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Transformer
Handbook

Volume 1

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 Transformer
Handbook
Volume 1

Table of Contents
Mystery of Transformers .........................................................................................1
Mark Lautenschlager, P.E.

Guidelines for Selecting No-Load Taps on Power Transformers ....................................6

Mark Lautenschlager, P.E.

A Guide to Paralleling Electrical Systems ...................................................................8

Mark Lautenschlager, P.E.

Loading Conditions Causing Loss of Life for Oil-Filled Power Transformers .................11
Mark Lautenschlager, P.E.

Transformer Failure Data ......................................................................................13

Mark Lautenschlager, P.E.

Managing the Life of Power Transformers ................................................................14

Brian D. Sparling

Maintaining GE Gas Filled Transformers .................................................................17

Edward C. Smith and Edwin L. Mathis, P.E.

The Detection of Mechanical Damage in Power Transformers

Using the Sweep Frequency Response Analysis Method ............................................21
Mario Locarno, Tad Tully, and Alan Wilson

An Additional Method for Determining Shorted Turns

in Transformer Windings ......................................................................................27
N. Wayne Hansen and Parsons Brinckerhoff

Considerations in Sizing Primary Fuses

Due to Secondary Faults for Padmount Transformers ...............................................32
Steven C. Reed, P.E.

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InterNational Electrical Testing Association

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269.488.6382
www.netaworld.org
Transformer Handbook
Volume 1

Table of Contents (continued)

Using Analytical Techniques to Determine

Cellulosic Degradation in Transformers ...................................................................35
Lance R. Lewand

Transformer Fluid: A Powerful Tool for the Life Management

of an Aging Transformer Population ........................................................................38
Ted Haupert, Victor Sokolov, Armando Bassetto, T.V. Oommen, and Dave Hanson

Understanding Water in Transformer Systems ..........................................................48

Lance R. Lewand

It Meggered Fine — Sorry it Scorched the Building! ..................................................52

John Cadick and Al Rose

Remanufacturing of Power Transformers ................................................................58

D. E. Corsi

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Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 1

Mystery of Transformers
NETA World, Winter 1999-2000

by Mark Lautenschlager, P.E.

President, ERC International, Inc.

The basic concepts of transformer operation are well known. Transfer of Power
Transformers automatically maintain voltage and current ra- When a load is connected to the secondary winding, the
tios such to produce electrical power output nearly equal induced secondary voltage causes current to flow as deter-
to the electrical power input. The voltage ratios are directly mined by the secondary circuit impedance. The secondary
proportional and the current ratios are inversely propor- current reduces the secondary voltage and the primary back
tional to the turns ratio of the primary and secondary emf. This reduced primary back emf allows primary current
windings. However, transformers are vastly more complex to flow. Since the primary and secondary voltages oppose
than indicated by these simple equations. The purpose of each other, the primary and secondary currents must also
this article is to discuss, draw some conclusions, and correct have opposite polarity. The magnetic fluxes produced by the
some misconceptions about the mysterious component of primary and secondary load currents must then oppose each
transformer operation - the transfer of electrical energy by other and be balanced with equal ampere-turns.
magnetic flux.
Comments
What makes a transformer work? • Primary load current flows when the primary back emf
The primary current in a transformer operating at rated is reduced due to secondary load current.
load contains about 95 percent load current, about two
percent wasted conductor watts-loss current, less than one • The primary load current equals the ampere-turns pro-
percent wasted core watts-loss current, and about two per- duced by the secondary divided by the number of pri-
cent magnetizing volt-amperes current. The core loss and mary turns. The magnetic fluxes (ampere-turns) pro-
magnetizing currents together are called “exciting current.” duced by the primary and secondary load currents have
It is the magnetic flux produced by the exciting current that opposite polarities and are canceled, resulting in no net
makes a transformer work. flux in the core. This is indicated by IPNP-ISNS=0; the
primary ampere-turns in the core are equal but opposite
to the secondary ampere-turns. Thus, the flux density in
Transformer excitation the core is not a function of load current (an inaccurate
When an alternating voltage is applied across a trans- assumption).
former primary winding (always the winding energized
by the source, regardless of the voltage rating of the wind- • The only flux in the core is that produced by the exciting
ing), an exciting current flows directly proportional to the current and has a magnitude based solely on primary volts
applied voltage and inversely proportional to the mutual per turn ( = V/N). The voltage induced on the secondary
inductance of the transformer. The exciting current produces winding is indicated by VS/NS=VP/NP, or secondary volts
magnetic flux in the core in-phase with the exciting cur- per turn equals primary volts per turn. Generally, the flux
rent and directly proportional to the applied volts per turn. density in a core is slightly less in a transformer when it is
The magnetic flux induces a voltage across the secondary loaded, due to slightly lower voltages.
winding equal in magnitude to the primary winding volts
per turn times the number of secondary winding turns, but Transformer voltage, exciting current,
of opposing polarity. Also, the magnetic flux induces a back and magnetic flux phase relationships —
emf across the primary winding with a magnitude equal See Plots
to the applied voltage but of opposing polarity. When a
transformer is not loaded, the back emf prevents all current When an unloaded transformer is energized, it is acting as
except exciting current from flowing. a set of mutually coupled inductors. Ignoring winding resis-
tance losses, let’s examine the first one-quarter of a complete
cycle of voltage, current, and flux in a transformer.
2 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1
When a 60 hertz voltage at maximum positive value tional to the rate of change in the flux (emf = / t). The
is applied across the primary winding, the initial exciting back emf is also directly proportional to the rate of change
current is increasing from zero but at a decreasing rate of in the exciting current that produces the flux. This causes
change. Note that the maximum rate of change is always at the back emf to be at maximum negative value when both
the zero crossings and the minimum rate of change is always the exciting current and the flux are at zero values but at
at the maximum positive and negative values. maximum rates of change. Since the emf is a function of
The increasing exciting current (during the first one- the rate of change in the flux and the exciting current, the
quarter cycle) produces increasing magnetic flux (in phase back emf leads the exciting current by 90 degrees. Since
with the exciting current) that induces a back emf that the back emf must lag the applied voltage by 180 degrees,
opposes (with reversed polarity compared to the applied the exciting current must then lag the applied voltage by 90
voltage) the instantaneous change in the exciting current degrees. This rather complex discussion may seem clearer
(per Lenz’s Law). The back emf induced is directly propor- by studying the Plots, following.

Plots
Transformer Voltage, Exciting Current, and Magnetic Flux Phase Relationship Analysis

Notes:
• Except for the comments about secondary voltage and load currents, this analysis is also true for any ac inductor.
• This analysis is true for both unloaded and loaded transformers.
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 3

Good magnetic performance in real generally are more efficient, magnetically). Stray flux may
transformers cause transformer tank and frame heating and increased
watts losses. Distorted windings or core laminations can
In real transformers, in addition to the lagging magnetiz- cause excess stray flux and increase the required exciting
ing current, the exciting current contains components that current.
are in phase with the applied voltage. Conductor resistance, As with any inductor, the lagging exciting current needed
eddy current, and hysteresis losses all result in some wasted by the transformer magnetic circuit requires, during the first
watts. Therefore, due to these resistive components, the ex- and third quarters of each cycle, energy from the source in
citing current in real transformers actually lags the applied the form of reactive volt-amperes. The transformer returns
voltage by something slightly less than 90 degrees. The this energy to the source during the second and fourth
exciting current is also distorted due to the third harmonics quarters of each cycle. See Plots. This lagging exciting cur-
produced by hysteresis loop characteristics of the core. rent generally is much smaller than the transformer load
Eddy currents are small short-circuit currents produced current and generally does not contribute much to poor
in the core by the magnetic flux. Constructing the core of system power factor.
many thin insulated layers of steel and grounding the core
to the frame at only one location minimizes these eddy
currents and the resulting wasted watts. The amount of the
exciting current resulting from the eddy current and hys-
teresis losses (discussed below) are directly proportional to Quick review of electromagnetism
the magnetic flux density in the core and the frequency of
the applied voltage. The spinning electron with its tiny spinning magnetic
Transformer cores are made of cold rolled silicon steel field is the basic unit of magnetism. Normally, electrons in
containing polarized molecules that can be easily magne- nonmagnetic conductors move in random directions and are
tized. Polarized molecules are those that have some with paired with opposing spin electrons, canceling any magne-
atoms with nonpaired electrons, or paired electrons with tism. When current is forced to flow in a conductor, these
the same spins. Easily magnetized materials have high nonmagnetic pairs of electrons are forced to separate, line
permeability. The relative ease in magnetizing a core is up, and all spin in the same direction. The flow of electrons
called permanence and is directly proportional to the perme- all spinning in the same direction produces a magnetic field
ability of the core material and the area of the core and is around the conductor. When the magnetic field changes due
inversely proportional to the length of the core. The inverse to changing current, a back electromagnetic field (emf ) or
of permanence is reluctance, the equivalent of resistance in voltage is induced that tends to oppose the change in the
an electrical circuit. current (reverse of electron flow). Making the conductor into
If the polarized molecules in a core stay aligned and a coil increases the intensity of the magnetic field (ampere-
store magnetic energy after the external magnetic field is turns) and back emf.
removed, the core has high residual magnetism. When a
magnetic material is exposed to an alternating magnetic
field, the energy required to overwhelm the residual mag-
netism every one-half cycle is called hysteresis watts loss. A condition referred to as ferroresonance may occur when
Therefore, for a low loss transformer core, the ideal magnetic a transformer and a long cable are energized together by a
material has high permeability and low residual magnetism, single-phase switch. Resonance occurs when the inductive
and the core area and length should be such to provide for reactance of a transformer matches the capacitive reactance
minimal losses. of a cable. The transformer exciting current is inversely
The volts per turn determine the amount of flux in a core. proportional to the transformer inductance. If the net re-
The ability of the core to contain the flux is determined by actance of a transformer and cable combination is zero,
its permanence, described above. Once a transformer is the exciting current in the transformer is limited only by
constructed, its permanence does not change much unless the small resistance of the transformer. The excess exciting
the core laminations become loose. Loose core laminations current produces both high voltages and core saturation,
can lower the permanence and increase the required excit- which could cause a transformer to fail. When energizing
ing current. Core saturation occurs when the flux density three-phase transformers (connected to long cables) with
is such that all of the polarized core molecules are used up single-phase switches, always pick up some resistive second-
by the magnetic field. Saturation is caused by excess voltage ary load with the transformer.
(normally over 110 percent of rating), insufficient core area, Resonance can also occur when the voltage contains
or a loose core. When a core saturates, the exciting current considerable 5th or 7th harmonics. Since XL= 2 fL and XC
increases exponentially with little or no increase in secondary = 1/2 fC, XL may equal XC at some frequency. Excess har-
voltage but with much excess noise and heat. monics at a tuned frequency can cause a resonance condition
Not all of the flux produced by the primary exciting as described above.
current links with the secondary winding, particularly in
three-legged core form transformers (shell form designs
4 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1
The % Z of a transformer indicates the percentage of the Exciting current
rated voltage that will be applied across a bolted short cir-
cuit occurring near the transformer secondary. Under short Exciting current i = V/2 fL
circuit conditions, the secondary voltage and primary back
emf can drop to rated voltage times % Z/100 and cause load Inductance of primary or secondary L 1 or 2 = 0.4 N2 A/l
current to increase to rated full load current times 100/% Z.
The % Z is a function of transformer impedance: inductive
reactance, capacitive reactance, and resistance. Transformer Mutual inductance L M = k L1L 2 = ———————
k 0.4 N1N2 A
impedance can be adjusted in the factory by changing the l
spacing between the windings.
Therefore,
Comments V
i = ___________________ = __________________
Vx l
• Using cores that have high permeability, low hysteresis, 2 f (k 0.4 N1N2 A/l) 2 f (k 0.4 N1N2 A)
insulated laminations, and a single core ground connec-
tion minimizes no-load losses. i = Exciting current
• Excess exciting current may be the result of a loose or L = Inductance
distorted core or a distorted winding.
V = Applied voltage
• Since transformers are actually inductors, they require l = Core length
var energy to operate and can resonate with capacitive
elements in a circuit. f= Frequency of applied ac voltage
k = Coefficient of coupling. This is 1.0 if all flux produced
• Core saturation is a function of voltage, the number by primary cuts all coils in the secondary winding. There
of turns, core permeability (loose cores may saturate usually are some stray flux losses in transformers.
at operating voltage), and core area. Increasing either
core area or the number of turns increases the voltage at N = Number winding turns
which saturation will occur. = Core permeability
• Saturation is not a function of load current. A = Core cross-sectional area

Magnetic flux Comments

Transformer Magnetic Flux = V/4.44Nf As indicated by the exciting current formula, exciting
current increases with:
V = Applied ac voltage
4.44 = A constant • An increase in the applied voltage.
N = Number of primary turns • An increase in the core length.
f = Frequency of applied ac voltage Windings on outer legs of a three-legged core require
higher exciting currents than the center leg windings.
According to the magnetic flux formula above, the
amount of flux produced is directly proportional to the ap- • A decrease in frequency.
plied volts per turn in the primary winding and inversely • A decrease in the efficiency of the inductive
proportional to the frequency of the applied voltage. coupling.
Winding or core distortion may cause increased stray
Comments flux losses increasing the exciting current.
• A 50 hertz transformer produces more flux than a 60
• A decrease in the product of the number of turns in the
hertz transformer with identical volts per turn and,
primary and secondary windings.
therefore, requires more core area.
This is why the exciting current is greater (sometimes too
• Small high-voltage instrument transformers have many
much for some test sets) for some dry-type 12,470/480
primary and secondary winding turns to minimize flux
volt transformers with twelve or fewer secondary turns.
density and thus reduce core size.
• A decrease in the permeability of the core.
A “loose core” may cause a decrease in m. Modern silicon
core steel has permeability about 10,000 times greater
than air.
• A decrease in core area.
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 5

Final thoughts
Testing personnel need to understand the “mysterious”
magnetic functions of transformers in order to evaluate and
solve transformer problems. Unfortunately, little information
is available for technicians other than complex engineering
textbooks explaining the magnetic circuits of transformers.
Hopefully, this article will help solve that problem and prove
useful in helping resolve transformer problems.

Mark Lautenschlager is President of ERC - Electrical Risk Consul-

tants International, Inc., of Tampa, FL. He is retired from High Voltage
Maintenance Corporation as Vice President of Engineering and is a past
president of NETA. He is a member of the NETA Standards Review
Council.
6 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1

Guidelines for Selecting No-Load

Taps on Power Transformers
NETA World, Spring 2000

by Mark Lautenschlager, P.E.

President, ERC International, Inc.

