboards (25cmx25cm) .

Instruction: Demonstrate by setting up an experiment that Light travels in straight Lines

Light and Materials

Without light, nothing is visible. When you look at the reef animals, what you are really seeing is light. You can see a
reef through the water because light passes through the water between the reef and your eyes. But you can’t see the
reef through the bottom of a boat because light doesn’t pass through the boat.

A transparent material transmits light, which means it allows almost all the light that strikes it to pass through it. This
property of light allows us to see through transparent objects. No shadow is formed when light is shown through a
transparent object. For example, the water where the fish and coral live is transparent. While riding on a bus, you can
see buildings and trees outside because the bus windows are transparent.

A translucent material allows some light to pass through it and scatters the rest. If you can see through a material, but
the objects you see through it do not look clear or distinct, then the material is translucent. Looking into a room through
a frosted glass door, you can make out shapes, but they are fuzzy and lack detail.

An opaque object does not allow any light to pass through it. Most materials around us are opaque Wood and metal are
examples of opaque materials. An opaque material either absorbs or reflects all of the light that strikes it. When light
is shone on an opaque object/material, a shadow is formed behind it.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 93

 Transparent Translucent Opaque

Source: primary

4.1.4 Reflection

Interactions of Light

When light strikes a new medium, the light can be reflected, absorbed, or transmitted. When light is transmitted, it
can be refracted, polarized, or scattered. When light encounters matter, some or all of the energy in the light can be
transferred to the matter. Just as light can affect matter, matter can affect light. The path along which light travels is
called a ray. Light rays are indicated by straight lines with arrows showing the direction of motion. A beam of light is
made up of a bundle of rays. It can be parallel, divergent or convergent.

Reflection

There are many types of reflection. Regular reflection occurs when parallel light waves strike a surface and reflect all
in the same direction. Diffused (scattered) reflection occurs when parallel light rays of light strike a rough, uneven
surface and reflect in many different directions. An image is a copy of an object formed by reflected (or refracted)
waves of light.

Scattering

In scattering, light is redirected as it passes through a medium.

• Most of the particles in the atmosphere are very small. Small particles scatter shorter-wavelength blue light more
than light of longer wavelengths.
• Blue light is scattered in all directions more than other blue colours
of light, which makes the sky appear

A scattering effect reddens the

Sun at sunset and sunrise

94 - Basic Science
4.1.5 Mirrors – Plane, Concave, Convex

Mirrors are made of plate glass, one side of which is coated with a metal or some special preparation to serve as a
reflecting surface. The junction of this reflecting surface and the plate glass is called the mirror line. Highly polished
metals and other materials serve also as mirrors. Three common types of mirrors are the plane mirror which has a flat
or plane surface; the concave mirror and the convex mirror. Convex and concave mirrors are known collectively as
curved or spherical mirrors, since their curved reflecting surfaces are usually part of the surface of a sphere.

The Plane Mirror

In a plane mirror the rays of light falling on it are reflected with little change in their original character and their relationship
to one another in space. The apparent position of the image is the same distance behind the mirror as the actual object
is in front of the mirror. The image is the same size as the object and is called a virtual image which means that the
rays of light from the object do not actually go to the image, but extensions of the reflected light rays appear to intersect
behind the mirror.

Light Reflection

When light strikes a smooth surface at a right angle, it will be reflected along the same path. This line is called the
normal. However, if light strikes at an angle (angle of incidence) to the normal, it will be reflected at the same angle
(angle of reflection) to the normal, but on the opposite side of the normal. Below is a picture of such a situation. Here a
single ray of light strikes a surface and is reflected from it.

Here are descriptions for the terms in this diagram:

• The ray of light that strikes the surface is called the
incident ray
• The ray of light that leaves the surface is called the
reflected ray.
• A line perpendicular to the surface is imaged at the
point of reflection is called the normal which means
perpendicular.
• The angle between the incident ray and the normal is
called the angle of incidence or incident ray.
• The angle between the reflected ray and the normal is
called the angle of reflection or reflected angle.
• The angle of incidence and the angle of reflection.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 95

Concave mirrors

The concave mirror type is one in which the midpoint of vertex of the reflecting surface is further away from the object
than are the edges. A line extending through the center of curvature and the vertex of the mirror is the principal axis,
and the rays parallel to it are all reflected in such a way that they meet at a point on it lying half-way between the center
of curvature and the vertex. This point is called the principal focus. Concave mirrors produce virtual images which are
magnified if the object is near the mirror. This property of concave mirrors allows them to be used as cosmetic mirrors,
microscopes, dentist’s mirrors. Concave reflectors are use in car headlights and search lights.

Convex mirrors

In a convex spherical mirror the vertex of the mirror is nearer to the object than the edges—the mirror bulges toward the
object. The image formed by it is always smaller than the object and always erect or upright and gives a wider scope
of view. It is never real because the reflected rays diverge outward from the face of the mirror and are not brought to
a focus. This property of convex mirrors allows them to be used as security mirrors in shop and also in car rear vision
mirrors.

96 - Basic Science
UNIT 2: ENERGY TRANSFORMATION, USE AND CONSERVATION

4.2.1 Types (Kinds) of Energy

There are two types of movement energy: kinetic energy and potential energy.

• KE (kinetic energy)
Kinetic energy is energy in use. Anything that is moving or changing has kinetic energy.
Examples: Blowing wind has kinetic energy. Flowing water has kinetic energy. A boy on roller blades has
kinetic energy.
• PE (potential energy)
Potential energy is stored energy. Something has potential energy when it is not moving, but is in a position
to move. If you hold a marble in the air, it has potential energy. If you drop the marble, it has kinetic energy as
it falls.

Group Activity

Collect pictures of things that have potential or kinetic energy and display these on charts for
your class.

4.2.2 Forms of Energy

There are many forms of energy and these include mechanical, electrical, chemical, thermal, electromagnetic and
nuclear energy.

Form of Energy Description Diagram-Example

• Energy due to an object’s motion (kinetic)

or position (potential).
• Sound, wind, waterfall, compressed spring
Mechanical • KE or PE
Energy • Not 100% efficient much of the energy is
lost as heat.

Source:
http://www1.curriculum.edu.au/sciencepd/energy/me
ch.htm

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 97

 Energy caused by the movement of
Electrical Energy electrons or moving electrical charges.
Easily transported through power lines
and converted into other forms of energy.
Kinetic energy.
Electricity from batteries, power lines and
lightning.

Source: primary
Heat energy
The heat energy of an object determines
how active its atoms are.
- A hot object is one whose
atoms and molecules are
excited and show rapid
movement.
Thermal Energy
- A cooler object's molecules
and atoms will show less
movement.
The internal motion of an objects atoms
and molecules.
Measured by temperature.
The faster particles move, the more Source: http://www.inmagine.com/alamy/bw4paf-
thermal energy they have. photo
KE only

Energy that is available for release from

chemical reactions.
The chemical bonds in a matchstick store
energy that is transformed into thermal
Chemical Energy energy when the match is struck.
Energy stored by chemical bonds in an
object.
When bonds are broken energy is
released.
PE only
gasoline, food, coal, wood Source:
http://www1.curriculum.edu.au/sciencepd/energy/che
m.htm.