In most power transformers, the high voltage windings primary voltage, the secondary voltage changes are slightly
are “tapped” to allow turns to be added to or subtracted from more or less than 2.5 percent. The calculated change in the
the high-voltage windings. For step-up transformers, the secondary voltage when the tap is moved from tap C to tap
tap connections determine the voltage produced across the B is -2.439 percent, from tap C to tap A is –4.762 percent.
high-voltage windings when rated voltage is applied across from tap C to tap D is +2.564, and from tap C to tap E
the low-voltage windings. For step-down transformers, the is +5.263 percent. The point is that if the initial secondary
tap connections determine the voltage required across the voltage is known, the secondary voltages resulting from tap
high-voltage windings to produce rated voltage across the changes can be calculated. Using 2.5 percent change per
low-voltage windings. This article discusses the selection of tap will determine only approximate secondary voltages. To
taps for step-down, liquid-filled power transformers (the be accurate use the following procedure:
high-voltage connection is the primary) with the no-load
tap-changer tapped into the primary windings. • Calculate the voltage ratio on the existing tap.
• Multiply the calculated ratio by the known secondary
Standard Tap Connections voltage to determine the existing primary voltage.
Liquid-filled power transformers usually have five no- • Calculate the ratio of the selected tap.
load tap-changer (NLTC) positions, as indicated by A, B,
C, D, and E (or 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) on the nameplate. The tap • Divide the primary voltage by the ratio of the selected
position for the nominal primary voltage rating is usually tap to determine the new secondary voltage.
C. To produce the rated secondary voltage, the required pri-
mary voltage A is 105 percent of C, B is 102.5 percent of C, Examples
D is 97.5 percent of C, and E is 95 percent of C. These tap
voltage ratios can be verified by performing turns ratio tests. Example A
There are exceptions to the position of the nominal voltage
Calculate new secondary voltage on tap D when the
tap, the number of taps, and the use of letters (numbers are
voltage is 12.95 kV on tap C. The transformer voltage rat-
sometimes used).
ing is 69/13.2 kV.
For a fixed primary voltage, when the primary voltage
tap position is decreased, the resulting secondary voltage
• Calculate the voltage ratios. Do not factor in the square
is increased. When the tap-changer is moved from tap C,
root of three.
the new secondary voltage is a function of the inverse of the
selected tap’s percentage of tap C primary voltage. For ex-
NP Tap/Voltage Rated Secondary Voltage Ratios
ample, when the tap is moved from C to D, the primary tap
A - 72.45 kV ÷ 13.2 kV = 5.489
voltage rating is 97.50 percent of C, but the tap D secondary
B - 70.73 kV ÷ 13.2 kV = 5.358
voltage is the inverse of 97.5 percent, or 102.56 percent of
C - 69.00 kV ÷ 13.2 kV = 5.227
the tap C secondary voltage. When the tap is moved form C
D - 67.27 kV ÷ 13.2 kV = 5.096
to A, the tap A secondary voltage is the inverse of 105 per-
E - 65.55 kV ÷ 13.2 kV = 4.966
cent, or 95.24 percent of tap C secondary voltage. Although
the primary voltage difference per tap is 2.5 percent of tap C
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 7
• If the secondary voltage is 12.95 kV on tap C, the Explaining the Rule
primary voltage is 12.95 kV X 5.227 = 67.69 kV. Basically, when a lower voltage tap is selected, the volt-
• The secondary voltage produced on tap D is 67.69 kV ÷ age ratios are closer. Since the primary voltage is assumed
5.096 = 13.28 kV constant, the secondary voltage must raise due to the smaller
voltage ratio.
Example B
For the 69/13.2 kV transformer, what are the secondary Voltages when Transformers Are Loaded
voltages produced at each tap selection when the primary Although changing the tap-changer one position raises
voltage is 69.00 kV? or lowers the no-load secondary voltage approximately 2.5
percent of nominal voltage, the actual secondary voltage of
• Calculate the voltage ratios as in example A. a loaded transformer depends on system voltage regulation.
The full-load voltage drop at the secondary of a transformer
• To determine the actual secondary voltages, divide the
with low internal impedance (%Z) will be less than for a
primary voltage by the voltage ratios. If 13.2 kV is sim-
high %Z transformer.
ply multiplied by 95 percent, 97.5 percent, 102.5 per-
cent, and 105 percent some error results. See percent
method column. Operating the No-Load Tap-Changer
“No-load” is a misnomer. No-load tap-changer or NLTC
NP Tap/Voltage Ratios Actual Secondary % Method should be referred to as de-energized tap-changer. A NLTC
Voltage selector switch shall not be moved while a transformer is
A (72.45 kV) 5.489 69,000 ÷ 5.489 = 12,571 V 12,540 V energized, regardless of loading. The high-voltage windings
B (70.73 kV) 5.358 69,000 ÷ 5.358 = 12,878 V 12,870 V of an energized transformer, even with no load, carries suf-
C (69.00 kV) 5.227 69,000 ÷ 5.227 = 13,200 V 13,200 V ficient exciting current to damage parting tap contacts.
D (67.27 kV) 5.096 69,000 ÷ 5.096 = 13,540 V 13,530 V Do not use excessive force to operate tap-changing mech-
E (65.55 kV) 4.966 69,000 ÷ 4.966 = 13,895 V 13,860 V anisms. If excessive force is necessary, always inspect mecha-
nism parts and the tap contacts inside the transformer.
Example C Whenever NLTC tap positions are changed, perform
Sometimes neither the primary system voltage nor the turns ratio and winding resistance measurements to verify
required secondary voltage matches the transformer ratings. that the tap contacts actually moved to the correct posi-
A standard 69/13.2 kV transformer (see above) has been tions. Transformers have failed because tap contacts did not
installed on a 67 kV system. The desired output voltage is properly make when the tap positions were changed.
12.47 kV. Can this be done? And if so, what is the best tap
to select? What is the percent error? Will the output voltage Conclusion
be greater than or less than required? Making incorrect assumptions or guessing when setting
NLTC taps can result in embarrassing mistakes. Remember
• Determine the system voltage ratio. to move the tap to a lower primary voltage position to raise
Required ratio = 67 kV ÷ 12.47 kV = 5.373 the secondary voltage and to follow the three steps necessary
• Calculate the transformer tap voltage ratios. Refer to to match a transformer to a system:
example B.
• Determine the system voltage ratio.
• Select the transformer tap that best matches the system
voltage ratio. • Calculate the transformer tap voltage ratios.
Select tap B = 5.358 • Select the transformer tap voltage ratio that best match-
• What is the secondary voltage produced when this 69 es the system voltage ratio.
kV transformer, set on tap B, is energized at 67 kV?
67 kV ÷ 5.358 = 12.505 kV
Mark Lautenschlager is President of ERC - Electrical Risk Consul-
• What is the percent error? tants International, Inc., of Tampa FL. He is retired from High Voltage
2505 V – 12470 V = 35 V high Maintenance Corporation as Vice President of Engineering and is a
100% X 35 V ÷ 12470 V = 0.28% error past president of NETA.

• The secondary voltage is 12,505 V or 0.28% high. This

is likely acceptable error.

Rule
As can be determined by observing example B, changing
the tap-changer to a lower primary voltage position raises
the secondary voltage.
8 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1

A Guide
to Paralleling Electrical Systems
NETA World, Summer 2000

by Mark Lautenschlager, P.E.

President, ERC International, Inc.

It’s 2:00 AM, and the replacement transformer has been In the USA and some other parts of the world the letters
installed and is ready to go. All you have to do now is verify “A,” “B,” and “C” are usually used to identify primary phase
that the transformer’s secondary bus voltage is in-phase with conductors in terms of phase relationships – the relative
the system voltage. You energize the transformer, and across sequence of the voltage peaks applied to the conductors;
the racked out secondary breaker stabs you check for zero “a,” “b,” and “c,” are used to identify the secondary phasing.
voltages that will verify that phasing is OK. One purpose for phase identification is to determine where
But the voltages are not zero, and the systems are not to connect single-phase loads to balance the loads on the
in-phase. So what went wrong? What do you do now? three phases. Another purpose for phase identification is to
provide a means to determine tie switch and transformer
What Are Standard Three-Phase Trans- connections to maintain the same phase sequence so that
motor load rotation direction will be correct when secondary
formers? system loads are transferred between different transformers.
For standard delta-wye and wye-delta connected trans- The third purpose of phasing is to match both the phase
formers, the high-voltage phases always lead the low-volt- voltages’ magnitudes and the timing of the peak sinusoidal
age phases by 30º. For standard connected delta-delta and voltage peaks, such to allow the paralleling of two secondary
wye-wye connected transformers, the high-voltage phases systems without causing short circuit current to flow.
always lead the low-voltage phases by 0º. Therefore, except Phasing “A”, “B”, and “C”, and/or “a”, “b”, and “c” indicated
for the fact that the delta secondary systems do not have on one electrical system might not match the phasing on
grounded neutrals, standard delta-wye transformers can another system. This may be caused by arbitrary identifica-
be paralleled with standard wye-delta transformers, and tions made when the system was first installed, by the phase
wye-wye transformers can be paralleled with delta-delta shifts caused by different transformer connections, or by
transformers. Delta-wye transformers cannot be paralleled incorrect connections at tie switches.
with either delta-delta or wye-wye transformers. The only way to verify that two similar voltage systems are
Nonstandard three-phase transformers and banks of in phase is to determine that zero volts (or nearly zero) exists
single-phase transformers may be found where the original between the same phases of the two systems. A rotation (or
system was very old and was not tied with other systems. phase sequence) meter is insufficient and unnecessary for
Some municipal electric utilities used transformers con- verifying phasing. A rotation meter is useful only to check
nected such that the low voltage led the high voltage by 150º that motors will rotate in the correct direction after recon-
(or 180º out of phase with the standard connection). necting leads or other parts of the power circuit. A phase-
angle meter or an oscilloscope is useful to determine if the
What Is Phasing? voltages of one circuit leads or lags the voltages of another
Phasing is the act of determining, before two electrical circuit, but they are not necessary. The minimum equipment
systems are paralleled, that the voltages on the system buses required verifying phasing is either a voltmeter or phasing
to be connected are nearly the same in both magnitude and sticks as necessary for the system voltage.
phasing (when the maximum positive and negative sinu- To understand the phasing process, it is necessary to know
soidal voltage peaks occur at the same time for the same the voltage and phase-angle relationships that exist between
phases of both buses). same phases of two systems. See table 1. It is assumed that
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 9

Table 1

Voltage Measured Displacement Between Phases

of Two Systems
1. 0 (or nearly 0) volts 0º (in phase)
2. Slightly more than 0.5 times phase-to-ground voltage 30º *
3. Phase-to-ground voltage 60º *
4. Slightly more than 1.4 times phase-to-ground voltage 90º *
5. Phase-to-phase voltage 120º *
6. Slightly more than 1.9 times phase-to-ground voltage 150º *
7. 2 times phase-to-ground voltage 180º
8. Inconsistent voltages ** Ungrounded

* Leading and lagging cannot be determined by only measuring voltages.

** Ungrounded systems must be temporarily grounded or one phase connected to a grounded system to determined
phasing.

the phase-to-phase voltages of the two systems are identical. the transformer primary, secondary, or at the switch such
In the field, due to loading conditions, the voltages measured that what was A is B, what was B is C, and what was C
may be slightly different than indicated. is A. If the systems are still 120º out of phase, repeat the
process one more time. The use of a phase-angle meter
Before Attempting to Perform Phasing would indicate which way to shift the leads, but that is not
actually necessary.
Before phasing, verify that the transformers on the two
systems are on the same voltage tap. If not, the transformer
with the higher secondary voltage will carry more of the SITUATION # 3: Two Leads Reversed on Wye-
load when the systems are paralleled. Also verify that the Delta Transformer
percent impedance (%Z) of the transformer for one system Phase-to-phase voltage (120º) is measured between two
is closer than 92.5 percent to 107.5 percent of the %Z of buses of each system and zero volts (0º) is measured between
the transformer for the other system. The system with the the third buses of each system. This indicates that the sys-
transformer with lower %Z will have a higher voltage when tems have opposing phase sequence (rotation). This occurs
loaded and, therefore, will carry more of the load when when the systems have wye-delta transformers. To correct,
paralleled. exchange either the transformer primary or secondary leads
(or on the switch) on the phases where the phase-to-phase
Determining Phasing by Measuring Volt- voltages were measured.
ages across Two Systems
Phasing problems can be determined and resolved
SITUATION # 4: Two Leads Reversed on Delta-
by simply recording the voltage measured between each Wye Transformer
phase of two systems and comparing the results with the Phase-to-ground voltage (60º) is measured between two
following: phases of each system and “two times phase-to-ground”
voltage (180º) between the third phase buses of each system.
SITUATION # 1: Correct Phasing This indicates that the systems have opposing rotation. This
occurs only with a delta-wye transformer. To correct, ex-
Zero voltage (or nearly zero) is measured between the
change two leads on the primary. The rotation will be correct,
phases of each system. The two systems are in-phase with
but the systems may still be out of phase by 120º. If so, rotate
the same rotation. The systems can be paralleled.
the primary leads once as indicated in Situation # 2.
SITUATION # 2: Transformer or Tie Switch Leads
SITUATION # 5: Double-ended Substation Trans-
Connected in Wrong Sequence
former with Incorrect Phasing
Phase-to-phase voltage is measured between the same
Phase-to-ground voltage (60º) is measured between each
phase of each system. The systems both have the same rota-
of the three buses. This occurs on the 480 volt buses between
tion but are 120º out of phase as indicated by the phase-to-
the two delta-wye transformers in a double-ended substation
phase voltage. To correct, move the leads on one system at
10 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1
where one transformer is correctly connected but the other of each system, and (3) energize the buses and measure
is not. If the transformers are identical (not mirror images the voltages between the same phases of each system. If all
of each other) and are facing each other, the second trans- three (one phase must be zero since they are both grounded)
former may have primary “A” phase connected to H3, and measurements are nearly zero, the systems can be paralleled
“C” to H1; and secondary “a” phase connected to X3, and after the temporary grounds are removed.
“c” connected to X1. To correct the problem, two primary If one system is grounded and one is ungrounded, the two
leads must be exchanged and the same two secondary leads systems can be phased by connecting the same phase of the
exchanged. It does not matter which leads are exchanged, two systems together and measuring the voltages across the
except, for example, H1 and H2 are exchanged, X1 and X2 other two phases. Care must be taken because if the wrong
must be exchanged also. This is a major problem since it is phases are connected together, the phase-to-ground voltage
often difficult to exchange the secondary (480 volt) leads. on the other two phases of the ungrounded system will be
This usually occurs when a standard transformer replaces a 2.0 and 2.75 times normal phase-to-ground voltage.
mirror image (H1/H3 and X1/X3 are reversed) nonstandard
transformer in a double-ended substation. Conclusions and Comments
The intent of this article is to show most of the basic
SITUATION # 6: Non-Standard Delta-Wye Trans- phasing problems encountered when designing electrical
former Bank power systems and when verifying phasing in the field.
Two times phase-to-ground voltage (180º) is measured Whenever performing phasing, always follow good, electri-
between the three buses on two systems supplied by delta- cal safety practices. Use equipment that has been inspected
wye transformers. This is caused when one system has a and tested and wear body, head, face, and hand protective
nonstandard delta-wye transformer bank. The secondary clothing when working near energize parts.
winding polarities are reversed in a nonstandard transformer.
A standard transformer bank made up of three single-phase
units can be made to match the system by reversing the wye Mark Lautenschlager is President of ERC - Electrical Risk Consul-
tants International, Inc., of Tampa, FL. He is retired from High Voltage
winding connections. Maintenance Corporation as Vice President of Engineering and is a past
president of NETA.
SITUATION # 7: Attempting to Parallel Trans-
formers with Different Phase Relationships
Slightly more than 0.5 times phase-to-ground voltage is
measured indicating that the two system voltages are 30º
out of phase. Slightly more than 1.4 times phase-to-ground
voltage is measured, indicating that the two system voltages
are 90º out of phase. Slightly more than 1.9 times phase-to-
ground voltage is measured indicating that the two system
voltages are 150º out of phase. Two systems that have any
combination of these phase relationships have wye-delta or
delta-wye transformers on one system and delta-delta or
wye-wye transformers on the other system. These systems
cannot be paralleled. If all three measurements are the
same, either 30º, 90º, or 150º, the rotations are the same and
the motor loads may be safely transferred by dropping one
system and picking to loads on the other system.

SITUATION # 8: Phasing Ungrounded Systems

Inconsistent voltages are measured across the buses
of two systems, indicating that one or both systems are
ungrounded. This can be verified by measuring the phase-
to-ground voltages of each system. Due to imbalanced
phase-to-ground capacitances, a phase-to-ground voltage
on an ungrounded system can be more than two times the
phase-to-phase voltage.
To verify phasing if both systems are ungrounded, the
systems must be temporarily grounded by (1) verifying that
the systems are ungrounded, (2) installing fused ground
jumper (this wire must carry only a small amount of insula-
tion capacitive charging current) on one and the same phase
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Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 11

Loading Conditions Causing Loss of

Life for Oil-Filled Power Transformers
NETA World, Fall 2000

by Mark Lautenschlager, P.E.

President, ERC International, Inc.

The reliable operation of an oil-filled transformer depends A 55/65ºC rise transformer can be loaded to about 112
on the dielectric and mechanical strength of the cellulose percent of the nameplate kVA rating before the hottest spot
insulation in the transformer. But cellulose insulation “ages” temperature reaches 110ºC.
or deteriorates over time. The rate of aging depends on the Oil-filled power transformers are not expected to operate
insulation temperatures produced by the combination of continuously throughout their lives at the maximum hot-
heat caused by the load currents in the windings (but limited test spot temperatures (95ºC or 110ºC). According to the
by the cooling system) and the heat from the surrounding IEEE guide, transformer insulation under these conditions
air. Since heat produced by the transformer windings must will age at the rate of 0.0369 percent and will reach the
be according to the formula I2Rt (disregarding the heat end of useful life in only 7.5 years (2700 days). Usually, a
produced by no-load losses), it is directly proportional to transformer is only occasionally operated at full load, and in
winding resistance and time and by the square of the cur- North America the average ambient temperature normally
rent in the windings. Therefore, as the load is increased the is less than 20ºC. Therefore, the expected life of oil-filled
temperature increases at a faster rate. power transformers is about 30 years when operated at full
The IEEE provides a standard power transformer loading load occasionally. If a transformer were continuously oper-
guide, ANSI/IEEE C57.92-1981: Guide for Loading Min- ated at a constant load of approximately 80 percent in air
eral-Oil Immersed Power Transformers, that can be used to with a constant ambient temperature of 20ºC, the hottest
evaluate the temperature effects and loss of insulation life spot temperature would reach about 95ºC. In this case, the
of a transformer due to overloading. The IEEE standard transformer life expectancy will be about 50 years.
nameplate kVA rating is determined when the average Since transformer kVA ratings are based on an average
ambient temperature of the air surrounding the radiators 30ºC ambient temperature, the ratings can be adjusted to
for any 24-hour period is 30ºC, not exceeding a peak of actual ambient conditions. For every degree of increase in
40ºC. Further, oil-filled power transformer winding and the average 24-hour ambient temperature over 30ºC, the
cooling system designs must limit the rise in average wind- self-cooled (OA) kVA ratings are reduced by 1.5 percent
ing temperature to either 55ºC or 65ºC above the ambient and 1.0 percent for forced-air and forced-oil-air cooled
temperature at full rated kVA. The hottest spot temperature (FA/FOA) ratings. For every degree of decreased ambient
in the insulation, at full load, must not exceed the average temperature less than 30ºC, the kVA rating is increased by
winding temperature by 10ºC for a 55ºC rise transformer 1.0 percent for OA cooled transformers and 0.75 percent
and 15ºC for a 65ºC rise transformer. It is the “hottest spot” for FA/FOA cooled transformers. In cases where cooling
temperature that affects the aging of transformer insulation. efficiency may be reduced (poor radiator ventilation or dirty
The IEEE “normal rate of aging” occurs when the hottest radiators), 5ºC or more should be added to the ambient
spot temperature for a 55ºC rise transformer is 95ºC (55ºC temperatures when rerating transformers.
winding rise + 10ºC hottest spot rise + 30ºC average ambi- The IEEE guide provides useful tables and charts that,
ent) and for a 65ºC rise transformer when the hottest spot along with any available manufacturer’s test data, can be
temperature is 110ºC (65ºC winding rise + 15ºC hottest used to evaluate percent loss of insulation life when a trans-
spot + 30ºC average ambient). Some power transformers former is loaded (for any periods up to 24 hours) in excess
are rated 55/65ºC rise. For these transformers, although of the nameplate kVA rating. Although the hottest spot
the winding temperature rise at full load is only 55ºC, the temperature and the time period are directly responsible for
insulation is rated for the 110ºC hottest spot temperature. loss of life, the tables also allow the use of other data such
12 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1
as loading, top oil temperature, ambient temperatures, the Power transformers must sometimes be overloaded.
type of cooling, and pre-existing operating conditions to Transformer users cannot always afford to install power
determine estimated percent loss of life. For example, if transformers to be sized for all contingencies—extremely
an FOA cooled power transformer that had been operat- hot days or for accepting loads from failed equipment—and
ing at 70 percent of nameplate kVA (adjusted for ambient must accept some transformer loss of life rather than shed
temperature) was then loaded to 138 percent of rating for load. Therefore, when installing or reinforcing power
24 hours with an average ambient of 20ºC, the expected systems, owners must consider worst case conditions and
loss of life is four percent or 438 days (four percent of 30 determine acceptable loss of transformer life caused by
years—the life expectancy when occasionally operated at overloading transformers for those conditions. The IEEE
full load). For an OA cooled transformer under the same indicates that some users consider an average loss of life of
conditions the loss of life is only 1.0 percent. The IEEE one percent per year for emergency conditions over the life
guide data is based on laboratory experiments performed of the transformer or four percent for any one emergency
more than 20 years ago, and even the IEEE considers them to be acceptable loss of life.
to be conservative. Nevertheless, unless the manufacturer If it is desired that a power transformer have a life expec-
of a transformer can provide more accurate data, the tables tancy of 50 years or more, the transformer should never be
provide useful guidelines when determining the effects of overloaded nor be continuously loaded to much more than
loading and ambient temperatures on the life expectancy 80 percent of nameplate kVA rating. If conditions exist
of a power transformer. that may require a transformer to be continually loaded to
Since insulation loss of life is based on insulation tem- nearly 100 percent or overloaded at times, then “loss of life”
perature and time, for equal loss of life, a transformer may be evaluations should be made using the IEEE guideline and
slightly overloaded for a long time or extremely overloaded manufacturer’s test data. Sometimes it is not justifiable to
for a short period of time. The IEEE recommends that the size transformers for all emergency loading contingencies.
maximum top oil temperature be limited to 110ºC and the One major electric utility indicates that engineering eco-
hottest spot temperature be limited to 180ºC for a maxi- nomic studies allows them to load and overload their power
mum of two hours. These limits would be obtained if 150 transformers such to produce 20-year life expectancies
percent of nameplate load were applied on a 65ºC rise FA When monitoring power transformers, review not only
or FOA cooled transformer (that had been operating at 90 the loading and top oil temperature data but also the wind-
percent load at 30ºC ambient) for a two-hour period. This ing and hottest spot temperatures, when available. Excess
emergency condition would cause a loss of life of about 0.5 insulation loss of life occurs when the hottest spot tem-
percent for a FA transformer and 1.0 percent for a FOA perature exceeds either 95ºC for 55ºC rise transformers or
transformer. 110ºC for 65ºC rise transformers. Load current and top oil
Monitoring power transformers for insulation loss of life temperatures are only factors producing the resulting hottest
using only loading as a guide is insufficient, since loading spot temperature, and may be misleading. Also, when op-
does not include the effects of ambient temperatures or erating transformers near their full rating make certain that
cooling problems. The best way to monitor insulation loss all radiators are clean, that cooling air is well vented from
of life is to use the hottest spot temperature. Unfortunately, other heat sources, that all fans and oil pumps are operating,
except for very large transformers, a gauge for this is not that all temperature and fan/pump alarms are operational,
often installed. Most medium to large power transformers and that all temperature gauges are calibrated.
have winding temperature gauges. These gauges can be used
(if correctly calibrated) to monitor insulation temperatures.
At full load for a 55ºC rise transformer, the hottest spot Mark Lautenschlager is President of ERC - Electrical Risk Consul-
temperature is 10ºC greater than winding temperature and tants International, Inc., of Tampa FL. He is retired from High Voltage
Maintenance Corporation as Vice President of Engineering and is a past
15ºC greater for a 65ºC rise transformer. The poorest way president of NETA.
to monitor insulation temperatures is using the top oil tem-
perature gauge. Due to differences in cooling system designs
– amount of oil and the number and type of radiators, fans,
and oil pumps—and the delay for top oil temperature to
rise, top oil temperatures are poor indicators of insulation
temperatures. The actual relationship between winding
temperature and top oil temperature should be determined
by factory tests. For 55ºC rise transformers, typical top oil
temperature rises (above ambient temperatures) at full load
are 45ºC for self-cooled transformers, 40ºC for forced-air-
cooled transformers, and 37ºC for forced-oil-air-cooled
transformers. For 65ºC rise transformers, typical top oil
temperature rises at full load are 55ºC for self-cooled trans-
formers, 50ºC for forced-air-cooled transformers, and 45ºC
for forced-oil-air-cooled transformers.
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 13

Transformer Failure Data

NETA World, Winter 2000-2001

by Mark Lautenschlager, P.E.

President, ERC International, Inc.

I was looking through my stacks of transformer books, This data indicates that while we need to keep testing
notes, and class outlines and found a photocopy of a booklet transformer oil and performing thermographic inspections
entitled “Trans-formers — what price reliability?” authored of bushing connections we also need to:
by Mr. E.V. Sorrell, who was Assistant Chief Engineer of • Make sure that we are buying transformers from manu-
Hartford Steam Boiler at the time the booklet was pub- factures that maintain strict quality control.
lished. Although the booklet is likely ten years old, the data
is still of value. Hartford Steam Boiler insures total plants • Not overload transformers and make certain that over-
and prepares studies of the nature of equipment failures, current protection is adequate and operational. Newer
including transformers. The data presented in this booklet is transformers do not have margins to handle overloads
of interest to both those that maintain and those who own and excessive short-circuit current.
transformers. From this data some conclusions can help us • Make certain that all transformers are protected with surge
reduce transformer failures. arresters and that the arresters are connected to ground
Based on the results of hundreds of transformer failures via a low resistance path.
occurring during the few years before the booklet was pre-
pared, Hartford Steam Boiler tabulated lists of the trans- • Monitor the condition of transformer windings and
former parts that initially failed and the causes of failures. bushings using the NETA recommended tests.
• Do not assume that a transformer has a low risk of fail-
DATA FROM HARTFORD STEAM BOILER BOOKLET ure just because it is not old. Harford noted that the
(percentages rounded) average age of a winding, when it fails, is only 6.4 years.
INITIAL PARTS THAT FAIL CAUSES OF FAILURES
High-voltage windings 58% Lightning 32% Mark Lautenschlager is President of ERC - Electrical Risk Consul-
Low-voltage windings 20% External short circuit 14% tants International, Inc., of Tampa FL. He is retired from High Voltage
Bushings and insulators 9% Manufacturing error 11% Maintenance Corporation as Vice President of Engineering and is a
Leads 4% Insulation deterioration 10% past president of NETA.
Tap changers 3% Overloading 8%
All others 6% Moisture 7%
Lack of maintenance 7%
Sabotage, vandalism 3%
Loose connections 2%
All others 6%
Winding age when transformers failed:
Range: 1 month to 60 years
Average: 6.4 years

Hartford reported that the frequency of failure had not

changed appreciably over the 12 years before the study, but
the average cost of a transformer loss increased five times
over the 12-year period.
14 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1

Managing the Life

of Power Transformers
NETA World, Winter 2000-2001

by Brian D. Sparling
GE Harris Energy Control Systems Canada, Inc.

The challenges facing the electric utilities for the past Dissolved Combustible Gases in Oil
years are unrelenting and can be summed up in one sen-
Dielectric oil and solid cellulose dielectric insulation
tence: “Reduce operating costs, enhance the availability of
(paper) materials break down under thermal and electrical
the generating and transmission equipment, and improve
stresses in the transformer. This process produces gases of
the supply of power and service to the customer base.” All
varying concentrations relating to the stresses applied to
this in an environment where the available resources are
these materials. The gases dissolve into the oil. The nature
decreasing and the pressure from the shareholders and the
and concentration of the gases are indicative of the nature
competition is mounting steadily.
and severity of the fault in the transformer. The changes in
Critical oil-filled, electrical equipment such as transform-
the accumulation of each gas and their rate of production
ers, shunt reactors, current transformers, and bushings are
are very important factors in the determining the fault(s)
key elements of an electrical power system. Their reliable and
involved and their evolution. Some specific gases are recog-
continued performance is the key to profitable generation
nized as being indicative of certain types of faults.
and transmission of power.
The thermal degradation of oil-impregnated cellulose
The early detection of incipient faults in transformers,
produces carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide (Figure 1).
shunt reactors, current transformers, and bushings can cre-
Hot spots in the windings, on insulated leads, and in areas
ate economic benefits that have a measurable impact in the
where pressboard and cellulose components and spacers are
results required to meet these formidable challenges.
used produce both of these gases as well.
The Overall Benefits of Monitoring and
Managing Transformers
The overall benefits of monitoring and managing trans-
formers include:

• Use and load your critical transformer for maximum

economical efficiency.
• Manage and extend the life of the transformer with ef-
ficient and cost-effective maintenance.
• Detect the early signs of failure conditions and monitor
the evolution of on-going failure conditions.
• Reduce and possibly eliminate unscheduled outages
and failures.

Many gradually-evolving incipient fault conditions in

transformers have detectable symptoms that indicate prob-
lems. One of these symptoms is the production of dissolved Figure 1
combustible gases in oil.
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 15
The degradation of the oil through abnormal dissipation at all. A serious problem could easily start, go undetected
of energy within the transformer can be detected based for days, weeks, or even months, and fully evolve into a
on the gases produced. The energy released through fault catastrophic failure with no warning. All of this could occur
processes such as overheating, partial discharge (or corona), after a good DGA and before the next scheduled DGA.
and arcing causes characteristic gases to be formed by the In order for a DGA program to be truly effective, one of
chemical degradation of the oil molecules. The detection of two changes should be made:
these gaseous products allows for not only the identification 1) Either DGA needs to be performed on a much more
of the fault process, but also for its monitoring. regular basis, approaching the unrealistic schedule of
These degradation byproducts, known as fault gases, once per day
include hydrogen as well as hydrocarbon gases: methane,
ethane, ethylene, and acetylene. It is important to note that OR
each of these gases has a characteristic energy required for
its specific formation. As a result, the individual gases can 2) A cost-effective and reliable real-time gas-trending trig-
be related to a specific fault process (Figure 2). ger or early warning signal should be used to effectively
bridge the time gap between regularly-scheduled DGAs.

System Protection Versus Transformer

Protection
Power transformers represent the second or third most
costly replacement component on any electric power sys-
tem. For years, the position was that power transformers
never fail… they last forever! Consequently, well-established
protection schemes involving transformers emphasized
system protection rather than true transformer protection. As
standard practice, devices such as transformer differential
relays, sudden pressure relays, and gas accumulation relays
were developed and utilized to isolate the transformer from
the power system in the event of a transformer failure. The
emphasis has been on protecting the power system from the
transformer rather than protecting the transformer itself.
Protective devices such as overcurrent, overvoltage, and
overtemperature relays are also applied (and need to con-
Figure 2
tinue) in order to keep the transformer within the designed
operational limits. Not one of these devices sense or detect
serious problems evolving from the dielectric stress (break-
Early Detection on Oil-Filled Transformers down of the insulation system within the transformer),
Regularly-scheduled and periodic use of the dissolved gas which is the fundamental failure mode of any transformer.
analysis (DGA) method on a transformer population usually Based on currently available reliable fault gas sensing
reveals that 90 percent of the sampled units are behaving in technology and the fact that there is an aging transformer
a satisfactory manner. The balance of the unit samples may population in higher risk categories, rethinking of how the
be suspect and, therefore, closely watched. The satisfactory transformers can be protected from undetected and unex-
behavior of a transformer is when the transformer has not pected failure modes needs to be done.
deviated from its previously-established baseline, equilib-
rium point, or fingerprint. A normal and constant gas level How Often?
for one transformer may be very high for another. Each
transformer has its own unique normal gassing pattern. It is How often should DGAs be performed to guarantee
the change in gassing levels and, equally important, the rate maximum transformer protection? If the reliance is on the
of change in gassing levels that cause a problem unit to stand DGA technique alone, then the answer that makes the
out from the others. most sense is more often than the fastest-evolving transformer
A DGA represents only a five-minute data window or failure mode.
snapshot in time about the condition of a transformer. It can
not and will not guarantee that a good report means status The following case can demonstrate this (Figure 3).
quo until the next DGA is performed.
If a DGA is applied on a six or twelve-month schedule, This 150 MVA, 138/69 kV autotransformer had a GE
there are markedly long periods of time during which the Syprotec HYDRAN® 201R Model i on-line gas monitoring
well-known, proven, and well-established fault characteris- system installed in April 1996. During the first month of
tics (fault gases) of the transformer are not being monitored operation, the transformer exhibited normal gassing behav-
16 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1
Whether included in new transformer specifications or
installed on existing transformers, continuous on-line fault
gas monitoring will provide some assurance and the protec-
tion necessary to successfully bridge the time gap between
regularly scheduled DGAs.

Brian D. Sparling is the Product Manager of integrated substation

monitoring and diagnostics for GE Harris, a joint venture business owned
by GE Power Systems and Harris Corporation. Based in Calgary, Alberta,
GE Harris specializes in the design and manufacturing of advanced sys-
tems and technologies applicable to substation automation solutions.
Brian has over twenty years’ experience in the field of power and
Figure 3 distribution transformers and has worked on many standards committees
within the CSA and the Canadian Electricity Association, serving as the
past chair of the Distribution Transformer Committee. Brian is also a
ior (a flat baseline of dissolved combustible gases). Shortly member of the IEEE Transformer and Substation committees.
after a thunderstorm, the monitoring system detected a
small increase in gases. Two weeks later the circuit breaker
associated with the transformer failed to clear a fault which,
of course, put a severe stress on the insulation system. A few
weeks after these two stressful events, the monitoring system
detected a rapid increase in combustible gas levels. The rate
of change was in the order of 1000 ppm in 24 hours. None
of the normal “transformer protection” relays operated.
The monitoring system provided the alarm that something
drastic was occurring inside the transformer.
The transformer was immediately removed from service,
and, upon inspection in a repair shop, the fault was found to
be a puncture through the barrier between the low-voltage
windings and the core. This puncture was felt to have been
initiated by the two external events and the final path-to-
ground for the discharge took a couple of weeks to appear
in the form of rapidly-increasing dissolved gases.
Without the early warning that the monitoring system
provided, it is easy to see that events such as this can go un-
detected, and have the potential for catastrophic failures.

Conclusion
Transformers which do not feature continuous on-line
fault gas monitoring as part of their standard protection
scheme are at risk of an unexpected failure.
Direct and indirect costs of a transformer failure dam-
age to surrounding equipment and high replacement costs
are many times greater than the installed cost of currently
available fault gas monitoring systems. The other aspect
of safety, as it relates to operating personnel in the area of
the transformer should it fail catastrophically, may also be
averted with appropriate indicative fault monitoring.
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Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 17

Maintaining GE Gas Filled

Transformers
PowerTest 2001
(NETA Annual Technical Conference)
Presenter
Edward C. Smith, QualorTran, Inc.
Co-Author
Edwin L. Mathis, P.E., Transformer Engineering Services, Inc.