• Energy that travels in waves and have

electrical and magnetic properties.
Electromagnetic • Light, Magnetism, X-Rays, Radio waves,
Energy microwaves,
ultraviolent and infrared radiation
• Kinetic Energy

Source :primary

98 - Basic Science
 • Energy stored in center(nucleus) of an
atom
Nuclear Energy • Fission (breaking apart)
• Fusion (forming)
• The sun
• Most powerful
• PE only

Picture Source: Internet

Exercise

1. What form of energy cooks food in a 5. What forms of energy are shown in the pictures
microwave oven? below?
2. What form of energy is the spinning
plate inside of a microwave oven?
3. Electrical energy is transported to your
house through power lines. When you
plug an electric fan to a power outlet,
electrical energy is transform into what
type of energy?
4. What energy transformation occurs
when an electric lamp is turned on?

ELECTRICAL ENERGY X

6. What form of energy is shown for each of the diagrams below?

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 99

Energy Transfer

Sound (Mechanical
Electrical
)

Electrical Mechanical

Chemical

Light (Electromagnetic)
Electrical

4.2.3 Uses of Energy

There are many of uses of energy. Energy is used in homes, schools, factories, transportation and in machines. In
homes energy is used in cooking, heating and washing to name a few. Solar energy is also used as solar heaters, solar
cookers and solar stills.

Investigation: Energy Use Audit - Potential Individual and Group Activity

(a) Conduct an energy audit at home or in your school, to establish in what ways you use energy
and record for example: ironing ( number of minutes); washing clothes in hours; rice cooker in
hours, electric kettle in minutes; number of bulbs (hours of light); TV ( number of hours).

(b) Identify and discuss what steps you can take to help conserve energy.

100 - Basic Science

 4.2.4 Conservation of Energy

In a world that is changing so rapidly, because of climate change and also because of a fast growing population, there
is a need to conserve energy. There are a number of ways by which we can conserve energy.

)
EC- 1 EC- 2
Use efficient cooking methods like putting on When buying electrical appliances, look for the
lids on pots while cooking, simmering gently energy rating label. The energy rating label has
instead of boiling vigorously as this can save from one to six stars marked on it. The more
half of the greenhouse gas generated during stars an appliance has, the less energy it will
cooking. use.

EC- 3 EC- 4

Televisions, DVDs and stereos can generate Use lights, fans and air conditioning efficiently.
between 20 – 85 kilograms of greenhouse gas Turn them off when not in use or when you
per year when in ‘standby’ mode. Turn them off leave the room
from the power source when not in use.

EC- 5 EC- 6
When out walking, collect littered containers Ensure the door of the refrigerator and washing
like bottles and aluminium cans and recycle machine seals are clean and the doors also
them. close properly.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 101

UNIT 3: FORCES

Introduction

We live in a world of motion or movement. The way that all objects move depends on what forces are acting on them.
Forces are acting around you all the time and they can cause changes to occur. A force is a push or a pull exerted by
one object on another. Types of forces objects experience include frictional force, electrostatic force, magnetic force
and gravitational force. Sometimes the effects are obvious and sometimes they are not.

4.3.1 Types of Forces

Frictional force

Friction is the force acting on an object when it moves against the surface of another object. Both surfaces do not have
to be moving. Friction acts where the surfaces touch. Friction can slow down an object or stop it from moving. Friction
can be between any two things and it doesn’t matter if they are solids, liquids or gases. Rough surfaces produce more
friction than smooth surfaces. If there was no friction, you would not even be able to start moving forward as your feet
would slip backwards. However, if there was too much friction, it would take too much effort to keep moving.

Negative Effects of Friction

Friction also causes problems in cars or in any device where parts rub against each other. In the moving parts of
machines a minimum of friction is desired. An excess of friction produces heat, which in turn causes expansion, the
locking of moving parts, and a consequent breakdown of the machinery.
Reducing undesirable Effects of Friction
There are several ways used to minimise the undesirable effects of friction. These include:
Lubricating surfaces in contact with oil or grease as in a door hinge
Streamlining the bodies of objects which move through liquids or air as in the hull of a speedboat.
Smoothening surface in contact as in polishing a bowling ball
Place ball bearing between sliding surfaces as in a swing
Putting wheels or rollers between surfaces or use air cushion between surfaces as in a hovercraft.

Uses of friction: used when holding a pen, used in writing, eating, walking.

Exercise time ! Activity time ! Imagine

For each of the situations described below, write
down what the friction is between ( eg solid and Frictionless Friday!
liquid etc) Write a science fiction story about a day without
• A boy walking to school friction .What would it be like? First look at the
• A girl riding a bicycle marking criteria (how your story will be marked)
• A child sitting and moving down a slide that your teacher will provide for you.
• A student diving into the swimming pool

102 - Basic Science

 Exercise time!! Friction in Nature Practical : Friction in Air
Instruction: (a) Take two sheets of paper. Keep
1. Based on the effects of friction, explain: one sheet flat and crumple the other into a small
• how do pieces of rocks turn tight ball. Let both fall from the same height.
into pebbles 1. Which one touches the ground first?
in streams and rivers. 2. What do you think might be causing one
• the formation of sand from sheet to fall more slowly than the
corals. other.(explain)
2. Some ways in which man uses friction ( b) Make a parachute from a square piece of light
to help him include sandblasting, filling cloth, 4 pieces of string with equal length and a
of teeth, smoothing wood or metal. small heavy object like a stone. Compare its fall
Discuss how the three ways mentioned to the sheet of paper and the ball of paper.
work or operate.

Experiment: Friction in Liquids

Materials: measuring cylinders (or scaled length of wide glass tubing, water, coconut oil or thick glue.

Instruction: 1. Measure the height of the liquid in the cylinders.

2. Drop a pea or ball bearing or similar small object into each liquid.
3. Measure the time it takes to reach the bottom.
4. Repeat and find the average. Record results in a table.
5. Comment on the result/observation. What do you conclude?

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 103

Magnetic force

Magnetic force is the force of attraction (pull) or repulsion (push) produced by magnets on magnetic materials like iron,
steel etc. Magnetic force is a non-contact force. This is because magnets need not be in contact with the magnetic
material to exert a force on them. The magnetic force becomes weaker as the object move further away from the
magnet. Magnetic force is very useful in our everyday life. Examples of situations that make use of magnetic forces are
magnetic chess game, magnetic needle in a compass for giving directions.

Gravitational force

Gravity is the pulling force that attracts objects to the centre of the earth. Without the force of gravity, even the Earth’s
atmosphere would float off into space. The force of gravity is not the same on all objects. The greater the mass of the
object, the greater the force of gravity on it. Mass is related to the amount of material (matter) in an object or substance.
The standard unit of mass is kilogram (kg). The force of gravity on an object or substance causes its weight. The
standard unit of force is the newton (N).Since weight is a force it is measured in newtons.

Exercise time!

1. What two forces act on all falling objects in the Earth’s atmosphere?
2. When you drop a nail and a feather from the same height, they reach the ground at different
times. Explain with aid of a diagram why this is the case.

4.3.2 Effects of Forces

A force is a push, a pull and a twist. A force experienced in this manner can:
• Change the shape of an object
• Change the size of an object
• Change the speed of a moving object, either speeding it up or slowing it down.
• Change the direction in which an object is moving
• Stop a moving object
• Moving a stationary object.
• Have no visible effect at all.

104 - Basic Science

 Task 1: Investigating Force
Make a container that will stop an egg from breaking when it is dropped from
the top of a building. To make the container you will get some paper, KEY WORDS: gravity,
empty milk packet, one metre string and 30cm of sticky tape. friction, reaction, force,
weight,
In you book: acceleration, buoyancy,
• Draw your container momentum, speed
• Write a few sentences saying what will happen when you
drop your container and egg using as many of the key words as you can.

Exercise: Identify what type of force is shown in the following pictures and explain the
effect of the force applied.

Source: primary

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 105

4.3.3 Strength of Force of Gravity at different places

Gravity is a force that attracts objects. It is also the force that makes objects fall down when you drop them. Because of
gravity things on earth have a certain weight. Gravity on Earth pulls objects to the centre of the planet. Every time you
throw a ball up into the air it is pulled back to Earth. This occurs in nature all the time. In the 17th century, the English
scientist and mathematician Isaac Newton found out that every body or object has a force of gravity, and that every
body pulls other bodies towards it. He also explained that gravity depends on the mass of an object or the amount of
material that it has. Therefore the sun, which has a very large mass, has a greater force of gravity than the Earth, so the
Earth moves around the sun. The moon goes around the Earth because the Earth’s gravity is larger than the moon’s.
The force of gravity also depends on the distance between two objects. If they are close together gravity between them
is greater.

Mass and Weight

Mass and weight are not the same. The mass of a body, its volume, always stays the same. Weight is the pull of gravity
on an object. On Earth, an astronaut may weigh 70 kg. However when the same astronaut walks on the moon he
weighs only a sixth – about 12 kg because the moon has less mass than the Earth and therefore its gravitational pull
is smaller. If you stand on scales you can see how much your body is pulled towards the centre of the Earth. This is
your weight.

The Earth’s Gravity

The force of gravity is not the same everywhere on Earth. It depends on:
• the distance from the centre of the Earth
• the spin or rotation of the Earth

A house at the seaside, for example, is closer to the Earth’s centre. Gravity is stronger here
than at a house up in the mountains. The Earth’s spin also reduces the strength of gravity. The centrifugal force causes
a body or an object to move in a straight line unless something tries to change its path. At the equator the centrifugal
effect is greater than anywhere else on our planet. An object must travel 40,000 km during one rotation of the planet.
The distance and the centrifugal force decrease when you move towards the poles. Therefore you would weigh more
at the poles than at the equator. For this reason spacecraft are launched from places that are as near to the equator
as possible. In this way it takes less fuel and power to escape the Earth’s gravitational force and get into orbit. Gravity
also holds our atmosphere together. We wouldn’t see any clouds or rain if there were no gravity.

4.3.4 Effect of force on Different Surfaces and Weight

There are a number of factors that influence the force of friction. Two such factors are the nature of surfaces in contact
or types of surfaces and the other factor is the weight of the object. On the nature of the surfaces in contact, there are
ways of varying and altering surfaces and one is by applying lubricants. With the weight of the object, the greater the
weight, the greater is the force of friction. The area of contact of sliding surface does not influence force of friction if all
other factors are kept constant.

106 - Basic Science

 Investigating Friction
Instruction: You will need some smooth pieces of wood, sticky tape, sand paper, powder, plastic, carpet, a
protractor and a smooth wooden block.

1. Stick the sand paper onto one piece of wood using sticky tape at the top. Stick plastic and the carpet onto two
others and sprinkle powder onto the last one and rub it smoothly over the surface.
2. Tilt each piece of wood to make a ramp.
3. Test the object to see how much friction it experiences on the ramp:
a. Put the object at the top of the ramp without the ramp being tilted.
b. Gradually tilt the ramp more and more steeply until the object just begins to slide.
c. Use your protractor to measure the angle of the ramp which makes the objects just begin to slide
d. Record your results in a table and comment.
4. It is the force of friction that stops the object from sliding when the ramp is tilted. Which surface makes the
most friction? List the surfaces in order from one that causes the most friction to the one that causes the
least.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 107

 CHAPTER 5: EARTH AND BEYOND

1. OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

2. OUR CHANGING EARTH

UNIT 1: OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

Solar system

Our solar system consists of the Sun, eight planets and their moons, and millions of other objects such as asteroids,
comets, meteors and meteorites. Our solar system lies in a spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy extending from the
centre like a pinwheel .The diameter of our solar system is 12 billion km. The Sun is at the center of our solar system
and has enormous gravitational pull.

Source: http://www.vtaide.com/png/solar-system.htm[Solar System Diagram modified from National Aeronautics and Space Administration]

5.1.1 Planets of the Solar System

The Sun

The Sun is a star (the closest star to earth) and lies at the centre of the solar system. The Sun contains 99.8% of the
total mass of the solar system. The more mass in an object, the greater the pull it has on other objects. Therefore
all other objects in our solar system, including the Earth orbit around the Sun. The Sun has a surface temperature of
around 6000ºC. The temperature at its core is 14millionºC- so hot that nuclear explosions occur continuously, producing
enormous amounts of energy. Without this energy, life could not exist on Earth.

108 - Basic Science

What are planets?

A planet is a body that orbits the Sun (or another star) and produces no light of its own. It reflects the light of the Sun
or star. There are eight major planets and one dwarf planet in our solar system: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto (dwarf planet).

None of the planets are perfect spheres- they all bulge at their equators, and are flattened at their north and south
poles. Except for Earth, the planets are named after ancient Greek and Roman gods. The planets are classified into
two groups: the inner terrestrial planets and the outer gaseous planets.

On August 24, 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) formally downgraded Pluto from an official planet to a
“dwarf planet”. According to the new rules, a planet must:

1. orbit around the Sun

2. have sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces to take on a nearly round shape
3. have cleared other objects in its orbital path around the Sun. (ie. so there are no similar objects at roughly
the same distance from the Sun. Pluto failed the third criteria - it orbits among the icy wrecks of the Kuiper
Belt and is really “just” one of many Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs). Eris and Ceres (in the asteroid belt) are
the other two members of this dwarf planet classification.

Terrestrial planets or inner planets

The four small rocky planets closest to the Sun-Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars- are the terrestrial planets. ‘Terrestrial’
means Earth-like. They orbit the Sun in almost circular orbits.

Mercury
• Distance from the Sun: 58 million km. It is the closest planet to the sun.
• Size: its diameter is 4880km and it is 40% smaller than the Earth. It is the
second smallest planet.
• One day: it takes 59 earth days to rotate.
• One year: it takes 88 earth days to orbit the Sun.
• Surface temperature: from 450ºC on the side facing the Sun to -200ºC on the
night side.
• Its surface is covered with mountains, craters, ridges and valleys. Source: NASA website
• Meteorites do not burn up before they hit the surface because there is no
atmosphere.
• It is made mostly of iron and has a rocky layer.
• It has no atmosphere
• Moons and rings: it has none.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 109

Venus
• Distance from the Sun: 108 million km. It is the second planet from the Sun, and
Earth’s closest neighbours.
• Size: its diameter is 12 104 km and it is slightly smaller than Earth.
• One day: 243 earth days. It rotates in the opposite direction to that of Earth – the
Sun rises in the west and sets in the east.
• One year: 225 Earth days (its year is shorter than its day1).
Source: NASA website
• Surface temperature: average is 482ºC – the hottest planet.
• Its surface is covered with volcanoes, large plains, mountains and craters.
• Its closeness to the Sun means that water vapour is prevented from condensing into oceans.
• It is the brightest object seen in the sky from Earth after the Sun and the Moon, and it is referred to as morning
star or the evening star. The bright white light that can be seen is the reflection of the sunlight off the clouds
that cover the planet.
• Its atmosphere is composed mostly of carbon dioxide- producing an enormous greenhouse effect.
• Its air pressure is enough to crush many objects including spacecraft.
• Moons and rings: it has none.