The Sealed Dry-Type Transformer1 was initially de- transformer sealed in a box but are much larger and heavier
signed, tested and manufactured at the General Electric due to inferior heat dissipation characteristics and tank
Transformer facility in Pittsfield, Massachusetts then the weight. The standard nitrogen tank design is not braced for
product scope moved to the General Electric Transformer full vacuum. The units filled with C4F8, C3F8 or C2F6 have
facility in Rome, Georgia during the 1950’s. The gases used improved heat transfer capabilities and electric strength
in these units were nitrogen (N2) and the fluorocarbon gases are smaller in size and weight. These tanks are braced for
octafluorocyclobutane (C4F8), octafluoropropane (C3F8) full vacuum to withstand fill, operation and maintenance
or hexafluoroethane (C2F6). It is estimated that there were requirements.
less than 5000 transformers manufactured in total when The initial charge pressure for Sealed Dry-Type Trans-
the product line went out of production in 1986. The GE formers varies by type of gas, i.e., nitrogen or fluorocarbon
VaporTranTM Transformer used trichlorotrifluoroethane and specification. The nameplate attached to the transformer
(CCl2FCClF2) but had different construction and main- provides information about the gas and charge pressure ver-
tenance requirements2 so it is not included in the Sealed sus temperature. Typically, GE Rome produced transformers
Dry-Type Transformer product line. were charged at 4 psig at 25 C for the fluorocarbon filled
The Sealed Dry-Type Transformer product line included units and 1 psig at 25 C for nitrogen filled units.
500 kVA through 2500 kVA self cooled ratings and were These fluorocarbon gases are non-flammable, non-ex-
available in 5 kV & 15 kV class with 480Y/277 secondary plosive and non-toxic. They are extremely stable even under
voltage the most popular offering. Other kVA and voltage abnormal operating temperatures. Tests with temperatures
designs were also available. The line was designed to be in far above those encountered under all operating conditions
compliance with ANSI C57.12.52. indicate negligible corrosion or de-composition of the gas
The core and coil assembly was very similar to a venti- in contact with materials within the transformer.
lated dry-type transformer. Solid insulating materials and Sealed Dry-Type Transformers may be operated at rated
a treating varnish suitable for the hottest spot temperature load on any voltage tap. The operating temperature of the
were used. The varnish treatment promotes heat transfer transformer winding is determined by the load it carries, its
by conduction within the winding and seals the insula- thermal characteristics and the temperature of its cooling
tion system to minimize moisture absorption when the medium. Heavy loads of short duration may produce the
transformer is not in operation. The windings are circular same winding hot spot temperature as lighter loads of longer
construction of either copper or aluminum with rectangular duration. Overloads of sufficient magnitude and duration
cross section conductors as required by design or customer may cause excessive heating. Excessive heating will result
specification. in insulation deterioration which reduces normal life. The
The internal assembly was sealed in a pressure tight steel overload capacity is limited not only by winding hot spot
tank equipped with bushings which were welded in place for temperature but also by the tank pressure. On overloads, the
connection to the supply and secondary circuits. The tank pressure will increase in proportion to the increase of inside
is pressurized to a small positive gage pressure at ambient gas temperature. The normal full load operating pressure of
temperature and operates at some positive pressure. The the transformer tank is approximately 12 psig for fluoro-
nitrogen filled units are essentially a ventilated dry-type carbon gases and 8 psig for Nitrogen gas filled units. There
18 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1
will be no permanent tank distortion with pressures up to Later in time, circa 1972, the device offered was a Hot
15 psig for fluorocarbon gases and 10.5 psig for Nitrogen Spot Indicator. This device provided a means of reading
gas filled units. It is recommended that these pressures not simulated winding hot spot temperatures, thus providing
be exceeded. the visual indication of loading. This device is mounted in a
The Sealed Dry-Type Transformer is an excellent design heater well assembly near the top of the transformer tank in
if the gas atmosphere is maintained to original factory speci- the hottest part of the insulating gas. Current for the heater
fication. Failure to do so can lead to reduced performance is provided by a current transformer located inside the main
and product failure. unit. It is factory calibrated with an external resistor enclosed
The focus for preventive maintenance is then to correct in a sealed housing. The indicator can be replaced without
high risk seal failures before they occur to prevent the loss breaking the seal of the transformer.
of the gas atmosphere, identify the presence of air & mois- Circa 1976, the device offered was a Top Gas Tem-
ture and provide a means to restore original design kVA perature Indicator. This device was a thermometer with a
and performance. temperature sensitive bulb inserted into a well mounted on
The remainder of this paper discusses the monitoring the side of the transformer tank near the top in the hottest
devices and techniques to be used to determine the condi- part of the insulating gas. Unlike its predecessors, this device
tion of the transformer, the effects of a reduced atmosphere could not be relied upon as an indication of permissible load.
and a preventive maintenance program to resolve these They recommended that the readings be taken at frequent
problems. intervals to aid in detecting abnormal conditions affecting
the transformer. It is also mounted in a sealed well and can
Monitoring Devices and Technique be replaced without breaking the seal.
Sealed Dry-Type Transformers are typically equipped It is known, that for any given Sealed Dry-Type Trans-
with two instruments to monitor internal conditions of former design, there is a specific relationship between the
the transformers. When properly interpreted, these instru- transformer load, pressure and temperature. Expected Tank
ments can give indication of the need for maintenance or Pressure, Top Gas Temperature and Hot Spot Temperature
impending problems. at given Unit Loads and Ambient Temperatures can be
ANSI standards outline a temperature indicating device calculated for any given design. The calculations are based
and pressure gage. The temperature device typically is one on a design library search which is valid for transformers
that measures the top gas temperature of the transformer. with the same root serial number, i.e. – all digits the same
The alternative temperature device is a winding temperature except the suffix letter as in F999999A, B, etc. These cal-
simulator. These devices react to the internal temperature of culated values can be provided in table form and provide
either the insulating gas or the winding temperature or the an excellent tool for determining the present condition of
winding hot spot temperature. The pressure gage displays the transformer.
the internal tank pressure. The scale range may vary based Two typical Load — Pressure tables are provided for
on the year of manufacture but is normally from – 30” Hg. Nitrogen3 and C2F64 gas filled units to illustrate their use
to 15 psig for fluorocarbon based gases or from – 20” Hg. in determining seal leaks, trapped non-condensable gases,
to 10 psig for nitrogen filled units. i.e. air and reduced cooling.
GE offered three basic temperature sensing devices for The Load — Table for Nitrogen filled units is based
the sealed dry type transformer. Initially, the units were of- on an initial de-energized tank pressure of 1 psig at 25 C.
fered with a Hottest Spot Indicator-Relay. Since standard To use the table, enter the row at the point equal to the
product accessories varied from time to time, it is possible per unit load and the column equal to the room ambient
that not all units were equipped with this device. Th is temperature. The intersecting element gives the expected or
device provided a means of reading the winding hot spot design tank pressure at these conditions. The per unit load
temperature, thus giving a visual indication of the amount is computed by dividing the low voltage load by the rated
of transformer capacity being utilized. It was equipped amperage, i.e. – if the observed load is 1200 amperes and
with switch contacts for control and alarm purposes. The the rated amperage for the 2000 kVA – 480Y/277 is 2406
dial was calibrated in degrees centigrade and the normal amperes, the per unit load is 1200/2406 or 0.50. If the room
operating temperature range shown in green and the over- ambient temperature is 70 F, the expected or design tank
heated range in red. Here it was necessary for users to have pressure in this case would be 4.3 psig.
an understanding of hot spot temperature versus winding The Load — Table for C2F64 gas filled units is based
temperature. This device had two detectors, one for the gas on an initial de-energized tank pressure of 4 psig at 25 C.
temperature, the other for the winding lead temperature, With all other things being equal to the Nitrogen example,
typically attached to the LV center phase lead just as the the expected or design tank pressure in this case would be
lead exited the LV winding. Experience with the device 7.3 psig.
showed that if the readings were high to expectations, the Any variance of observed tank pressure from expected
gas bulb was leaking. If the device was showing readings or design pressure indicates the need for additional action,
lower than expectations, the winding lead bulb was leak- i.e. – monitor to verify variance, meter & gage accuracy, air
ing. Replacement requires that the gas in the transformer & moisture in unit, detectable leaks, etc. The Preventive
be evacuated and then the unit vacuum filled with new gas Maintenance Program covers this area in detail.
after the process is completed.
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 19

Effect of a Reduced Atmosphere

As stated earlier, maintaining the seal is extremely impor- 100%
tant to the continued reliable and efficient operation of the
transformer. The ingress of air/moisture into the unit will
affect both the thermal and dielectric capabilities of the unit.
To gain a better understanding of why this is so, we must
first consider some of the basic design parameters.
The design of the fluorocarbon filled transformer ver- Air 50%
sus the nitrogen filled are significant in both thermal and
dielectric capabilities. Due to the superior thermal and
dielectric qualities of the fluorocarbon gases over nitrogen,
the internal clearances and thermal profiles of each are
different in significant detail. These characteristics allowed
the manufacturer to greatly reduce the size and weight of
0%
the fluorocarbon design versus the nitrogen design, in some
cases by as much as 25%. The fluorocarbon design obviously 50% 100%
took advantage of these attributes with a material cost
Per Unit Load / Dielectric Strength
take out and reduction in spacing of windings, leads and
other current/potential carrying items. When air (basically
nitrogen) is substituted for fluorocarbon gas, the dielectric
strength and thermal capabilities to conduct the heat away
and are protected to those values, a partially charged unit
from the winding conductor is significantly diminished.
will be vulnerable to high voltage transients and surges and
In the event of a leak and subsequent loss of pressure, the
could suffer an insulation failure requiring long term repairs
load must be reduced to prevent overheating of the insula-
and / or replacement of the unit at great expense. It is very
tion system. Leaks can be of any nature from very small,
important to insure that the seals of the unit and the gas
such as a porous weld seam, fracture of ancillary or associ-
atmosphere are maintained to specification.
ated plumbing, to very large, as might be experienced from
fracture of a bushing. The nature of the leak and associated
swings in temperature of the unit as would be experienced in Preventive Maintenance Program
normal load cycling, will determine the rate of escape of the 1. Initial baseline evaluation — It is helpful to have a
original gas and the subsequent absorption of atmospheric baseline evaluation of installed nitrogen and fluorocar-
air. The moisture will be of a degrading nature to the insula- bon filled units to determine the present condition of
tion system over time, however, the greatest consequence the Sealed Dry-Type Transformers. An evaluation re-
will arise from the lack of cooling to the transformer wind- port with prioritized recommendations is provided as
ings elevating hot spots deep within the insulation system. part of the program by QualorTran, Incorporated for
This will hasten deterioration of the insulation and result the System Manager’s consideration and system docu-
in significant loss of life to an otherwise aged transformer. mentation.
As a general reference, the following curve is presented
The evaluation depth requires the owner’s organization
to approximate the reduction of the initial characteristics
assistance and approval.
of the transformer. There are many other factors that can
affect these initial reference points including loading and Level 1 — verify adequate gas charge and cooling/load-
or overloading, exposure to transients, short circuits, high ing capacity of transformers. Owner organization will
ambient temperatures, harsh environments. Therefore, all provide means of determining LV loading if not available
things should be considered on their own merits when ap- at the load center location. This level provides a good
plying this de-rating chart if used as a tool for continued means of determining major problems which could effect
reliable operation of the transformer. present and future system reliability.
This chart is of the premise that as air, on the vertical scale Level 2 — perform Level 1 plus leak test accessible com-
and expressed as a percentage, replaces the fluorocarbon gas, ponents using an ultrasonic leak detector for Nitrogen
the per unit load and the dielectric strength are diminished filled units and a halogen leak detector for fluorocarbon
as shown on the horizontal scale, also shown in percent. filled units. Units must be at positive pressure to perform
If the unit has been run completely dry of gas, then the leak tests. Pressures can be raised by increased loading,
load should be reduced at least to 50% of the transformer’s increased ambient room temperatures, and by applying
nameplate value, perhaps more depending on other fac- an external heating source.
tors mentioned previously. You can make a determination
about the loading as this information is normally available This level provides specific information required for leak
from demand meters, however, the dielectric capability is repairs of non-live components.
unknown when a disturbance occurs. Since fluorocarbon
designs have inherently higher BIL’s (basic impulse levels)
20 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1
Level 3 — perform Level 1, Level 2 and schedule outage VaporTran is a trademark of the General Electric
to leak test high and low voltage bushings. This is the Company.
most comprehensive but disruptive means for evaluat-
ing units as the seal integrity of all components can be
verified. Edward Smith is founder and principal technical consultant of
QualorTran, Inc., a company focused on product service of GE Vapro-
Level 1 evaluations can normally be performed in one day Tran™ transformers and GE, Westinghouse and ITE N2, C2F6, C3F8
for transformers installed at a contiguous plant location. or C4F8 gas-filled transformers. Ed brings thirty years of relevant trans-
The time required for level 2 evaluations can be deter- former design, manufacture, test, and service experience to the industry
with twenty-three years on the technical staff of GE Transformer™,
mined after a review of transformer loading profiles and Rome, Georgia. Ed is recognized by GE as the world authority in all
ambient room temperatures. Level 3 may require 3 hours aspects of manufacture, assembly, test, and service of GE VaporTran
per transformer from the time a unit is de-energized until transformers.
it is put back on line.
2. Transformer upgrade and repair — replace/repair de-
fective seals found during the initial evaluation, verify
calibration of temperature & pressure devices and up-
grade gas circuit to include pressure port to allow test
of high & low pressure settings. Sample gas for air and
moisture content of units with history of leaks and re-
store all units to original factory gas pressure levels.
3. Annual Preventative Maintenance — verify adequate
gas charge and cooling/loading capacity of transform-
ers. Perform level 2 & 3 evaluations as may required.
Detailed report of findings should be provided with a
prioritized listing of recommended corrective actions to
resolve observed problems and all information should
be included to satisfy environmental record keeping re-
quirements.
It is strongly recommended that Load – Pressures Tables
be placed in clear view with each transformer for local use
monitoring units for gas loss and proper cooling. These
tables can be provided as a “nameplate” to permanently affix
to the transformer.

References:
1. Instructions, “Sealed Dry-Type Transformer, … ” GE
Transformer, Rome, Georgia 30165.
2. Smith, E.C., “Maintaining VaporTranTM Transform-
ers”, 1997 NETA Technical Conference.
3. “Load – Pressure Table # 01011002”, QualorTran, Inc.,
Calhoun, Georgia 30701.
4. “Load – Pressure Table # 01011001”, QualorTran, Inc.,
Calhoun, Georgia 30701.
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 21

The Detection of Mechanical

Damage in Power Transformers
Using the Sweep Frequency Response
Analysis Method
PowerTest 2001
(NETA Annual Technical Conference)
Presenter
Mario Locarno
Co-Authors
Tad Tully and Alan Wilson
Doble Engineering Company

Abstract effect of age on failure rate (1). North American statistics

Power transformers are specified to withstand the many also indicate that for the general population, the failure
rigors of service life. General ageing can produce long-term rate is random. Insurance companies report the average
changes to the insulation quality of oil, paper and oil press- age at failure is currently fifteen years (2). In their study of
board materials. Physical changes can occur either through GSU failures, EPRI reported that over a four-year period,
long-term ageing and vibration or as a result of one or more 45 out of 383 units failed, with an average age at failure of
electrical transients. Core and winding movement can be sixteen years (3). Major proportions of transformer failures
produced by through faults and transportation. To identify are a result of bushing and load tap changer malfunction
this and other types of damage, a range of complementary or failure. Within the main tank, the key areas of concern
diagnostic tests are appropriate. Insulation quality, winding relate to mechanical changes caused by short circuits, core
and structural deformation, core grounding, shorted wind- ground issues and the various degradation processes associ-
ing and other internal main tank problems can be identi- ated with moisture levels in the paper, barriers, and oil. One
fied using well established methods such as power factor, way to avoid many of these premature failures is to have a
capacitance, exciting current, turns ratio, insulation and regular program of routine tests which tracks changes in the
winding resistances, and leakage reactance. A new method performance quality of the main tank, LTC and bushings.
of measuring a transformer’s transfer function using a Sweep Power factor and capacitance testing of bushings and
Frequency Response Analysis instrument adds another tool winding insulation are for many utilities, a routine off-line
for a more comprehensive condition assessment. method of tracking dielectric deterioration. For a bush-
ing this includes detection of higher dielectric losses and
capacitance following moisture ingress, short-circuited foil
Introduction layers and contamination of the core or porcelain surfaces.
Power transformers are usually purchased with the The power factor will also allow tracking of winding mois-
expectation of a satisfactory service life up to forty years. ture content, while the capacitance value will indicate gross
However, evidence to support the realization of this intent movement and loss of core grounds. Winding moisture
from construction programs, since the 1960s, appears mixed. content is one of the most important factors affecting the
While under ideal circumstances lifetimes of forty years or rate of paper ageing, and there is a long tradition of trend-
more are being achieved, a variety of events or circumstances ing the winding power factor values throughout the lifetime
are causing much shorter terms. Various national and inter- of a unit (4). Some power factor/capacitance units, such as
national studies have reported on failure rates and age. The the Doble M4000 Instrument, can also be used to measure
1983 comprehensive CIGRE report looked at units with a other properties, such as those relating to the mechanical
service life up to twenty years and reported no significant condition of the core and windings. Its capability includes
22 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1
turns ratio, exciting current and, with the M4110 module, • Hoop buckling
leakage reactance. This range of diagnostics collectively • Partial winding collapse
covers many of the key malfunctions occurring with the
total transformer. Within international groups, such as • Broken or loose clamping structures
CIGRE Study Committee 12 (5) and the EuroDoble
Clients Group (6,7), there has been interest over the last Timing of Condition Assessment to Determine
ten years in developing an additional test to focus upon Mechanical Condition
mechanical problems. This method measures the transfer
function of windings over a wide frequency range. While Condition assessment evaluation of transformers would be
the approach being used started in North America (8), the carried out on the following occasions:
greatest application has been in Europe. Many of the key • During an investigation, after a fault or protection
technical papers have been presented by European clients trip. The purpose would be to determine the nature
and discussed at the Doble meetings during the 1990s (6,7). and extent of any damage.
The view within Doble is that this method does have a role, • During a condition assessment. This test may done
and it is within the broad range of transformer condition as part of a general assessment, or the unit may be
assessment tools, providing corroborative evidence prior to known to have seen short circuits over time, and ap-
an expensive consequential decision. parently successfully withstood them. In this latter
case the test would be to identify possible damage
Mechanical Design Issues and used to indicate the capability to withstand fur-
Power transformers are specified to withstand the me- ther short circuits.
chanical forces arising from both shipping and subsequent • Before and after a relocation. Comparisons of test
in-service short circuits across the terminals. The most severe data made before and after a relocation, which should
service forces arise from close in system faults, faults in a indicate any mechanical movement.
load tap changer and, for a generator transformer, energiz- • By manufacturers as a quality check of the manufac-
ing out of synchronization. Short circuit forces produce turing process, by comparing the response of units
axial and radial forces and these can lead to radial buckling made to the same design.
or axial deformation (twisting, displacement of clamps or
supports). Transport damage can occur if the clamping • Testing is also carried out on new and refurbished
and restraints are inadequate, leading to core and winding units to obtain fingerprint values for references. Also,
movement. With a core form design, the principal forces test results on sister units (similar design) can be used
are in the radial direction, while a shell form design is in as references.
an axial direction. This difference is likely to influence the
types of damage found. Consequences of Diagnostic Testing
The technology assisting transformer designers has The result of such testing may have a number of
improved over recent years, but it is rare for the designs to implications:
be evaluated other than by subsequent service life. Once a
unit has been damaged, even if only slightly, the ability to • If the test indicates damage or malfunction, and the
withstand further short circuits is reduced. The requirement test has been performed after operation of a protec-
is to have effective methods of identifying damage. One ap- tion relay - the unit is likely to need a major repair
proach is to rely upon an internal Visual inspection, but it or scrapping. Further, confirmatory evidence may be
is invariably too difficult to draw effective conclusions. The necessary (e.g. additional testing specific to the type
oil has to be drained and confined entry rules apply. Since of fault indicated).
so little of the winding is visible, often little is seen other • If there is evidence of some damage or deformation,
than displaced support blocks. Consequently, the reliance but there are no other signs of malfunction - the unit
must be on condition assessment methods. However, since may be returned to service. Engineering judgment is
the consequences of an incorrect diagnosis are so great, a required to review the risk of failure at the next short
mandate is to have a range of complementary and effective circuit, the likelihood of such an event, and the sys-
diagnostic techniques available for field use. tem risk exposure. The results would be stored and
used as a benchmark indicative of worsening of the
The requirement is to identify damage of the following damage.
types:
• Where there is no evidence of damage or deforma-
• Short circuit turns tion, and there is no other evidence (or expectation)
• Open circuits of a malfunction - the unit is validated for service and
the results archived for future use.
• Core ground problems
• Core movement
• Axial or radial deformation
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 23
Test Program • Exciting (or Magnetizing) Currents
The following tools would be used: The Automated Insulation Analyzer can be used to
measure exciting currents and watts loss. This can
• Insulation Analyzer - to measure capacitance and be one of the simplest methods to detect shorted
power factor, exciting current and turns ratio. turns, following a short circuit. It can also detect
• Leakage Reactance Interface - to measure short open and short circuits elsewhere - in the LTC,
circuit impedance. core and core ground. It is a comparative method
• Sweep Frequency Response Analyzer - to measure with most of the supporting documents appear-
the transfer function. ing in the 1970’s (9) where evidence was presented
that it can identify a range of core related features
• Winding and insulation resistance. - shorted laminations or fundamental changes in
• Other test data relating to the period prior to de- the iron characteristics.
energization could be relevant - such as dissolved
• Leakage Reactance/ Short Circuit Impedance
gases and furans from an oil sample, Infrared and
Standards for short circuit testing of transform-
RIV scanning (PD).
ers usually specify this measurement. It involves a
The transformer would be de-energized and all high volt- simple interpretation of a change in one value to
age connections removed. The circuit and the transformer another and is very suitable for a contractual use in
should be made safe for testing, according to standard com- a highly controlled environment. During factory
pany procedures. Ideally the transformer will have normal acceptance the impedance is measured with three-
service oil in the tank. For the test program it is necessary phase excitation and high currents. Field test are
to remove any temporary bushing ground connections. The usually single phase and at a low current. To relate
leakage reactance and SFRA tests also require removing the measurements it is necessary to undertake the
grounds from neutral bushings. A transformer with an off procedure according to the Doble method and the
load tap changer would be tested in its normal operating M4110 Leakage Reactance Interface uses this ap-
position. A unit with a load tap changer would normally be proach (10). Experience indicates that an accuracy
tested in an off-neutral position and preferably throughout of around 0.2% is needed to detect a 0.5% change
its full range. over nameplate values. The success of the method
relies upon the availability and reliability of factory
Assessment data. In some cases a phase-by-phase comparison
While the objective is to assess the mechanical condition, may assist in the analysis.
the test data would be used to provide a more general assess- • Sweep Frequency Response Analysis
ment - of the insulation condition for example. Specifically, There is a direct relationship between the geomet-
however, the following methods would be applicable to the ric configuration of the winding and core and the
mechanical assessment: series and parallel impedance network of induc-
• Winding Capacitance tance, capacitance and resistance. This network can
The Doble M4000 Automated Insulation Ana- be identified by its frequency-dependent transfer
lyzer can be used to measure winding movement, function. Frequency Response Analysis testing
and is probably the most commonly used of all by the sweep frequency method (SFRA) uses
the methods. The technique is capable of detect- network analysis tools to determine the transfer
ing gross winding movement. In addition, since function. Changes in the geometric configuration
the capacitance of a low voltage winding is mea- alter the impedance network, and in turn alter the
sured to ground, it is sensitive to disruption of the transfer function. This enables a wide range of fail-
core ground connection, and will detect gross core ure modes to be identified.
movement. The sensitivity can be enhanced, where Doble uses the protocols developed by the Eu-
it is possible, to make separate measurements on roDoble Client Group. From this base, Doble has
each phase and so use inter-phase comparisons. subsequently developed an instrument to match
With autotransformers, it is not possible to mea- the requirements, the M5100 SFRA. The SFRA
sure inter-winding capacitances between high and method is also comparative between phases and
low voltage windings. against previous results. There is also some com-
monality between units of the same design.