Earth
• Distance from the Sun: 150 million km. It is the third planet from the Sun.
• Size: its diameter is 12 756 km wide and it is the fifth largest planet.
• One day: 24 hours
• One year 365 days
• Surface temperature: from -86ºC to 60ºC.
• 70% of its surface is covered with water.
• Its atmosphere extends 80km above its surface and consists of 78% nitrogen,
21% oxygen, 1% carbon dioxide and other gases- it has a stable greenhouse
Source:NASA website
effect.
• It is the only planet currently known to support life.
• Moons: one Rings: none.

Mars
• Distance from the Sun: 228 million km. It is the fourth planet from the Sun.
• Size: its diameter is 6794 km and it is half the size of the Earth.
• One day: 24 Earth hours and 40 minutes.
• One year: 687 Earth days.
• Surface temperature: from -73ºC to 27ºC.
• It is commonly referred to as the ‘red planet’ because of iron in the soil forming
a rusty dust.
Source: NASA website
• It has the largest volcano in the solar system. It is called Olympus Mons. It is
three times higher than Mt Everest. It is thought to be extinct.
• It has weather with thin clouds, occasional dust storms and its polar ice caps consist of frozen carbon dioxide
(dry ice).
• It has a very thin atmosphere composed of around 95% carbon dioxide, and small traces of nitrogen, argon,
oxygen and water.
• Moons: two, called Phobos and Deimos. Rings: none.

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The asteroid belt

Orbiting between Mars and Jupiter is the asteroid belt, composed mainly of asteroids that are rocky or metallic objects.
The largest asteroid is Ceres, a diameter of 914 km.

Outer planets

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are the outer planets and are composed of gases such as hydrogen and helium
with solids (usually ice and rocks) at their core. These planets are referred to as the gas giants.
All of the gas giants have rings. Pluto is the outermost planet and is composed of rocks and ice.

Jupiter
• Distance from the Sun: 778 million km. It is the fifth planet form the Sun.
• Size : its diameter is 142 984 km and it is 11 times the size of Earth – the
largest planet in the solar system.
• One day: 10 Earth hours.
• One year: 12 Earth years.
• Cloud temperature: about - 150ºC.
• Its surface is covered in violent storms with wind speeds of up to 600 km/hr
(because it rotates so fast).The Great Red Spot is a gigantic swirling, windy Source: NASA website
storm, over 40 000 km wide (3 times wider than Earth).
• It has light and dark bands called the zones and belts. These bands are caused by high velocity winds that
blow in opposite directions.
• Its atmosphere is composed of 90% hydrogen and about 10% helium with traces of methane, water and
ammonia.
• Rings: has 3, measuring 29 km thick and 6400 km wide.
• Moons: 28 discovered so far (6 are named plus 12 discovered recently but not yet named). Te largest is
Ganymede.

Saturn
• Distance from the Sun: 1430 million km. It is the sixth planet from the
Sun.
• Size: its diameter is 120 536 km and is the second largest planet in the
solar system.
• One day: 10 Earth hours and 40 minutes
• One year: 29.5 earth years.
• Cloud temperature: about -170ºC.
Source: NASA website
• About every 30 Earth years, following Saturn’s summer, a massive storm
occurs. It is known as the Great White Spot.
• Its atmosphere consists of 97% hydrogen with helium, water, methane and ammonia making up the rest.
• Rings: about 1.5 km thick and are divided into 3 main parts – the bright A and B rings and the dimmer C ring.
The rings contain dust and large quantities of water frozen in various forms.
• Moons: 21 (18 named, 13 discovered recently but not yet named).Titan is Saturn’s largest moon (it is larger
than Mercury).

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 111

Uranus
• Distance from the Sun: 2871 million km. It is the seventh planet from the Sun.
• Size: its diameter is 51 800 km and is the third largest planet in the solar
system.
• One day: 15 Earth hours and 40 minutes.
• One year: 84 Earth years
• Cloud temperature: on average -210ºC. Source: NASA website

• Its pale blue-green in colour due to absorption of red light by methane in the
upper atmosphere.
• Its cloudy atmosphere is made up of 83% hydrogen, 15%helium and small amounts of methane and
hydrocarbons.
• Rings: 11 known - they are very dark and composed of large particles of ice and dust. The brightest is known
as the Epsilon ring.
• Moons : 21

Neptune
• Distance from the Sun: 4504 million km. It is the eighth planet from the Sun.
• Size: its diameter is 49 532 km and is the fourth largest planet in the solar
system.
• One day: 16 Earth hours.
• One year: 164 Earth years.
• Cloud temperature: on average -212ºC.
• It’s blue in colour due to methane gas in the atmosphere.
• It has several dark spots – the largest is known as the Great Dark Spot, which Source: NASA website

is about the size of the Earth. It is the result of some of the fiercest winds in the
solar system. Winds can reach 2000 km/h, more than 4 times faster than the fastest tornado on Earth.
• Rings: has a set of 5 rings, which are narrow and very faint. They are composed of particles of dust and
rock.
• Moons: has 8 – Triton is the largest.

Pluto
• Distance from the Sun: 5914 million km – the furthest planet from the Sun.
• Size: its diameter is 2274 km and is the smallest (dwarf) planet in the solar
system.
• One day: 6 Earth days. It rotates in the opposite direction to that of Earth.
• One year: 250 earth years.
• Surface temperature: varies between -235ºC and -210ºC – the coldest planet.
• Its composition is unknown, but its density indicates that it is probably a mixture Source: NASA website
of 70% rock and 30% water ice – similar comets.
• Its very thin atmosphere consists of nitrogen, carbon monoxide and methane.
• It revolves around the Sun on a different plane to all other planets.
• Moons: one, called Charon. Rings: none.

112 - Basic Science

There are a number of mnemonic phrases that are easily memorized for remembering the names of the planets,
including “My Very Energetic Mother Just Served Us Noodles.

EXERCISE: SOLAR SYSTEM

1. Compile a list of similar features of the planets Mercury, Venus and Mars.
2. What are the major differences between the features of Venus and Earth?
3. The atmospheres of Mercury and Mars are very thin. What effect does the thin atmosphere have on the
temperature on the surface of these planets?
4. List the features common to all four gas giants that make them different to Earth.
5. Why are the planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune called the gas giants?
6. Why is it unlikely that a spacecraft will ever actually land on any of the gas giants?

5.1.2 The Moon and Phases of the Moon

Earth’s moon

• The Moon is the earth’s only natural satellite. A satellite is any object that moves in an orbit around a planet.
• It is 384 000 km from earth and its diameter is 3476 km. It is one- quarter the width of Earth.
• The Moon spins (rotates) once in exactly the time it takes to orbit the Earth (approximately 28 days), which
means the same side of the Moon is always seen from the Earth. This side is called the ‘near side’ and the
opposite side is the ‘far side’.
• The Moon rises and sets, just like the Sun. It rises about 50 minutes later each day. The Moon is in the sky
during the day as well as at night, but it is harder to see then.
• The Moon has a weak gravity – one-sixth as strong as Earth’s gravity. Gravity is the force of attraction an
object has on another object.
• Its mean temperature varies from -170ºC to 130ºC. The Moon has no atmosphere or weather, but may have
some ice in craters near its north and south poles.
• The Moon has been severely bombarded by meteorites, and its surface is scarred by about half a million
craters.
• The so- called ‘Man in the Moon’ is an illusion created by the appearance of the Moon’s largest crater.
• The Moon is covered with rocks, boulders and a layer of charcoal-coloured soil. Its crust is about 68 km thick.
Below the crust is a mantle and a small core, about 340 km in radius.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 113

Phases of the Moon

Source: http://mrsstahlheber.com/science/moon-phases-diagram

The changes in the appearance of the moon’s shape are called the phases of the Moon. The Moon is always round
and does not change its shape. What changes is the amount of sunlit part of the Moon that we can see from the Earth.
This depends on the position of the Earth, Moon and Sun.

Tides

Tides occur because of the gravitational pull of the Sun and the Moon on the oceans. While the Sun has a greater
gravitational pull than the moon because it is larger, the Moon is much closer to the Earth so it has a stronger pull. The
oceans rise up and fall back again twice every day, due to the Moon’s gravitational pull. These water movements are
called the tides. As the earth rotates it experiences two cycles of high and low tides, roughly thirteen hours apart.

• High tides – the Moon’s gravity causes a bulge of water on the side of the Earth closest to the Moon and
another on the opposite side of the Earth.
• Low tides – in between the bulges there is a lot less water and the tides are low.
• Spring tides – are extra large tides that occur twice a month when the Sun, Moon and Earth are in a straight
line. The pull on the oceans due to gravity is stronger then, where the high tides are highest and the low tides
are lowest, so the high tides are not so high and the low tides are not so low.

114 - Basic Science

 • Neap tides – are small, weak tides that occur twice a month when the Sun, Moon and Earth are at right angles
to one another. The Sun and Moon’s gravity cancel each other out so the pull on the oceans is weaker.

EXERCISE: TIDES

1. What is the major cause of tides on Earth?

2. Why are there two high tides and the two low tides in a 24-hour period?
3. Even though the sun is much larger than the moon, it has much less effect on the tides. Why?

5.1.3 Artificial satellites

An artificial satellite is a manufactured object that continuously orbits earth or some other body in space. Most artificial
satellites orbit Earth. People use them to study the universe, help forecast the weather, transfer telephone calls over
the oceans, assist in the navigation of ships and aircraft, monitor crops and other resources, and support military
activities. Artificial satellites also have orbited the Moon, the Sun, asteroids and the planets Venus, Mars, and Jupiter.
Such satellites mainly gather information about the bodies hey orbit. Artificial satellites differ from natural satellites or
natural objects that orbit a planet. Earth’s moon is a natural satellite.

Types of artificial satellites

Artificial satellites are classified according to their mission. There are six main types of artificial satellites namely
scientific research, weather, communications, and navigation, Earth observing and military.

Weather satellite

Weather satellite help scientists study weather patterns and forecast the weather. Weather satellites observe the
atmospheric conditions over large areas. Some weather satellites travel in a sun-synchronous, polar orbit from which
they make close, detailed observations of weather over the entire earth. Their instruments measure cloud cover,
temperature, air pressure, precipitation, and the chemical composition of the atmosphere. Because these satellites
always observe Earth, at the same local time of day, scientists can easily compare weather data collected under
constant sunlight conditions. The network of weather satellites in these orbits also functions as a search and rescue
system. They are equipped to detect distress signals from all commercial and many private planes and ships.

Photo taken by NASA

A weather satellite called the Geostationary
Operational Environmental Satellite observes
atmospheric conditions over a large area to
help scientists study and forecast the weather.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 115

Other weather satellites are placed in high altitude, geosynchronous orbits. From these orbits, they can always observe
weather activity over nearly half the surface of Earth at the same time. These satellites photograph changing cloud
formation. They also produce infrared images, which show the amount of heat coming from earth and clouds.

Communication satellite

Communication satellites serve as relay stations, receiving radio signals from one location and transmitting them to
another. A communication satellite can relay several television programs or many thousands of telephone calls at
once. Communication satellites are usually put in a high altitude, geosynchronous orbit over a ground station. A ground
station has a large dish antenna for transmitting and receiving radio signals.

Photo taken by NASA

A communication satellite, such as the Tracking and
Data Relay Satellite (TDRS), shown above, relays radio,
television and other signals between different points in
space and on Earth.

Sometimes, a group of low orbit communication satellites arranged in a network, called a constellation, work together
by relaying information to each other and to users on the ground. Countries and commercial organizations, such as
television broadcasters and telephone companies use these satellites continuously.

Navigation satellites

Navigation satellites enable operators of aircraft, ships and land vehicles anywhere on Earth to determine their locations
with great accuracy. Hikers and other people on foot can also use the satellites for this purpose. The satellites send out
radio signals that are picked up by a computerized receiver carried on a vehicle or carried in the hand.

Photo taken by NASA

A navigation satellite, like this Global Positioning
System (GPS) satellite sends signals that operate
aircraft, ships and land vehicles and people on foot
can use to determine their location.

Navigation satellites operate in networks, and signals from a network can reach receivers anywhere on Earth. The
receiver calculates its distance from at least three satellites whose signals it has received. It uses this information to
determine its location.

116 - Basic Science

5.1.4 Eclipses

An eclipse occurs when the Earth or Moon moves into a shadow and appears dark instead of being lit by the Sun. The
shadow could be an umbra or a penumbra. When you are out in the sun, your body casts a shadow on the ground.
When there are two lights, there will be two shadows. Where the shadows overlap and it is darkest it is called the
umbra. Where there is a pale shadow it is called the penumbra, which is only a partial shadow.

Source: http://www.hko.gov.hk/gts/astron2011/lunar_eclipse_e.htm

Solar eclipse

A solar eclipse is an eclipse of the Sun. This happens when the Sun is blocked by the Moon. A solar eclipse can only be
seen in the daytime. Solar eclipses occur when a new moon passes directly between Earth and the sun. These eclipses
are observable only within or near the path where the moon’s shadow falls on Earth. The type of eclipse—total, partial,
or annular - depends on the alignment and distances between the sun, moon, and Earth. The sun’s outer atmosphere,
or corona, is visible only during total solar eclipses. Eclipse sequences such as these can last nearly three hours, with
totality lasting a maximum of 7.5 minutes

Source: http://www.exploratorium.edu/eclipse/why.html

A total solar eclipse happens when a section of the Earth is in the umbra and the sky becomes totally dark. This can
be seen only from a small part of the earth, in a band 250 km wide. Outside this band, a partial solar eclipse is seen,
where only part of the Sun is covered. The sky does not become completely dark, because that part of the Earth is only
in penumbra.
Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 117
Caution: Do not look at the Sun directly even when it is blocked during solar eclipse, because it will seriously damage
your eyes.

Lunar eclipse

A lunar eclipse is an eclipse of the Moon. Lunar eclipses occur when a full moon passes through Earth’s shadow.
Earth’s shadow has two parts - the inner full shadow, or umbra, and the outer partial shadow, or penumbra. The moon
darkens as it passes through the penumbra, and then turns reddish-orange while within the umbra.