Sweep Frequency Response Analysis

A general impedance diagram for a transformer is shown
in Figure 1.
24 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1
The M5100 SFRA Instrument has a signal generator,
which produces a 10VPP sine wave at the Source output
connection. Its frequency range is 10 Hz to 10 MHz. Within
this single band, 1024 logarithmically spaced, discrete fre-
quencies at which measurements are made. A two-channel
oscilloscope is used to measure the voltage generated at
the specimen (S Measurement) and the return voltage (R
Measurement).
The transformer test involves applying a test signal to
one terminal of the transformer under test and measur-
ing this applied signal at the same terminal, and also the
signal appearing at a second terminal, as shown in Fig 2.
Signals are applied and measured with respect to ground.
The amplitudes and phases of the two signals, S Measure-
ment and R Measurement, are measured to determine the
relative amplitude and phase shift changes between them.
Figure 1 — Transformer Impedance Model The basic measurement is of the attenuation and phase shift
of a signal after having passed through the winding from
The transfer function approach is to consider a trans- the input to the output terminal. The test can also include
former as though it was a simple inductance, capacitance voltage transfers between windings i.e. applying a signal to
and resistance (L-C-R) equivalent circuit and determine one winding of a transformer and measuring the response
its frequency admittance response. at another winding to determine the amplitude change and
The basic measurement formula for the transfer func- phase shift of the signal having been transferred along a
tion is: winding, or from one winding to the other.
Attenuation = 20*log (Vout/Vin) for all frequencies. Early attempts to gain repeatability, particularly using
At low frequencies the impedance ladder is represented impulse methods, were not successful. The success of the
by the series inductance and winding resistance. At medium SFRA method is the result of a significant effort in develop-
frequencies the capacitance to ground is relevant, and at ing a common protocol by EuroDoble Clients.
higher frequencies the relevant impedances are the series While the application is now fairly straightforward,
and ground capacitances. interpretation requires experience to diagnose the type of
Much of the past work has been done using a laboratory fault. Shown in Figure 3 is a typical set of results for an
instrument – a super heterodyne network analyzer used over autotransformer in good condition. For most transformers
a 10Hz to 10MHz range of frequencies. The Doble M5100 there is a large attenuation at a specific low frequency,
SFRA Instrument has been developed to meet the applica- usually between 400 – 1500Hz. Below this frequency,
tion requirement however; it is enhanced by the simplicity the impedance is dominated by the series inductance and
of a single function, automated control, data storage, field measurement resistance of 50 Ohms. Since the impedance
ruggedness and noise immunity. All of the features required is controlled by the core magnetization, this is where core
for substation test instrumentation. effects are seen and there is some equivalence with an ex-
Figure 2 shows a circuit diagram of the M5100 SFRA citation current measurement. The center phase response
Instrument. It has the following characteristics: is slightly different in this area of frequency, due to the
different flux paths through the core. In addition, the center
phase has a single null, shown at 600 Hz and the two outer
phases overlap with a double resonance around the same
frequency. At this frequency, there is a phase change of 180
degrees and the impedance changes from being inductive
to capacitive domination. At higher frequencies, in kilo and
megahertz ranges, eddy currents shield the magnetic circuit
and local leakage fluxes determine the winding inductances.
The response is more dependent upon changes in the wind-
ing, and the diagnostics should compare with the leakage
reactance measurements.

Figure 2 — M5100 SFRA Circuit Diagram

Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 25

Figure 3 — A Set of Normal Test Results from an Autotransformer Figure 5 — A Transformer With Axial Deformation

Figures 4 and 5 show the results from damaged units.

Experience shows that differences in the lower frequency Conclusions
ranges relate to core changes, or shorted/open circuits.
A power transformer is one of the most critical items in a
Medium frequencies show winding shifts, while more
power system. It also has a very high capital value. In order
localized winding movement is seen at the higher frequen-
to achieve the full benefit of this asset, it is important to
cies. In the result shown in Fig.4 there are two phases that
have the most effective means of identifying any deteriora-
overlay with a minimum at 400 Hz and again at 2200 Hz
tion or malfunction. Visual inspections are not as effective
however, the third (red trace) does not follow the same
as on other types of apparatus, such as circuit breakers, yet
pattern, as it should. It’s minimum has shifted indicating
expensive decisions often have to be made relating to the
a problem. Figure 5 also has identical resonances on only
future serviceability. This can only be achieved through the
two of the phases. Experience indicates that changes of
application of a broad range of complementary assessment
this type, at these frequencies are associated with winding
tools. Within this context, Sweep Frequency Response
deformation.
Analysis with instruments such as the Doble M5100 SFRA
has a valuable role.

References
1. CIGRE, “An International Survey on Failures in
Large Power Transformers In Service.” (1983), Elec-
tra NO 88, pp23-50.
2. W.H. Bartley, (1999), “An Analysis of Transformer
Failures, Part 1” Locomotive, 73, 2, pp 4-7.
3. S.L. Nilssen and S. Lindgren, (1997), “ Review of
Generator Step Up Transformer Failure Data”, EPRI
Substation Conference, New Orleans.
4. A.L Rickley (1985) “Transformer Insulation Power
Factors, A Progress Report” Minutes of the 52nd An-
nual International Clients Conference, sec 6-201
5. J.A.Lapworth (1997) “CIGRE Working Group
Figure 4 — Test Results Indicating Shorted Windings 12.18 Life Management of Transformers - An Activ-
ity Overview.” ” Minutes of the 64th Annual Interna-
tional Clients Conference, paper 8-8.
6. J.A.Lapworth and A.J. McGrail (1999) “Transformer
Winding Movement Detection by Frequency Re-
sponse Analysis” Minutes of the 66th Annual Inter-
national Clients Conference, paper 8-14
26 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1
7. T.J.Noonan (2000), “EuroDoble Subcommittee Re-
port on Frequency Response Analysis by the Swept
Frequency Method, and the Development of a Test
Guide” Minutes of the 67th Annual International
Clients Conference, paper 8-8
8. E.P.Dick and E.P.Erwin (1978), “Transformer Di-
agnostic Testing by Frequency Response Analysis”.
IEEE Trans PAS-97, No 6, pp 2144- 2153.
9. A.L.Rickley and R.E.Clark (1976), “Transformer
Exciting Current Measured With Doble Equipment”
Minutes of the 43rd Annual International Clients
Conference, sec 6-1101
10. M.F.Lachman, (1999) “Application of Equivalent
Circuit Parameters to Off-line Diagnostics of Power
Transformers”, Minutes of the 66th Annual Interna-
tional Clients Conference, sec 8-10

Mr. Locarno received a BSEE from Northeastern University in

Boston, MA in 1990. He worked as a startup engineer for the General
Electric Co. power delivery systems. As a graduate of the GE field engi-
neering program he served in many roles; project manager for industrial
applications resident engineer for IBM microchip division, and outage
management for GE power generation services. Mr. Locarno has worked
for Doble Engineering since 1996 and is currently a lead engineer in their
new product technology group. The latest venture has been the develop-
ment of a Swept Frequency Response Analyzer, for which he, (and others),
hold Patent (pending review). Additionally, he acts as a project manager
for their engineered strategies business unit which provides condition
assessment and asset management to major utilities.
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 27

An Additional Method for

Determining Shorted Turns in
Transformer Windings
NETA World, Spring 2001

by N. Wayne Hansen and Parsons Brinckerhoff

Boston Central Artery/Tunnel Project

In the process of troubleshooting abnormalities in power compartment was cleaned and repaired, and the unit was
trans-formers, it is often desirable, if not advantageous, to successfully returned to service.
determine the winding or portion of the winding in which
shorted turns exist. Sometimes, there is so little evidence Preparation For Testing
(either externally or internally) on which to base a decision
In addition to disconnecting the transformer from the
and guide the repair effort that confirmation of the specific
power system on both the high- and low-voltage sides,
problem area is most welcome.
access is necessary to the terminals where the winding in
The following method can be used to achieve the above
question is terminated. In the case of whole windings, the
objectives, and, in addition, the maintenance test techni-
bushings representing the ends of the winding can be used.
cian will have a better understanding of the extent of the
In the case of a load tap-changer, this is usually accomplished
damage.
by draining the LTC compartment where the selector switch
is located. In the case of a no-load tap-changer (NLTC),
Background the mechanical tap changer or terminal board is usually in
The author has successfully used this approach to not only the main tank, and the unit will have to be drained to at
confirm shorted turns but also to detect in which winding least this level for testing. Since low voltages are usually
(or winding section) the problem exists. employed, a unit can be partially or completely drained of its
It is particularly well suited (but not limited) to load insulating fluid as may be required, and any risk or further
tap-changer (LTC) tap windings and only requires that damage will be minimized.
another winding be available, preferably on the same core
leg. A single phase ac voltage source is required and can Case Number 1
be any available low voltage present in the substation. A
power-factor or dissipation-factor test set can also be used Unit Rated 50/66.6/83.3/93.3 MVA * 120 kV to 13.8 kV
to provide a convenient source of adjustable ac voltage Connected Delta-Wye-Wye with
provided the required current does not exceed the output Two 13.8 kV Secondaries
of the test set.
This method is not intended to replace turns ratio mea- History
surements or the exciting current test where shorted turns This three-phase, three-winding unit is located at a large
may first be indicated by the abnormally high current. It is, manufacturing plant and had been in service for approxi-
rather, to confirm and pinpoint a condition that may have mately four years. It had sustained a mechanical failure in the
already been identified. load tap-changer compartment such that contact between
Three actual cases will be presented in which the method some of the LTC tap winding leads had occurred. Among
was utilized to determine the extent of damage. On two the initial tests were low high-potential readings (kilohms)
units, it was found that “on-site” repairs were not possible, between the tap winding and ground and between the tap
and both units were subsequently disassembled and returned winding and the Y secondary. In addition, combustible gas
to a repair facility where a complete rewind was required. was present including 33 ppm acetylene.
On the third unit, no winding damage was found; the LTC
28 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1

Construction
A helical winding was used for the LTC tap winding
on this unit with very few turns between the individual tap
points. These are usually referred to as “interwound” taps and
are a common practice with core form tap windings. This
design had nine individual windings together on the same
helical layer. Eight of the windings had six turns, and one
winding had five turns. Figure 1 illustrates the arrangement
of this type of winding.
The main concern with tap-to-tap faults in a transformer
is the likelihood of winding damage within the tap winding.
The impedance is relatively low, and the fault current is lim-
ited largely by the length of cable between the tap winding
and the tap changer. This is typically in the order of ten to
50 feet, and makes the winding susceptible to failure.

Figure 2 — LTC Selector Switch Terminal Studs — Case No. 1

With 110 volts ac applied to the primary winding one

phase at a time, the following voltages were measured at the
LTC selector switch tap studs L to C:

Energize H3 - H1 Measure Right Panel

(Phase A) (Phase A)
110 Volts Tap Stud L-C Volts 5.96

Energize H1 - H2 Measure Center Panel

(Phase B) (Phase B)
110 Volts Tap Stud L-C Volts 5.96

Energize H2 - H3 Measure Left Panel

(Phase C) (Phase C)
110 Volts Tap Stud L-C Volts 0.810

Figure 1 — Helical Tap Winding — Case No. 1

Testing
My responsibility was to assist in determining the extent
and severity of damage. The no load tap-changer was set on
position number one to include all the turns in the primary
winding. The load tap-changer was set so that the moveable
contacts were not touching any of the tap studs. The idea is to
isolate, as much as possible, the tap winding and let it float so
that it is not influenced by any other winding. The reversing
switch should also be set in mid position, if possible. Figure
2 shows the development of the LTC tap winding as viewed
at the tap-changer selector switch.

Figure 3 — Winding Arrangement — Case No. 1

Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 29
Knowing the number of turns in the primary and tap Construction
windings, the calculated voltage across tap studs L-C was A large helical winding was used for the LTC tap wind-
5.43 volts. ing on this unit, also. This winding had alternating five-turn
It was clear from the voltage measurements that there and four-turn sections. Figure 4 shows the development of
was a serious problem within the Phase C LTC tap winding. the LTC tap winding as viewed at the tap-changer selector
The most likely cause was shorted turns which prevented switch.
the buildup of voltage across tap studs L to C. During an
internal examination, broken string ties that held the Phase
Testing
C LTC leads together were observed. This was confirmation
of the problem as large magnetic forces were created by the As a precautionary measure, the helical tap winding was
fault current flowing in the tap winding leads. tested at the load tap-changer compartment as was done in
case number 1. A three-phase ac supply was used to apply
Action Taken 217 volts to bushings X1, X2, and X3. The following volt-
age measurements were obtained from the tap studs on the
This unit was moved to a repair facility where a complete selector switch (P to Q is the full tap range):
rewind was required. The design had the LTC tap winding
as the innermost winding, closest to the core. Outside of
the LTC winding were four layers of half height low-volt- Table 1
age winding (one for the X and one for the Y), followed by
Taps Phase 1 Volts Phase 2 Volts Phase 3 Volts
the high-voltage disk winding. Figure 3 is an arrangement
of the windings. P-Q 19.63 19.64 19.67
P-C 2.39 2.39 2.40
C-D 1.92 1.92 1.92
Case Number 2 D-E 2.39 2.39 2.40
Unit Rated 360/480/600/672 MVA * 525 kV to 138 E-F 1.92 1.92 1.92
kV F-G 2.39 2.39 2.39
History G-H 1.92 1.92 1.92
This large three-phase autotransformer is located in a H-K 2.39 2.40 2.40
utility substation. It had been in service for approximately
K-L 1.92 1.92 1.92
three years when a failure of the X3 bushing occurred. The
failure was limited to the bushing, and the unit was returned L-Q 2.39 2.40 2.40
to service after a through cleanup and replacement of the
failed bushing. The above pattern is produced by the alternating five-turn
and four-turn sections.

Knowing the number of turns in the low-voltage com-

mon and tap windings, the calculated voltages were: P-Q
19.70 volts, four-turn section 1.92 volts, and five-turn sec-
tion 2.40 volts.