Though the moon is totally within Earth’s umbra in the middle of this sequence, the moon is dimly lit by sunlight bending
through Earth’s atmosphere. The atmosphere filters out most of the blue light, making the moon appear a reddish color.
The moon lightens again as it passes through the other side of the penumbra, and then returns to normal brightness as
it exits Earth’s shadow. Lunar eclipses can be total or partial and can last a maximum of 104 minutes.

Lunar Eclipse

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki.File:Geometry of a lunar eclipse. srg

EXERCISE : ECLIPSE

1. During a solar eclipse, what casts a shadow on the Earth?

2. What is the difference between a total solar eclipse and a partial solar eclipse.
3. What is in shadow during a lunar eclipse? What casts the shadow?
4. Which type of eclipse occurs more often- solar or lunar?
5. Why do solar eclipses take place only whether is a new moon?
6. Why do lunar eclipses occur only when there is a full moon?

118 - Basic Science

5.1.5 What causes Day and Night

Day and night is the result of the rotation of the Earth on its own axis. The axis of the Earth is an imaginary line that
passes through the North and the South poles. The Earth takes approximately twenty-four hours to complete one
rotation. The Sun is the source of light.

At the time of the rotation, it is day on the side of Earth that faces the Sun; while it is night on the other side of Earth not
facing the Sun. The position of the Sun is fixed and it does not change.

The Sun rises in the east because the Earth is moving towards the east. Later, in the mid noon the Sun is in the south
because Earth is moving towards the south and gradually towards the west and the Sun sets.

The length of the day is measured from the time the Sun rises to the time the Sun sets. Another interesting fact about
Earth is that because Earth tilts on its axis, it is day in the southern hemisphere and night in the northern hemisphere
and vice versa.

5.1.6 Seasons of the Year

The axis of the Earth is always tilted at an angle of 23.5 degrees. The rotation of the Earth on its own axis not only
results in day and night but also creates the four seasons (summer, winter, autumn and spring). The summers and
winters are the result of the tilt of the axis of the Earth. When the southern hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun, the
sunlight is stronger because the Sun is overhead, so it is warmer and experiences summer. At this time it is winter at the
Northern hemisphere, because the sunlight is at an angle and is weaker. When the Northern hemisphere has summer,
the Southern hemisphere has winter.

The length of the day and night varies in each season. For instance, the daylight is longer in summer and the night is
shorter. In winter, the nights are longer and the days are short. It is the length of the day and night that determine the
temperature of the seasons and not the revolution of the Earth.

Activity: Complete the table below by identifying the missing causes or effects. The first one is
done for you.

CAUSE EFFECT
(a) Rotation of the Earth on its axis Day and night
(b) …………………………………………………………. Seasons
(c) Gravitational force of attraction between the Earth and
the Sun …………………………….
(d) The Moon revolves around the Sun in 29.5 days and it
rotates on its axis every 29.5 days. …………………………….
(e) The same area of the Moon’s surface is lit by the Sun,
but different amounts of its surface can actually be seen
from Earth. …………………………….
(f) Earth’s spinning on its axis and the gravitational pull of
the Moon (and to a lesser extent, the Sun) …………………………….
(g) ………………………………………………………….. Lunar eclipse

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 119

Traditional Planting and Fishing Season

Months of the Year in relation to Planting and Fishing in Fiji

Month Traditionally known in Fiji as: Planting/Fishing activity

January Vula I Nuqa Levu x Abundance of Nuqa ( Rabbit Fish) and edible sea snails
x Land crabs spawn
x Mango,Dawa and Breadfruit trees bear fruit
February Vula I Sevu x First crop of the year are witnessed- Dalo, Uvi, Tavioka.
x Wi, Orange and Ivi tree bear fruits
x Crop nurseries are built
x Dakua Salusalu trees flower
March Vula I Kelikeli x Uvi is dug for use
x Crabs mature
x Yaka,Gasau(Reeds), tokatolu plants flower and fruit
April Vula I Gasau x Abundance of gasau (eg. Duruka)
x Breadfruit in abundance
x Tugadra fish abound
x Kaudamau and Mako trees flower
May Vula I Doi x Doi trees flower and bear fruits
x Uvi leka,a variety of yam mature
x Abundance of Salala (Mackerel) fish
x Yasiyasi and Vesileka flower and bear fruit
June Vula I Werewere x Uvi (Yam) is planted
x Daniva (Sardine), Matu(Gerridae) fish abound.
x Dilo,Dakua trees flower and bear fruit
July Vula I Cukicuki x Octopus season starts
x Drala,moivi and vaivai ni vavalagi begin to flower
x Breeding season for kerakera fish
August Vula I Seni drala or Vula I Kawakawa x Drala,Damanu,Kauceuti trees flower
x Tiri (Mangrove) and Vaivai ni Vavalagi(raintree) bear fruit
x Octopus becomes plentiful
x Vaya (Sardine) abound.
September Vula I Vakada x Yam plants are wound around a supporting pole for
growth purposes.
x Kawakawa (Cod) fish spawn
x Kaunigai,Mango trees flower and bear fruit
x Veitqa(spear throwing game);after yearly planting is
completed.
October Vulai Balolo Lailai x Breadfruit matures
x Damabi,Makosoi trees flower, Vesi trees bear fruit
x Balolo is harvested in some places
November Vula I BaloloLevu x Crabs well filled with spawn
x Walu fish abound
x Kavika, Pineapples ripen
x Tomanu,Toivi trees flower
x Balololevu is harvested
December Vula I Nuqa Lailai x Abundance of small Nuqa fish
x Saqa (Trevally )fish spawn
x Sekoula, Kuasi and Buabua trees flower
Source: adopted from government official diary 2012.

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UNIT 2: OUR CHANGING EARTH

5.2.1 Climate Change

Our climate is changing and its impact on all of us is evident from the changing weather patterns we experience. Some
parts and time of the year that in the past used to experience rain, have now seen to have dry weather spells. All these
are signs of accelerating climate change or global warming and therefore there is a need to take action to try and
minimize this as climate change is expected to increase.

The terms ‘global warming’ and ‘climate change’ are often used interchangeably, but there is a difference.

• Global warming is the gradual increase of the Earth’s average surface temperature, due to greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere.
• Climate change is a broader term which refers to long-term changes in climate, including average temperature and
rainfall.

Effects of Climate Change

Climate change will have far reaching impacts in Fiji and many other Pacific Islands nations. This will be experienced
in many aspects of our lives like freshwater availability, agriculture, forests, biodiversity, coastal and marine resources,
human health and the economy.

Impact of Climate change on Freshwater

Fiji, like other Pacific Islands are quite vulnerable to the effect of climate
change on our water supply. It is therefore important to have proper water
management for drinking, agriculture, fisheries and tourism.

(a) Flooding – Climate change will lead to changes in rainfall patterns

resulting in flooding. This reduces the soil’s ability to absorb water.

(b) Salt intrusion – For areas along the coasts, the rise in sea level will
cause sea water to seep into the thin wedge of ground water and
so affect the quality and quantity of drinking water and also damage
agriculture.

(c) Drought – Change in weather patterns may result in some areas receiving less rainfall and so experience more
frequent drought.

Impact of Climate Changes on Forests

The forests and their resources are vital to the environment in the Pacific, particularly the high volcanic islands. The
forests are natural regulators of the amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere. They act as sinks, where trees
absorb the carbon dioxide from the air and store it. The burning or cutting down of trees is responsible for the release

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 121

of stored carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. Therefore conserving forests and practicing sustainable forestry is
vital for the balance of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and limiting the impacts of climate change.