Incident Two
Approximately eighteen months later, a flashover oc-
curred in the tap-changer compartment, taking the unit
out of service. There was some damage to the tap-changer
mechanism; however, the larger concern now was with the
condition of the helical tap winding. Preliminary tests (low-
voltage excitation and turns ratio) indicated that damage
had already occurred.

Testing
A single-phase ac source was used to apply 125 volts to
one phase at a time: X1-X0, X2-X0, and X3-XO. The fol-
lowing measurements were obtained from the tap studs on
Figure 4 — LTC Selector Switch Terminal Studs — Case No. 2 the selector switch (P to Q is the full tap range):
30 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1

Table 2 Based on the inability to build voltage across the tap

winding and the high exciting current, a decision was made
Taps Phase 1 Volts Phase 2 Volts Phase 3 Volts to drain the oil for an internal inspection. The only signifi-
cant observation was a raised end ring and deflected spacer
P-Q 22.8 0.9 22.8
at the top of the phase 2 winding. The end ring was quite
P-C 2.7 0.2 2.7 far into the window opening (approximately 22 inches), and
C-D 2.2 0.1 2.2 appeared to be over one of the tap winding layers. As in the
D-E 2.7 0.0 2.7 previous example, the taps were next to the core. Figure 5
is an arrangement of the windings.
E-F 2.1 0.2 2.1
F-G 2.7 0.3 2.7 Action Taken
G-H 2.2 0.0 2.2 This unit was also moved to a repair facility where a com-
H-K 2.7 0.1 2.7 plete rewind and repair of the tap changer was required.
K-L 2.2 0.0 2.2
L-Q 2.7 0.5 2.7
Case Number 3
Unit Rated 90/120/150 MVA * 125 kV * +/- 40 Degrees
To further confirm the apparent damage in the phase
2 tap winding, a higher voltage was used to excite the History
low-voltage “common” winding one phase at a time. This This three-phase regulating transformer (or phase shifter)
winding is rated at 79.67 kV. A variac was used to backfeed is located in a utility substation and serves as an intercon-
a pole mount distribution transformer which provided ap- nection between two utility power systems. It had been in
proximately 4.16 kV. The unit was still full of oil and the service for approximately one year when an electrical failure
following voltages and currents were obtained: occurred in the load tap-changer compartment. Most of the
damage was electrical in nature: carbon, tracking, splashed
Table 3 metal from arcing, etc.
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Construction
Voltage into Pole Mount Xfmr 125 2.5 125
As in both of the previous examples, a helical winding
Current (A) Pole Mount Xfmr 4 20 4 is used in this unit for the LTC tap winding. This wind-
Voltage into AutoXfmr LV 4166 83.3 4166 ing provides the regulation or phase shift for operation. It
Winding is made up of nine 18-turn windings. Figure 6 shows the
development of the LTC tap winding as viewed at the tap-
changer selector switch. This is one of the very few units I
know of that sustained a tap-to-tap fault and did not dam-
age the tap winding.

Testing
Because of the complex design of this phase shifter, a
single-phase ac source was used to apply 195 volts across
the entire tap winding (P to Q) one phase at a time. This
unit has both a series core and coil assembly and an excit-
ing core and coil assembly in the same tank. The following
measurements were obtained from the tap studs on the
selector switch:

Figure 5 — Winding Arrangement — Case No. 2

Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 31
This paper was originally presented at the 1992
Taps Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Doble Client Conference, and published in the
(Left) (Center) (Right) conference minutes, reprint by permission of Doble Engi-
P-C 21.7 21.7 21.7 neering Co.
C-D 21.7 21.7 21.7
D-E 21.7 21.7 21.7 N. Wayne Hansen received a BSET degree from LeTourneau Col-
E-F 21.7 21.7 21.7 lege in Longview, Texas. Upon graduation he joined the General Electric
Company as a field engineer in the installation and service engineering
F-G 21.7 21.7 21.7 department. He joined the Doble Engineering Company in 1987 and
G-H 21.7 21.7 21.7 served as principal engineer in the client service department. While at
Doble he served as secretary for the Insulating Fluids and Transformer
H-K 21.7 21.7 21.6 Client Committee. In March 1997 he accepted a senior startup engineer
K-L 21.7 21.7 21.7 position with the systems test department at the Central Artery/Tunnel
Project in Boston, Massachusetts. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE
L-Q 21.7 21.7 21.7 and is active in the Transformers Committee. Mr. Hansen is also an
Affiliate Member of NETA.

Action Taken
The failure was limited to the tap-changer mechanism and
compartment as shown by the above tests. The compartment
was thoroughly cleaned, and the phase 1 mechanism was
rebuilt. A portion of the phase 1 front insulating panel had to
be machined to remove carbon tracking that had burned to a
depth of 0.028 inch. All other damaged parts were repaired or
replaced.
The LTC compartment was flushed and filled under
vacuum with reprocessed oil. After a four-hour hold and
soak period, the unit was energized and returned to service.
As far as I know, the unit continues to operate in a satisfac-
tory manner.

Summary
This technique has proven to be a valuable tool to assist
test and maintenance personnel in determining the extent
and location of winding problems. It is simple and does not
require any expensive or elaborate equipment. The applica-
tion is limited only by the understanding of transformer
fundamentals and the creativity of the person using it.

References
Standard Handbook For Electrical Engineers, 10th
Edition - McGraw Hill Book Co. (1969)
A Guide To Transformer Maintenance, Transformer Main-
tenance Institute - S.D. Myers Inc. (1981)
Applied Practical Electricity, Coyne Electrical School - Chi-
cago, Ill. (1958)
Minutes of the Thirty-Fifth Annual International Conference
of Doble Clients 1968, Ratioing Power Transformers With
The Doble Set, R.A. Walker - Section 6-901
Minutes of the Forty-Eighth Annual International Confer-
ence of Doble Clients 1981, “In-House Repair On An
18/24/30 MVA 67/13.09Y KV Transformer,” M.A.
Salvant - Section 6-401
32 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1

Considerations in Sizing Primary

Fuses Due to Secondary Faults
for Padmount Transformers
NETA World, Spring 2001
by Steven C. Reed, P.E.
Electric Power Systems

Padmount transformers are used frequently in industrial and

commercial applications for distribution of power.Many of these
transformers include primary fuse protection for system
coordination and transformer protection. The manufac-
turer has a typical acceptable range of fuse sizes for each
size transformer. However, the manufacturer may supply a
fuse in the company’s high range that may not protect the
specific transformer-winding configuration for all types of
secondary faults. Engineers performing coordination studies
and field technicians need to be aware of common errors in
sizing primary fuses for the appropriate protection of the
transformer for various secondary faults.
The function of the transformer protective device is to
provide system as well as transformer protection. System
protection is the ability to isolate a faulted segment of the
distribution system due to a damaging fault condition (for
example, winding failure). System protection will allow for
the remainder of the electrical system to continue to operate
after removing the faulted section. Transformer protection
includes the correct operation of the fuses due to a bus or
cable fault located between the transformer and the nearest
secondary side overcurrent protective device. The degree of
transformer protection provided by the primary fuses should
be checked for the level of fault current and the type of fault Figure 1 —
(three-phase, phase-to-phase, or phase-to-ground) produc- Relationship between the per unit primary-side and secondary-side
ing the most demanding conditions. For certain secondary line currents and the associated per unit transformer winding currents
faults, the primary fuse may be exposed to a proportionally for (a) grounded-wye grounded-wye, (b) delta delta, and (c) delta
lower current than the windings. If this is the case a fuse grounded-wye connected transformers for various types of second-
ary faults. (Line current and winding current values are expressed in
must be selected to operate fast enough to avoid damage per unit of their respective values for a bolted three-phase secondary
to the windings. Reference Figure 1 for the per unit fault fault.)
currents on the primary, secondary, and internal windings.
As can be seen in Figure 1, there are conditions in a delta
delta transformer for a phase-to-phase fault and in a delta current on the primary leg versus 1.0 per unit in the primary
wye transformer for a phase-to-ground fault where the per winding. In order to ensure correct transformer protection
unit primary line side current is lower than the internal for the two cases mentioned, it is necessary to shift the
winding current. In particular, during a secondary ground transformer damage curve to the left in terms of per unit pri-
fault in a delta wye transformer there is only .58 per unit of mary-side line current to the transformer winding current.
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 33

Figure 2 — Wye Wye Ref. Volt: 480 Current Scale X 2 Figure 3 — Delta Delta Ref. Volt: 480 Current Scale X 2

As an example, we have used a 1500 kVA transformer, 12470 This allows for correct transformer protection. Various types
volt primary, 480 volt secondary with 5 percent impedance. of faults and transformer winding configuration are critical
The winding configuration will change for each example. in ensuring appropriate transformer protection.
This type of transformer would be considered a category II In addition to ensuring the primary fuse operates prior
transformer (501-5000 kVA, three-phase) in accordance to transformer damage, it is also possible to specify a fuse
with ANSI C57.12.00. category II transformers have a that will protect the secondary cable prior to the second-
fault curve for both frequent faults (more than 10 faults in ary protective device. Certain engineering design schemes
a lifetime) and infrequent faults (less than 10 in a lifetime). may allow for a padmount transformer to feed multiple
The long curve is the through fault curve for the infrequent secondary overcurrent devices with separate cable feeds.
fault. The shorter angled curve is the frequent fault curve Multiple feeds may allow for smaller sized cable feeds
based upon fault currents from 70-100 percent maximum with lower rated cable damage curves. Although this type
at I2 t = K. Reference Figure 2 for a wye wye winding con- of coordination is not required it is good practice to re-
figuration. There is only one curve since all current on the view the possibility of specifying a small enough fuse to
secondary is reflected to the primary and windings as 1.0 prevent a low-level fault from burning a large section of
per unit. Reference Figure 3 for a delta delta transformer. cable (prior to secondary protective device) versus blowing
There are two curves. The curve to the right represents the a primary fuse. It is always advisable to select the lowest
protection curve for a three-phase secondary fault. The curve possible fuse ratio that will allow for coordination of the
to the left is the original curve shifted to the left by .87 highest ampere feeder protective device and still meet
times the current values (x-axis) to take into consideration inrush standards. However, it is not always possible to
a phase-to phase fault. This allows for correct transformer select a small enough fuse to protect the secondary cables. Me-
protection. No phase-to-ground fault exists for a delta delta dium-voltage fuses are not intended to provide overload pro-
transformer. Reference Figure 4 for a delta wye transformer. tection, and ANSI C37.46 specifies the minimum operating
The far right curve represents transformer damage curve for current to be significantly greater than the ampere rating. As
a three-phase and phase-to-phase (primary current actually an example, “E” rated fuses operate at 200 to 220 percent of the
higher than winding) fault condition. The curve to the left ampere rating. Even the National Electrical Code specifies in
is the original curve shifted by .58 times the current value 240-3 (i) that where three-phase transformers are involved,
(x-axis) to take into consideration a phase-to-ground fault. overcurrent protective devices on the transformer primary
do not protect secondary circuit conductors.
34 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1
We have reviewed two criteria for selecting pri-
mary fuses due to various types of secondary faults.
However, there are many other criteria for selecting
fuses based upon primary and secondary conditions
such as:

• Voltage rating
• Available fault current
• Peak loads
• Magnetizing inrush currents along with hot-load
pickup current
• Transformer protection
• Coordination with primary and secondary protective
devices
• Protection of downstream conductors

Following these seven steps and being aware of certain

common errors should assist in correctly sizing the primary
fuses of a padmount transformer.

Steven C. Reed has a BS in electrical engineering from Villanova

University, a masters in business administration from the Olin School
of Business at Washington University in St. Louis, and his professional
Figure 4 — Delta Wye Ref. volt: 480 Current Scale X 2 engineering license in multiple states. Steve has worked at Electric Power
Systems for 12 years and served as a field engineer, system protection
engineer, and now serves as regional manager. He is a NETA Certified
Technician Level III.
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 35

Using Analytical Techniques

to Determine Cellulosic Degradation
in Transformers
NETA World, Winter 2001-2002

by Lance R. Lewand
Doble Engineering Company

Insulating materials used in power transformers have an oxygen atom in what is referred to as a glycosidic link-
been selected because of their abundance, low cost, and age. The long-chain cellulose molecules interact with each
longevity under normal operating conditions. Oils in the other due to hydrogen bonding resulting in strands, mats
U.S. are expected to last 30 or more years before forming and paper sheets.
excessive amounts of acids and sludges and can then be re- Much of the mechanical strength of paper and pressboard
juvenated by treatments with absorbents such as clay. They comes from the long-chain cellulose polymer. As the cel-
can also be easily replaced. Modern oil preservation systems lulose ages, the polymers are cleaved and become shorter,
are designed to minimize exposure of the insulating oil to resulting in reduced mechanical strength. The primary forms
air thus retarding its oxidation. The solid insulation (paper of degradation of the cellulose polymer are hydrolytic, oxida-
and pressboard) is the main dielectric in transformers and tive, and thermal. In the case of each of these mechanisms
also serves as mechanical support. Localized severe degra- free glucose is generated and the ring structure tends to be
dation in those materials must be considered most serious opened to form chains. Although temperature is likely to
as this can result in loss of adequate dielectric strength. be the most important factor, oxygen and water have been
In addition, cellulosic materials cannot be easily replaced; clearly shown to have a significant effect on the degradation
therefore, their longevity, which is primarily a function of of Kraft paper. The degradation of cellulose molecules results
temperature, becomes a limiting factor in the operation of in the formation of gases, primarily carbon monoxide and
transformers. The end of life criteria, tensile strength, or carbon dioxide, furanic compounds, and other byproducts.
degree of polymerization (DP) are physical characteristics The carbon oxide gases often provide early warning of
of the paper insulation. If paper insulation is maintained excessive damage. However, other materials such as paints
in a dry state, its good electrical properties will be retained and gaskets can outgas carbon oxide gases when exposed
even as it becomes quite brittle. However, mechanically to excessive temperatures and, therefore, are not always
weakened paper can break especially as windings vibrate attributable to the degradation of the cellulosic insulation.
and move, particularly during through faults thus reducing Confirmatory and complementary tests have been developed
insulating capability. Dielectric breakdown is then more which detect oil soluble breakdown products of the cellulose
likely to occur. chain (called furanic compounds) with the primary indica-
Fortunately, as cellulosic materials are degraded, byprod- tor being 2-furfural.
ucts such as carbon oxide gases (carbon monoxide and car-
bon dioxide) and furanic compounds are formed which can Furanic Compounds
serve as indicators of the aging process. Cellulosic materials,
Furanic compounds are five-membered ring structures
most often paper samples, can be tested directly for DP, a
that are formed in a manner in which the open-chain glu-
measure of its average molecular weight that correlates well
cose molecule goes through a series of dehydration reactions
with mechanical properties.
(elimination of water molecules) and then recycles into
Cellulose is a long straight chain polymer (polysaccha-
a five-membered ring structure. The furanic compounds,
ride) of glucose molecules (monomers), and is the major
unlike sugars such as glucose, are oil soluble and, therefore,
constituent of paper and pressboard. Glucose is a sugar
are detectable.
that has six carbons and is typically in the more stable ring
structure called a pyranose. The glucose rings are linked by
36 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1
High concentration of 2-furfural is a clear indication of For thermally-upgraded (TU) Kraft paper insulation
cellulose degradation as this is the only type of material in using the dicyandiamide process, practical guidelines are
transformers which yields this byproduct. Under some con- as follows:
ditions where carbon oxides may be lost, such as when a leak • For normal aging the rate of 2-furfural generation
occurs in the gas space of a nitrogen blanketed transformer should be much less than 50 ug/L/year and usually in
or from the conservator tank for those that are free breath- the vicinity of 10-20 ug/L/year
ing, the furanic compounds will continue to accumulate
and provide a gross indication of the relative aging of the • If estimating insulation quality from the 2-furfural con-
cellulosic insulation or a thermal incipient-fault condition tent, use these guidelines:
involving cellulosic materials. Conversely, when cellulosic • Normal <100 ug/L
materials are exposed to extreme temperatures which result
in charring, furanic compounds can be destroyed and the • Midlife (examine rate) > 100 <1000 ug/L
carbon oxides may be the only byproducts remaining in • Last third of life? > 1000 ug/L (flag for
significant quantities. further study)
Experience is required in evaluating the furanic com-
pound data since there are factors such as the type of insula-
tion preservation/oil expansion system, type of conductor- Degree of Polymerization (DP)
wrapped insulation, and family of transformer, all of which The degree of polymerization test is used to assess in-
influence the interpretation. For example, the treatment of sulation aging and is performed on paper samples taken
the oil or the transformer can result in the removal of sig- directly from the transformer so it is an intrusive test. The
nificant amounts of furanic compounds. Not knowing this DP provides an estimate of the average polymer size of the
information may lead to a misdiagnosis of the actual con- cellulose molecules in materials such as paper and press-
dition of the transformer. In addition, furanic compounds board. The DP correlates well with mechanical properties
are generated from thermal events, not electrical discharge such as tensile strength but has the advantage that it can
activity and therefore can be useful in the assessment of be performed on used materials that have taken a set dur-
failure mode and incipient-fault conditions leading to the ing service life. Generally, paper in new transformers has a
failure. Tests for furanic compounds should be performed DP of about 1000. Aged paper with a DP of 150-200 has
initially for all power transformers to establish a baseline, for little remaining mechanical strength, therefore making the
important or older transformers, when high carbon oxides windings more susceptible to mechanical damage during
are generated, for highly loaded transformers, and when physical movement, which can cause the paper to tear or
other tests indicate accelerated aging. crumble. This may occur when transformers are moved or
In order to detect the degradation of cellulosic materials, during events such as through faults. Since paper insulation
sufficient quantities must be degraded to increase the con- does not age uniformly due to thermal, water, oxygen and
centration of indicator gases and furanic compounds in the byproduct concentration gradients, samples from several
oil to thresholds considered to be problematic. Experience distinct locations provide the best diagnosis. The DP test
has shown that significant damage, including charring of provides the most reliable indication of the overall aging of
the cellulosic insulation, when limited to isolated hot spots the paper insulation as it is a direct measurement. This test
due to incipient-fault conditions, will produce carbon oxides should be performed:
and furanic compounds below thresholds used to indicate • when there is other evidence of very accelerated aging
problems involving the cellulosic insulation. of the insulation
The analysis of data for furanic compounds should be
based on the type of insulating paper used and the preserva- • when an internal investigation is being performed and
tion system employed. For Kraft paper insulation, suitable the transformer is more than 20 years old
guidelines are as follows: • for condition assessment of older transformers for pos-
• For normal aging <50 ug/L/year of 2-furfural should be sible refurbishment
generated. • for consideration of a partial rewind
• Generation rates >50 ug/L/year of 2-furfural is consid- • for failure assessment
ered accelerated aging
• for condition assessment of insulation when purchasing
• Values of 2-furfural > 1000ug/L should raise a flag for a service-aged transformer
further study
• to assess the condition of a transformer after an extreme
overheating event such as loss of cooling
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 37

Conclusions
The combination of analyses of furanic compounds in oil,
DP, along with routine dissolved gas-in-oil analysis is a very
powerful set of tools to assess the condition of the cellulosic
insulation. The more specific information known about a
transformer and its family, the better the diagnosis that can be
provided.