Impact of Climate Changes on Biodiversity

The islands of Fiji are associated with rich biodiversity due to the unique habitats provided by coral reefs, forests,
mangroves and wetlands. It is expected that the impact of climate change will affect plants and animals by modifying
and destroying their habitats.

(a) Habitat modification and destruction – Forests are destroyed by fires and cyclones which lead to loss of habitat and
food. Likewise, ground-nesting birds on islands are affected by storms and sea-level rise.

(b) Temperature fluctuations and changes in rainfall lead to changes in habitat. Higher sea temperatures destroy
corals and rain from the hills and mountains increase the silt being washed onto reefs which is also damaging to
coral growth.

Impact of Climate Changes on Agriculture

The variations in seasons, cyclones, hurricanes, flooding and drought which are brought about as a result of climate
change have an impact on agricultural plants.

(a) Seasonal Variations – Traditionally, farmers have set planting patterns which take into account the dry and wet
seasons. Longer period of droughts and rainfall during off season have now been experienced. This resulted in
some fruit bearing out of season. In Fiji, mango trees now bear fruit for a longer period. As climate change cause
more variation, the traditional planting calendars may need to be altered to accommodate these changes.

(b) Cyclones and hurricanes – These ,if more frequent, can have a negative effect on agriculture, giving crops less
time to recover. Coconuts for example, have a longer recovery time.

(c) Floods and drought - The extended dry seasons caused by rising temperatures, changes to rainfall patterns and
the increased effects of El Nino leads to ruined crops.

Impact of Climate Changes on Coastal and Marine Resources

Pacific Islanders depend on marine and coastal resources for their livelihood and traditional practices. These have
changed to some extent due to the effect of climate change on coral reefs and mangrove community.

(a) Coral reefs – These are important as source of food, sand formation, as building materials and wave breakers
along coasts. Climate change increases the bleaching of corals. It also has a negative impact on the growth of
coral reefs.

(b) Mangroves – they protect the coastal ecosystem against storms, tides and cyclones. Mangroves are very important
as they provide protection for young fish and other animals. They also are a source of wood and fuel to coastal
dwellers. Sea-level rise may have a negative impact on the growth and survival of mangroves.

122 - Basic Science

(c) Fisheries – Reefs and mangroves which provide habitats, nurseries and food sources to marine life are gradually
destroyed due to climate change. This results in adverse effects in the fishing industry and also the availability and
amount of fish for consumption.

Impact of Climate Change on Health

Flooding and water contamination have a direct impact on the health of people both in the spread of diseases and
through their diet.

(a) Spread of diseases – There is an increase in vector-borne diseases like dengue fever and also an increase in
water-borne diseases like leptospirosis which are the result of flooding and contaminated water.

(b) Threats to the diet – Destruction of marine resources may reduce the availability of fish and other sea foods. This
results in the reduction of protein intake of many that depend on marine resources for their diet, therefore resort to
buying imported food.

Impact on health may also include an increase in physical injury and loss of life due cyclones and floods and increase in
respiratory problems like asthma due to air pollution.

ACTIVITY : CLIMATE CHANGE

1. Discuss in groups what you can do to reduce the impact of climate change on:
(a) Agriculture (b) Biodiversity (c) Water
(d) Forests (e) Coastal & Marine Resources (f) Health

(2) What can you do to help protect Fiji’s ecosystem?

5.2.2 The Greenhouse Effect

The atmosphere and surface of the atmosphere is heated by energy from the sun (solar energy).The Earth’s atmosphere
contains gases which trap some of the energy leaving the Earth’s surface. These gases are called greenhouse gases
and are responsible for maintaining the temperatures on Earth.

Because the atmosphere is warm, it emits heat. While much of the heat is radiated into space, some of it is radiated
towards the surface. It is this warming of the Earth’s surface by the atmosphere that is called the greenhouse effect.
The greenhouse effect is necessary to support life on Earth.

Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. Other green house gases include methane, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) and
nitrogen oxide. Carbon dioxide emissions are now higher than in the 1900s.The increase in burning of coal, oil and gas
for energy has caused a thickening of the ‘greenhouse blanket’ with the result that too much heat is trapped into the
earth’s atmosphere.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 123

The burning of fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. The additions of this to the amount
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere results in:

• an increase in the amount of energy trapped in the atmosphere.

• An increase in the temperature of the atmosphere.

Consequently, the temperature of the Earth’s surface increases, an effect referred to as enhanced greenhouse effect
or global warming.

Sources of greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gas Main sources

carbon dioxide Burning of coal, gas and oil
methane Livestock such as cows, pigs, rice paddies, mining
CFC’s Aerosols, refrigerants in refrigerators and air- conditioners, dry
cleaning, production of plastic foam.
Nitrous oxides Fertilizers and burning of fossil fuels especially petrol.

124 - Basic Science

Greenhouse gases and human activity

Greenhouse gases produced by human activities have a profound effect on the balance of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. Such activities include:
• burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil or gas
• using energy generated by burning fossil fuels
• some aspects of farming, such as raising cattle and sheep,
• using fertilizers and growing some crops
• clearing land, including logging
• the breakdown of food and plant wastes and sewerage
• some industrial processes, such as making cement and aluminum.

Exercise
1. Explain the difference between greenhouse effect and the enhanced greenhouse effect.
2. The main cause of global warming is the increasing amount of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. What else contributes to global warming?
3. The burning of fossil fuels increases the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. What other
activities undertaken by humans have contributed to the increase.

Effects of global warming on the earth

Globally, extreme weather is predicted to become more common and to have a negative impact on humans, animals
and plants.
(a) Rising temperatures
(b) Changing sea levels and temperatures
(c) Extreme weather- globally, continuing warming means that extreme weather events like severe floods, droughts
and tropical storms are likely to become more frequent and dangerous.
(d) Plants and Animals- both plants and animals are affected by climate change.

Our climate is changing, largely due to the observed increases in human produced greenhouse gases which absorb
heat from the sun in the atmosphere and reduce the amount of heat escaping into space. This extra heat has been
found to be the primary cause of observed changes in the climate system over the 20th century. These changes include
increases in global average air and ocean temperature, widespread melting of snow and ice and rising global sea
levels.

The extra heat in the climate system has other impacts, such as affecting atmospheric and ocean circulation, which
influences rainfall and wind patterns.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 125

Another serious impact of increases in the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide is ocean acidification. Around a quarter
of human-produced carbon dioxide is absorbed by the oceans. As the carbon dioxide dissolves in sea water it forms
a weak carbonic acid, making the ocean more acidic. There are early indications that some marine organisms are
already being affected by ocean acidification.

These changes experienced at the global level, will impact our lifestyle, agriculture and the survival of other organisms.
To reduce the production of greenhouse gases, we need to:

• reduce the burning of fossil fuels by conserving the amount of energy we use.
• use alternative energy sources such as wind, water and solar energy.
• reduce the use of paper, recycle newspaper and other paper as this will also reduce the cutting down of trees to
make new paper.

Burning Forest Tropical Cyclone

Source: http://www.saawinterinternational.org/climatechange Source: http://www.saawinterinternational.org/climatechange

ACTIVITY: Class Project –POSTER DESIGN

Design a poster to educate your community on:

(a) What Global Warning is
(b) Effects of Global Warning to our livelihood
(c) Things that you can do to reduce global warming.