Lance Lewand received his BS degree at St. Mary’s College of Mary-

land in 1980. He has been employed by the Doble Engineering Company
for the past seven years and is currently Project Manager of Research
in the materials laboratory and Product Manager for the DOMINOTM
product line. Prior to his present position at Doble, he was the Manager
of the Transformer Fluid Test Laboratory and PCB and Oil Services at
MET Electrical Testing in Baltimore, MD. Mr. Lewand is a member
of ASTM committee D 27.
38 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1

Transformer Fluid:
A Powerful Tool for the Life Management
of an Aging Transformer Population
PowerTest 2002
(NETA Annual Technical Conference)
Presenter
Ted Haupert, TJ/H2b Analytical Services, Inc.
Co-Authors
Victor Sokolov, ZTZ Service
Armando Bassetto, Bassetto and Mak, Inc.
T.V. Oommen, Consultant
Dave Hanson, TJ/H2b Analytical Services, Inc.

Abstract In recent years there has been considerable interest in the

It has been estimated that transformer fluids contain life management of transformers. One can easily observe
about 70% of the diagnostic information available for this in the rapid development of economic based mainte-
transformers. The challenge is to access and use this infor- nance concepts such as Reliability Centered Maintenance,
mation effectively. Historically, testing programs have been Condition Based Maintenance, and Comprehensive Life
developed that evaluate separate facets of the transformer Extension as well as in such accompanying techniques as
condition. This paper considers the dynamics of transformer On-line Monitoring and On-line Processing. All of these
components considered together as a system leading to a developments reflect a changing view of asset management
comprehensive testing program for determining transformer and implicit in each of them is the need for and use of a
condition. Particularly with the changing needs of the greater amount of information. In order to meet the devel-
electric power industry, optimized testing and diagnostic oping needs of the asset managers, there will continue to
protocols will be fundamental to transformer life manage- be a high demand for new technologies and new diagnostic
ment in the future. tools to fulfill the requisite need for information.
The most easily accessible and efficient way to determine
transformer condition is to use the fluid as the diagnostic
Introduction medium. It has been estimated that transformer fluids con-
The global task of the electric power industry in the first tain about 70% of the available diagnostic information for
quarter of the 21st century will be to manage the service- transformers. The challenge is to access and use it effectively.
ability of a huge transformer population that has already Traditional oil test programs utilize only a few diagnostic
been in service for 25-40 years. Concurrent with this task parameters leaving a myriad of important oil-based infor-
will be meeting the fundamental objective of transformer mation unused.
life management, defined simply as “getting the most out The goal of this work is to present ways to real-
of the asset”. One way to accomplish this is to ensure that ize the potential benefits of oil testing and to suggest
appropriate actions are taken to promote the longest pos- some algorithms to assess the condition of a trans-
sible service life under any operating conditions. It is also former not as a characterization of symptoms but
possible that within this definition taking no action and as a comprehensive evaluation for life management.
assuming an economically justified risk of failure could be
acceptable. Characterizing the Fluid
In order to make the best decisions, it is imperative to un-
derstand the condition of the equipment. Without sufficient Functionally, most electrical insulating fluids are con-
information the likelihood of no action leading to a failure sidered to be equivalent and they are handled as such. It is
may only appear to be acceptable and the cost of appropriate common to see transformer fluid levels adjusted using avail-
actions may only appear to optimize performance. able fluid stocks and used oils combined for processing and
reuse. The only fluids that are typically managed separately
are either specialty fluids or contaminated fluids.
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 39
Chemically, most electrical insulating fluids are not Table 1 illustrates that significant differences in aromatic
equivalent. While the differences normally do not defeat carbon content, CA, and specific gravity result in signifi-
the prescribed functions of the fluids, they do affect the cantly different gas solubilities, as indicated by the Ostwald
way they function. coefficients.
Transformer fluids vary in composition from nearly Table 2
pure compounds to mixtures that are too complex to fully
describe. The measurable chemical features of these fluids Solubility of Water in Oils
vary in concentration from percent, which is parts per hun- with Different Aromatic Content
dred, to parts per trillion. Those components in the percent
range, both major and minor, describe the basic chemical Aromatic Water Solubility, ppm
composition and determine the basic fluid properties and Content
reactions involving the fluid. The effects of composition can Oils CA, % 20 C 40 C 70 C
vary widely. The examples shown in Tables 1, 2 & 3 dem- 1 5 42.8 97.5 279
onstrate variations in properties produced by variations in 2 8 46.8 108 316
composition and illustrate the importance of determining
fluid composition. 3 16 56.2 128.3 369.2
4 21 75 162 436
Table 1 5 Silicone-oil 174 314.7 675.4
†
Gas Solubility Properties of Insulating Fluids
Oils Properties Ostwald Coefficients at 20°C Table 2 illustrates the importance of aromatic carbon
H2 N2 air C 2 H2 CO2 content, CA, for determining the solubility of water in
mineral oils.
I-hydro-refined CA=1.6% 0.05 0.089 0.103 1.02 1.1 Table 3 illustrates some of the variability found in gas
Sp.Gr.=0.856 generation. A study by Cigre WG 15.01 has shown that
II CA=14% 0.044 0.085 0.091 1.1 1.1 some oils may produce hydrogen at low temperatures (below
Sp.Gr.=0.869 130°C). A possible explanation may be that the catalysts
III-synthetic CA=66% 0.034 0.061 0.061 1.92 1.71
used today are sufficient to produce “over-hydrogenated
Sp.Gr.=0.968
oils”. It has been proposed that these oils contain some
molecules where hydrogen atoms occupy an unstable posi-
† Provided by Prof. Lipstein
Table 3
Gas Evolution in Different Oils at Selected Temperatures†
Gas Concentration (ppm)
Type of oil Temperature Time H2 CH4 CO CO2 C2H4 C2H6
(°C) (hours)

žž Initial 0 0 1 0 212 0 0
100 6 5 1 41 408 0 0
120 6 35 42 190 931 2.6 43
120 +16 78 66 283 1772 2.6 62
Nytro-11GX Initial 0 0 0 0 246 0 0
100 6 31 0 55 413 4.8 0
120 6 79 39 222 833 10 9
120 +16 116 39 227 1068 10 14
YPF-64 Initial 0 0 0 0 297 0 0
100 6 5 1 73 439 0 0.5
120 6 31 23 282 898 3.8 0.5
120 +16 31 39 298 1392 3.8 7.8
140 6 55 22 358 961 2.6 0.5
Y-3 (Technol) Initial 0 0 0 0 547 0 0
100 6 5 1 16.2 611 3.2 0
120 6 47 1 63 1076 3.2 0
Shell Diala Ax Initial 0 0 0 0 642 0 0
100 6 0 1 26 797 0 0
120 6 0 3.9 130 1471 0 0

† Tests performed in the ZTZ – Service Material Lab

40 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1
tion. A mild heating could release such atoms. A similar Characterization of the transformer fluid is the defining
effect may occur with partial discharge. Typically, the rate of process that sets the stage for all future assessments by:
gas generation during partial discharge varies in the range 1. Determining how the fluid will interact with the rest
of 5-50 l per joule of dissipated energy. However, some of the system and establishing the basis for diagnostic
hydro-refined oils have rates of gas generation up to 200 evaluations.
l per joule of dissipated energy. It has also been shown
that some fluids may have substantial production of CO, 2. Identifying residues of equipment manufacturing, fluid
CO2 and hydrocarbons at the operating temperatures of a production, transformer processing and handling which
transformer. provides source information for contamination and its
It is important to note that the parameters treated in these potential consequences.
tables are all fundamentally important for any diagnostic 3. Identifying baseline values for the components that will
assessment. Because the magnitude of the variations is suf- change.
ficient to confuse or misdirect the diagnostic process, it is
important to characterize those aspects of the basic chemical 4. Confirming the condition of the fluid with regard to
composition that define these fundamental fluid properties. functionality as well as health, safety and environmental
Fortunately, once they are known, the basic composition and concerns.
the associated properties will generally not change unless The use of this information in conjunction with the in-
substantial mixing with another fluid occurs. formation from an ongoing fluid testing program provides
In addition to the major and minor fluid components, the basis for transformer life management.
there are a number of important components found at low
levels. The reasons for their importance are diverse. For ex- The Fluid as a Part of the System
ample, consider components such as sulfur, silicon, 2,6-diter-
tiary-butyl para-cresol or poly-aromatic hydrocarbons. Many maintenance guides still consider the insulating
Sulfur in transformer oil is usually kept below 1%. Cigre fluid to be a separate component that can be monitored and
WG 15.01 has suggested that heat and electrical stress may treated separately from the fluid-paper insulation system
change the sulfur in the oil to a form of corrosive sulfur, or from the transformer as a whole. In fact, the fluid is an
which has a detrimental effect on copper. Sulfur may also integral part of the transformer playing a dynamic role in
be introduced from other transformer components and the condition of the entire system.
similarly changed to form a corrosive sulfur. Recently, one Consider the role the fluid plays in the serviceability
utility reported failures of several shunt reactors where the of the dielectric system. Aging tests were performed on
suggested failure mechanism was a short-circuit between transformer models in the Transformer Research Institute
adjacent turns due to corrosion caused by copper sulfide. at Zaporozhye, Ukraine to evaluate the dielectric life and
Utilities typically specify oil with a low corrosive sulfur the mechanical life of the insulation system. These studies
content but do not have any specification for the total demonstrate that the dielectric life of the insulation system
sulfur content. can be shorter than its mechanical life due to deterioration
Silicon in transformer fluid, with the obvious exclusion of the oil-paper system and the consequential deterioration
of silicone fluid, is usually found as an additive at less than of the dielectric withstand strength of the coil-to-coil insula-
5-10 parts per million. At these low concentrations silicon tion. As shown in Table 4, at 100°C the conductor insulation
contributes antifoaming properties which aid processing life is 50 years based on mechanical properties and only 22
under vacuum. At higher concentrations silicon enhances years due to deterioration of dielectric strength.
foaming and can severely interfere with vacuum processing
operations. Table 4
2,6-Ditertiary-butyl para-cresol (DBPC) or 2,6-diter- Estimated Life of Transformer Winding
tiary-butyl phenol (DBP) is sometimes added to trans- Insulation Under the Influence of Temperature,
former oil at concentrations as high as 0.3 percent to act Electrical and Mechanical Stresses†
as an oxidation inhibitor. Presence of the inhibitor can
enhance insulation life. It also changes the relationships of Hot Spot Estimated Mechanical Estimated Dielectric Life
the oxidation products found in the oil. Temperature, °C Life (Reduction of DP (Reduction of dielectric
to 200), Years strength by 40%), Years
In addition to their influence on basic fluid properties, 80 6229 124
poly-aromatic hydrocarbons or PAH’s, may present a health
concern. A recent study suggests naphthenic base oils with 100 50 22.1
more than 2 percent PAH are potentially carcinogenic. 110 17 10
125 4 3.3
140 1 1.16

160 0.19 0.32

† Tests performed in ZTZ – Service Material Lab

Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 41
Water created from the degradation of the paper interacts the insulation is very dry, eg., with 0.5% moisture, virtually
with the paper-oil system to produce this effect. The increase no bubbles are formed. Aged transformers with 2.0% or
of water available from the paper leads to an increased more moisture could release bubbles at hot spot tempera-
relative saturation of water in the oil and a reduction in tures greater than 140oC. Since the dielectric strength of
dielectric strength. This in turn leads to an increased adsorp- the bubbles is significantly less than the insulation system,
tion of water on particles that adsorb water, further reduc- their formation can result in discharge events ranging from
ing the dielectric strength of the fluid. When the relative partial discharge to flashover.
saturation is sufficient, emulsion formation in the vicinity When a temperature drop within the transformer is suf-
of surface-active substances further reduces the dielectric ficient to change the relative saturation of water from less
strength of the insulation. Studying the electrical models of than 100 percent to greater than 100 percent, an emulsion
the transformer paper-oil insulation system has shown that of oil and water will form. If an appropriate surface is avail-
the dielectric safety margin of both the major and minor able or the temperature drop is extreme enough, further
insulation contaminated with water is still determined by condensation will occur forming water drops or “rain”. Both
the dielectric withstand strength of the oil. emulsified water and free water substantially reduce the
Water is usually present in the oil in a soluble or dis- dielectric strength of the insulation system. Transported by
solved form but also may present as a form adsorbed by the fluid their movement through the transformer can cause
“polar” aging products and called “bound water”. It has been numerous dielectric and mechanical problems both with the
found that as temperature increases, some bound water can insulation system and adjacent cellulosic materials.
be converted into soluble water. Test results of the water Finally, the presence of water in the cellulose participates
content of aged oil sampled from two current transform- in the degradation of the cellulose. Each doubling of mois-
ers are shown in Table 5. After heating the oil at 100°C ture concentration doubles the rate of degradation. This
for 5 hours the water content in oil increased significantly. process reduces the degree of polymerization (DP) of the
A similar phenomenon has been observed in bushing oils. cellulose thereby reducing its mechanical strength.
Most likely, the dissolved polar compounds in the oil are Like water, fluid oxidation products are instrumental
the source of this additional water. in the degradation of the insulation system. The oxidation
process culminates with the formation of sludge which:
Table 5 • As a suspended impurity, reduces the fluid dielectric
Transformation of Bound Water to Soluble withstand strength in a manner similar to particles.
Water from Aged Oil Not in Contact with Paper† • As a semi-conductive sediment, reduces the insulation
dielectric withstand strength and may provide for track-
Water content ppm ing.
Type of oil Properties Before After heating
heating at 100°C for 5 • When extremely acidic, will aggressively age both the
hours oil and the cellulose insulation.
Acidity=0.064mg KOH/g
Used oil from IFT=32 dynes/cm 26.3 85
The conditions under which sludge will form are not
750 kV CT PF90 =5.32%
always readily apparent. In the presence of a strong electri-
cal field sludge may form even though the acidity is low.
A number of sludge deposits have been found on local
Ca=18% insulation zones where the electric field strengths are quite
Used oil from Acidity=0.064mg KOH/g 23.5 132 high. These deposits were not apparent until the windings
750 kV CT IFT=32 dynes/cm PF90=6.1% were dismantled.
The correlation between traditional aging characteristics
such as color, acidity, interfacial tension, dielectric breakdown
† Tests performed in ZTZ – Service Material Lab voltage, dissipation factor, resistivity and sludge appearance
during oil stability tests may be quite different for different
There are also other temperature driven dynamics of wa- oils. These differences increase significantly when the fluids
ter including “bubble formation” and “rain”. EPRI sponsored are aging in transformers, due to the effects of transformer
projects in the late 1980s and early 1990s confirmed prior materials, operating temperatures, dielectric stress and interac-
observation that bubbles could be generated from a sudden tion of aging products with cellulose (See Table 6).
overload of the transformer. This type of bubble generation
has been studied in more detail, and it now appears that
these bubbles consist mostly of water vapor released from
the cellulosic paper wraps on the hot conductor. The hot spot
temperature is a critical factor, but the water content of the
paper insulation is also important. Oil preservation systems,
such as nitrogen-blanketed and conservator systems, showed
very little difference at low moisture levels in the paper. If
42 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1

Table 6
Relationships of Aging Characteristics of Service
Aged Oils from Service-Aged Power Transformers
Sample Acidity IFT Color Infrared PF90 SN Sludge
Absorbance
1 0.081 22.0 3.5 3 3.65 0.018
2 0.035 25.9 2.5 2 2.25 0.014
3 0.124 23.1 3.0 8 4.09 0.017
4 0.154 21.9 6.5 11.69 0.015
5 0.109 28.6 5.0 8 8.84 0.010
Figure 2 — Correlation between the differential infrared
6 0.151 23.0 4.5 5.84 0.577 0.012
absorbance at 1710 cm-1 and the acid number
7 0.111 25.9 4.0 11 15.40 0.310 0.016
8 0.098 26.1 4.0 11 15.61 0.312 0.011
9 0.098 27.2 4.0 11 21.89 0.313 0.013
10 0.193 26.3 4.5 9.5 4.01 0.014

Figure 1 shows a correlation between acid number and

interfacial tension test results of oil samples obtained from
25 power transformers, rated 138-13.8 kV, 12-60 MVA. The
best correlation occurs in the least oxidized fluids. As the
oxidation proceeds, the correlation begins to diverge.