126 - Basic Science

GLOSSARY C
A carnivore
A meat eating animal.
abiotic
non- living factors that affect living organisms change of state
The process by which matter changes from one state to
acid
another.
A substance that is soluble in water,contains hydrogen
and can neutralize a base.Acids turn blue litmus red and
have a pH less than 7. chemical equation
The formulae, and number of molecules or atoms of
alkali reactants and products, that take part in a chemical
A substance that is soluble in water and can neutralize reaction.
an acid.Alkalis are bases that form negatively charged
hydroxide ions OH- in a solution in water. chemical formulae
is a way of expressing information about the atoms that
angle of incidence constitute a particular chemical compound.
The angle between the incident ray and the normal.
chemical reaction
angle of reflection A chemical change in which one or more elements or
The angle between the reflected ray and the normal.
compounds (the reactants) change to form new elements
or compounds (products).
apparatus
Any equipment, instrument or machine used to carry out
science experiments. chemistry
The scientific study of matter, its properties and how to
astronomy change them.
The scientific study of the stars, planets and their
movement. community
A group of organisms living together in a habitat. They
atom have an effect on each other and are linked together in
The smallest particle of an element that can take part in a food web.
a chemical reaction.
compound
B A substance that contains two or more elements joined
together by chemical bonds in a chemical reaction.
biology
Its properties are different from the properties of the
The scientific study of all living organisms, including
plants, animals and microorganisms. original elements and it cannot be separated by physical
means.
biotic
living factors in an ecosystem like plants, animals, compound microscope
protists and bacteria. A light microscope that has one eyepiece lens and one
objective lens.
boiling
When many bubbles form a liquid and the temperature of
the liquid does not rise further even when heated.
Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 127
concave mirror E
A mirror that is curved inwards. Also known as converging
mirror because the reflected rays meet at a focal point. eclipse
The total or partial obscuring of light from the sun by
control either the moon or the earth.
The part of a science experiment that acts as a standard
by which to compare experimental observations. ecology
The study of how living things depend on each other and
controlled experiment the natural environment they live in.
Experiments where all conditions are kept constant,
except the variable being tested. ecosystem
A community of organisms including their physical
convex mirror surroundings
A mirror that is curved outwards. Also called diverging
mirrors because the reflected rays move away from each energy transformation
other. When one form of energy changes to another. For
example, electrical energy can change into light or heat
coverslip energy.
A thin piece of glass used to cover a specimen on a
slide. environment
The physical, biological and chemical conditions in which
D an organism lives.

decomposer F
An animal or plant that can breakdown dead organisms
into simple substances. force
A push, pull or twist that makes something moves.
digestion
The process of breaking down complex food substances friction
into simple molecules that can be absorbed into the The force produced when objects rub together. It is a
organism. pushing force that slows or stops everything that is
moving.
dispersal
The process that spread seeds away from their parent G
tree.
geology
dispersal Is the science comprising the study of solid Earth, the
The process that spread seeds away from their parent rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by
tree. which it evolves.

128 - Basic Science

 H P
Hypothesis particle
An educated guess taken about the outcome of an The smallest pieces of matter
experiment before testing it out.
photosynthesis
L the process in which green plants make sugars and
starch from carbon dioxide and water, in the presence
laboratory equipment of sunlight.
used to either perform an experiment or to take
measurements and gather data. physics
The study of how matter and energy are related.
lunar eclipse
When the Earth comes between the Sun and the Moon, physical change
and the shadow of the Earth covers the Moon completely A change in a substance during which no new chemical
or partially. substances are formed.

M pollination
The movement of pollen from the anther to the stigma
meniscus in a flower.
A concave or convex upper surface that forms on a liquid
in a tube as a result of surface tension. pollution
The release of substances into the environment that is
microscope slide harmful to humans, other animals and plants.
A slide that a specimen is placed on for observing with
a microscope. potential energy
The energy stored in an object because of its position.
mixture
Made up of two or more elements or compounds mixed R
together physically and can be separated easily.
refraction
molecule The bending of a light ray as it passes from one medium
Two or more atoms of the same or different elements to another.
combine to form a molecule.
renewable
O The energy sources that can be replaced naturally.

opaque reproduction
An object that does not allow light rays to pass through The process by which living things produce offspring.
it.
respiration
organism The process by which living things break down glucose
Any living thing that carries out respiration, excretion, into simpler substances and release useful energy.
reproduction and responds to an outside stimulus.

Science Book 1 - Lower Secondary - 129

 S U
soil erosion umbra
The removal of soil by water or wind. A shadow with a sharp clear edge. Shadows are areas of
darkness created by an opaque object blocking the light.
solar cell If the light comes from a single point, such as a tiny torch
A cell that produces an electric current when sunlight bulb, an umbra is formed.
falls on it.
V
solar eclipse
Occurs when the shadow of the Moon falls on the variable
Earth. A condition that can be changed, to affect the result of
an investigation.
solar system
The Sun and everything that moves around it. The solar W
system includes the nine planets, their moons as well as
all the asteroids and comets. weight
The downwards pull on an object, caused by the attraction
species of the gravitational force on its m
A group of organisms that are able to breed with each
other to produce fertile offsprings.

spring balance
A simple type of balance used to measure force by
stretching a spring.

T
Thermometer
A device used to measure temperature.

transluscent
An object that allows some light rays to pass through it.

transparent
An object that allows all light rays to pass through it.

troposphere
The layer of the atmosphere closest to the surface of the
earth.

130 - Basic Science

REFERENCES
Begon, M., & Harper, J. &. (1996). Ecology Individuals,Populations and Communities. London: Blackwell Science Ltd.

Diprose.A, Layzell.D (1995). Studies in the Material World.

Diprose.A, Layzell.D (1995). Studies in the Physical World.

Englert, L., Stannard, P., & Williamson, K. (1996). Science World Workbook 7. Warana: Firefly Press (Aust).

Kinnear, J. a. (1992). Nature of Biology. Sydney: The Jacaranda Press.

Layzell.D, Blaker.D, Anglesey.K (1995). Studies in the Living World including Earth Science.

Knoblauch,J (2009).Plastic Not-So-Fantastic: How the Versatile Material Harms the Environment and Human Health.

Mackean.D.G Resources for Biology Teaching: botany notes. Plants: Introduction to Vegetative Reproduction.

Oberright, John E.” Satellite Artificial”. World Book Online Reference Center.2004.World Book.Inc. http://www.
worldbookonline.com/wb.Article?id=ar492220.

Wilkinson, J. W. (1992). Science A New Approach Book 4. Melbourne: Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd.

“Young Scientist “- Using Energy” (Vol 9) World Book International, 1994, pp 38

Websites:

http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/artificial_satellites_worldbook.html

http://www.ocps.net/cs/services/cs/currareas...

http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=plastic-not-so-fantastic

www.greenpeace.org/international/ReSizes/Orig...

http://www.english-online.at/science/gravity/gravity-mass-weight.htm

http://www.ehow.com/list_5911321_factors-affect-photosynthesis.html

http://www.plant-and-flower-guide.com/tropism.html

http://www.biology-resources.com/contact.html

http://www.green-planet-solar-energy.com/forming-fossil-fuels.html

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132 - Basic Science