Figure 3 — Correlation between the differential infrared

absorbance of oils at 1710 cm-1 and the IFT

Gas formation occurs primarily in the oil. With the ex-

ception of bubble formation, gases are dissolved directly into
the oil and distributed throughout the transformer. Changes
in temperature will induce migration of gases between oil,
cellulose and any gas spaces and may significantly change
gas-in-oil concentrations, especially when the temperature
changes are large (See Table 7). The case shown in Table 7
is that of a 750 kV Shunt Reactor with a source of localized
overheating that was stored for 1 year. Dissolved gas tests
Figure 1 — Correlation between acid number were performed both before and after heating the unit for 3
and interfacial tension test results.
days and the differences in gas distribution are dramatic.
Figures 2 and 3 show the correlation between the dif-
ferential infrared absorbance of fluids at 1710 cm-1 versus Table 7
their acid number and their interfacial tension, respectively. Effect of Temperature Distribution of Gases
The discrepancy is more significant for acid numbers higher
than 0.05 mg KOH/g and for IFTs lower than 20 Dynes/ H2 CH4 C2H4 C2H2 C2H6 CO CO2 O2 N2
cm. The practical importance of such a discrepancy is that ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm % %

there may be oils in service with fairly acceptable IFTs and 20 °C, before trace 172 78 ND 56 923 1929 0.08 2.9
acid numbers that may contain a significant amount of non- heating
acidic polar compounds detected by infrared spectroscopy. 64 °C, after 56 269 147 1.3 90 1163 2654 0.09 5.5
The typical oil tests are not capable of completely assessing heating
the progress of oil aging.
Gas bubbles may be produced in transformers from
severe fault conditions, a sudden release of pressure in gas
saturated systems, or an overload condition. Only a serious
fault condition is expected to release large quantities of
fault gases that do not get absorbed into the oil immedi-
ately. Nitrogen or air blanketed transformers may develop
negative pressure in the gas space during rapid cool down.
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 43
If the pressure differential between the gas in the oil and A selection of parameters that would achieve the infor-
gas in the gas space is appreciable, spontaneous release of mation goals is suggested in Table 9. The diagnostic use of
bubbles is possible. Transformer failures from a “cold start” oil-based information may be assisted by creating functional
of a stagnant transformer from bubble release in the su- test/information groups such as:
persaturated oil is one of the causes of sudden transformer
failures. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure that such extreme • Characterization – which gives parameters that can be
pressure differential does not occur. Modern transformers used to identify the oil
with conservator tanks avoid this problem. As mentioned
• Aging status – which gives parameters relevant to the
earlier, an overload condition with sufficient moisture and
aging process
heat will produce bubbles of water vapor. Bubbles from any
of these phenomena can lead to discharge events ranging • Dielectric status – which gives parameters used to de-
from PD to flashover. termine the dielectric safety margin and dielectric char-
All of these examples illustrate that obtaining the best acteristics of the insulation spaces.
information from oil testing requires an understanding of
• Degradation status – which gives parameters relevant to
the dynamics of the transformer as a system including the
faults, failure and wear.
distribution of water, gases, contaminants and decomposi-
tion products between the fluid, solid insulation and gas
spaces.

The Fluid as the Diagnostic Field

The possible benefits from using oil testing are indicated
on Table 8, the Transformer Functional Failure Model
suggested by the Cigre workgroup on Transformer Life
Management, Cigre WG12.18. One may observe that for
this collection most of the problems indicated could, in
principle, be detected by means of oil analysis.

Table 8
Functional Failure Model
Possible detection of typical defects and faults through oil tests.
SYSTEM, DEFECT Detection FAULTS Detection
COMPONENTS Through oil Through oil
Dielectric Excessive water Yes Destructive PD Yes
Major Insulation Oil contamination Yes Localized tracking No
Minor Insulation Surface contamination No Creeping discharge Yes
Leads Abnormal aged oil Yes Heated cellulose Yes
cellulose aging Yes Flashover Yes
static electrification Yes
PD of low energy Yes

Magnetic circuit Loosening clamping No Localized hot spot Yes

Core insulation Short/open-circuit Yes Sparking/ Yes
Clamping in grounding circuit discharges
Magnetic shields circulating current Yes Gassing Yes
Grounding circuit Floating potential Yes
Aging lamination No

Mechanical Loosening clamping No Winding distortion No

Windings radial
Clamping axial
Leads support twisting
Insulation Failure Yes

Electric circuit Poor joint Yes Localized hot spot Yes

Leads Poor contacts Yes Open-circuit No
Winding conductors Contact deterioration Yes Short-circuit Yes
44 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1

Assessing the Transformer Condition for Assessing the Aging Status

Life Management of a Transformer
The assessment begins with a compilation of informa- The test information for aging status specified in Table
tion about the transformer. This includes information about 9 was chosen to answer the following questions:
the ratings, the core and coil such as their weights and
configuration, the preservation system, the cooling system, • What is the remaining inhibitor content?
the presence and configuration of a load tap-changer, the
• What is the non-acidic polar content?
presence of a no-load tap-changer, and the full characteriza-
tion of the fluid. This information should be collected and • What is the acid content?
compiled in a manner that allows it to be available whenever
• What is the water content?
an assessment is performed.
Summary operation, event, and maintenance activity data • What is the amount of esterification?
should also be compiled and available for assessments. As
• What is the amount of sludge?
was illustrated above, isolated test data may imply one cause
but be the result of a different one. Only with a completely • What is the amount of insoluble sludge?
integrated set of information can a thorough assessment
• What is the degree of polymerization of the paper?
be achieved.
We are proposing, for functional purposes, that the com-
The answers to these questions integrated with the com-
mentaries on the assessment address the topics of aging,
piled transformer information provide the basis for assessing
dielectric and degradation. Note that there is an overlap of
the stages of aging and its potential consequences. From
information between these topics and that these functional
the assessment, a set of conditions such as (1) presence of
groupings are not intended to limit a diagnostic testing
water, acids and non-acid polars which accelerate cellulose
program.
decomposition, (2) end of the induction period indicating
a trend of accelerated degradation, or (3) appearance of
sludge, may be chosen to initiate a course of action like
those in Figure 4.

Table 9
A Functional Classification of Oil-Based Information

Classification of Oil-Based Information for Transformer Life Management

Characterization Aging Status Dielectric Status Degradation status

Fluid Composition Free Radicals Water content DGA

Carbon Types Visible Spectrum Percent saturation Extended DGA
Specific Gravity Acidity Bound water Furanic compounds
Viscosity Saponification Number Particle profile Phenols
Refractive Index Inhibitor contents Breakdown voltage Cresols
Permittivity IFT Impulse strength Dissolved metals
PAH content IR spectroscopy Charging Tendency Particle profile
Inhibitor Content Dissipation factor Resistivity
Total sulfur Resistivity Dissipation factor
Corrosive Sulfur Polarization Index Insoluble sludge
PCB Content Turbidity Gas tendency
BTA Content Insoluble sludge PD intention voltage
Sludge content
Oxidation stability tests
Furanic compounds
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 45

Assessing the Dielectric Status • What is the amount of insulation surface contamination?
of a Transformer • What is the remaining mechanical strength of the solid
The condition assessment of the dielectric system of a insulation?
transformer incorporates quantification of those factors that • Does this provide adequate withstand capability?
may reduce the dielectric safety margin of insulation under
operating and through fault conditions. This information is Similar to the aging status, the answers to these ques-
used to answer the following basic questions: tions integrated with the compiled transformer informa-
tion provide the basis for assessing the stages of dielectric
• What is the contamination with water, particles, acid, strength and withstand potential. From the assessment, a
sludge? set of conditions such as (1) potential reduction of dielectric
• Will there be a substantial reduction in the dielectric strength from conductive particles, (2) potential reduction
margin at operating temperatures? of dielectric strength from sediment or surface active sub-
stances, (3) potential reduction of dielectric strength from
• What is the dielectric withstand capability? water, or (4) potential reduction of mechanical withstand
• What is the amount of water in the solid insulation? capability, may be chosen to initiate a course of action.
• Will there be bubble evolution at any allowable amount
of loading?

Oil A ging

TTransformer
r ansformer Identifi cation
Identi ficati on Oi l Identification

Preservation system
Stage of aging
Cooling Prediction of further deterioration
Aggressiveness of oil decay
Load/Temperature
Insulation design review
Possible cause of aging:
Fluid characteristics
Overheating
The Effect of oil decay on Compatibility with materials
the Transformer:
Paper deterioration
Oil/surface contamination Selection of the Process
PD occurrence/ bubbling for Restoration.
Assessment of the Life
Span after Restoration
Selection of the Process
for Insulation
Regeneration and
Reconditioning

Service advisement
Rehabilitation program

Figure 4 — A flow chart of actions for fluid aging

46 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1

Assessing the Degradation Status of a Conclusion

Transformer Transformer life management requires comprehensive
Degradation by-products such as gases, furans, phenols, condition assessments to be made from a system’s per-
cresols, dissolved metals, and metal particles are effective spective. Because the transformer fluid is systemic, a large
indicators of degradation processes. Once indicated, the amount of this requisite information is available from fluid
challenge is to identify the source and seriousness of the testing. In order to obtain the most complete and therefore
process. The scheme in Figure 5 shows how gas information useful information from fluid testing, an understanding of
can be used to begin to locate the source of several degrada- the dynamics of the transformer as a system, including the
tion processes. Combined with the additional information distribution of water, gases, contaminants and decomposi-
available for the transformer, the success of identifying the tion products between the fluid, solid insulation and gas
source and severity can be greatly enhanced. spaces, is required. Using this understanding and the test
information obtained, a diagnostic assessment can be made.
This diagnosis coupled with an effective set of action plans
provides the asset manager with the ability to choose the
course of action best suited to the utility’s needs.

Gassing

External Internal
sources sources

Thermal - Thermal - Sparking,

cellulose Oil arcing

Divertor
LTC
Leads Current Loops Static
carried stray flux electrification
Oil Strands circuit
pump coils Loops
Desorption Leads main flux
Structured
from connection
insulation
insulation
Winding Operative Stray Main
Overheating
joints voltage flux flux
while
processing
LTC
Unusual contacts Shields, Closed
sources floating loops
potential
F loating
Creeping potential
discharge

Figure 5 — Diagram of how gas information can be used to locate sources of degradation processes
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 47

References 16. T. V. Oommen, ‘Update on Metal-in-Oil Analysis

1. John Sabau, Rolf Stokhuyzen, “Aging and Gassing As It Applies to Transformer Oil Pump Problems’ ,
of Mineral Insulating Oils”, Proceedings of TechCon Doble Conf. Paper, 1984
2000 17. Sakkie vanWyke, “The Ever-Aging Power Plants in
2. Dr Bruce Pahlavanpour, National Grid Company South Africa: Analyzing the Current Scenerio and
plc, “UK Insulating Oil Aging: Reclamation or Re- Establishing Effective Management Strategies”,
placement” Proceedings of TechCon 2000 Aus-NZ.

3. Dr Bruce Pahlavanpour & Gordon Wilson, National 18. V.G.Davydov, O.M.Roizman, “Moisture Phenom-
Grid Company plc, Kelvin Avenue, Leatherhead, ena and Moisture Assessment in Operating Trans-
Surrey, KT22 7ST Insulating Oil Management Ser- formers”, Proceedings of TechCon 2000 Aus-NZ.
vices
4. W.Tumiatti and B. Pahlavanpour “Condition Moni-
toring by Oil Chemical Analysis” Dr. Ted Haupert is professor emeritus of analytical chemistry at
California State University-Sacramento. He is one of the founders of
5. T. V. Oommen* Bubble Evolution from Transformer Analytical Associates and presently an owner of TJ/H2b Analytical
Overload, Paper for presentation at the IEEE In- Services, Incorporated. Dr. Haupert specializes in chemical analyses
sulation Life Subcommittee, Niagara Falls, Canada, exclusively for the electric power industry. He is involved with testing
methods related to dielectric materials (liquids, solids, and gases) that can
October 17, 2000. provide for the assessment of the condition of electrical equipment. He
6. CIGRE WG 12.18 “Life management of Trans- is a pioneer in the development of dissolved gas analysis (DGA) and he
formers, Draft Interim Report”, CIGRE SC12 Col- continues to be a leader in the field of diagnostic and preventative testing.
Dr. Haupert is a graduate of the University of Wisconsin-Madison and
loquium, July 1999, Budapest. since 1972 he has worked in the area of developing analytical methods
7. E. Savchenko and V. Sokolov “Effectiveness of Life related to insulating materials. He is a member of the American Chemical
Society, The Society of Sigma Xi, the Association of Official Analytical
Management Procedures on Large Power Trans- Chemists, the Insulating Fluids Subcommittee of the IEEE, and the
formers”, CIGRE SC12 Colloquium, 1997, Sydney. Insulating Liquids and Gases Committee of the ASTM.
8. IEEE “Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of Elec-
tric Power Apparatus-Part 1 : Oil Filled Power trans-
formers, Regulators and Reactors”, IEEE Std 62-
1995.
9. V.V. Sokolov, Z. Berler, V. Rashkes ”Effective
Methods of the Assessment of the Insulation Sys-
tem Conditions in Power Transformers: A View
Based on Practical Experience”, Proceedings of
the EIC/EMCWE’99 Conference, October 26-
28,1999,Cincinnati,OH
10. V. V. Sokolov and B. V. Vanin “Experience with In-
Field Assessment Of Water Contamination of Large
Power Transformers”, EPRI Substation Equipment
Diagnostic Conference VII, 1999.
11. V.V. Sokolov Consideration on Power Transformer
Condition based Maintenance,
12. EPRI Substation Equipment Diagnostic Conference
VIII, February 20-23, 2000, New Orleans, LA
13. W.McNutt, A,Bassetto, P,Griffin. Tutorial on Elec-
trical-Grid Insulating Papers in Power Transformers.
1993 Doble Clients Committees Fall Meeting.
14. T. V. Oommen, EPRI Report EL-7291 ‘Further Ex-
perimentation on Bubble Generation During Trans-
former Overload’, March 1992
15. T. V. Oommen, ‘Particle Analysis on Transformer Oil
for Diagnostic and Quality Control Purposes’ Doble
Conf. Paper, 1984
48 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1

Understanding Water
in Transformer Systems
The Relationship Between Relative Saturation
and Parts per Million (ppm)

NETA World, Spring 2002

by Lance R. Lewand
Doble Engineering Company

Water content in transformer oil in parts per million celerates the aging of the paper insulation, with the aging
(ppm) is a familiar concept to most in our industry, and lim- rate being directly proportional to the water content. For
its of 30 to 35 ppm are generally referenced. However, these example, as the water content in the paper doubles so does
simple concentration limits have limited value in diagnosing the aging rate of the paper. The deterioration of the paper
the condition of transformer systems and, thus, the concept insulation results from the weakening of the hydrogen bonds
of relative saturation (RS) of water in transformer oil has of the molecular chains of the paper fibers. For these reasons
been re-introduced over the past 15 years. The concept of it is important to have a means of assessing the moisture
relative saturation of water in transformer oil is not a new content of transformer systems and to maintain transformers
one and was originally championed by Frank Doble as early in a reasonably dry state.
as the mid 1940s.Thus, this article discusses and details the In order to fully understand water and its dynamics in
relationship between RS and ppm. transformer systems, a short explanation of the different
It is well known that moisture continues to be a major types of water encountered and the concepts of solubility
cause of problems in transformers and a limitation to their and relative saturation are provided.
operation. Particularly problematic is excessive moisture
in transformer systems, as it affects both solid and liquid Types of Water in Oil
insulation with the water in each being interrelated. Water
affects the dielectric breakdown strength of the insulation, Water can exist in several different states within the
the temperature at which water vapor bubbles are formed, transformer. There are three basic types of water found as-
and the aging rate of the insulating materials. In the extreme sociated with transformer oil:
case, transformers can fail because of excessive water in the • Dissolved water is hydrogen bonded to the hydrocarbon
insulation. The dielectric breakdown strength of the paper molecules of which oil is composed.
insulation decreases substantially when its water content • Emulsified water is supersaturated in solution but has
rises above two to three percent by weight. Similarly, the not yet totally separated from the oil. It usually gives oil
dielectric breakdown voltage of the oil is also affected by a milky appearance.
the relative saturation (RS) of water in oil. The maximum
loading that is possible while retaining reliable operation • Free water is also supersaturated in solution but in a
(i.e., preventing the formation of water vapor bubbles) is a high enough concentration to form water droplets and
function of the insulation water content. For example, dry separate from the oil.
transformers (<0.5 percent water in paper) are much less
susceptible to water bubble evolution. In this case, emer- In most cases, when one is analyzing or discussing the
gency loading at hot-spot temperatures below 180°C may amount of water in oil, dissolved water is being referred to
be possible with little risk of bubble formation. In contrast, as emulsified, and free water is visually apparent.
a wetter transformer, with 2.0 percent moisture in the pa-
per, runs the risk of water bubble formation with hot-spot
temperatures as low as 139°C under the same conditions.
A more long-term problem is that excessive moisture ac-
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 49

What is Water in Oil (ppm), Solubility Where: So is the solubility of water in mineral oil
of Water in Oil, and RS of Water in Oil? K is the temperature in Kelvin (°C + 273)
The detection of water in oil performed in the laboratory Relative Saturation (RS) is the actual amount of water
is most often performed by an analytical technique called measured in the oil in relation to the solubility level at that
Karl Fischer titration described in ASTM Test Method temperature. Relative saturation, expressed in units of per-
D 1533 or IEC Method 60814. Both methods are very cent, is the concentration of water (Wc) in the oil relative to
comparable and involve a coulometric titration technique the solubility (So) or concentration of water the oil can hold
involving the reduction of an iodine-containing reagent. The at the measurement temperature, as shown in Equation 2.
methods are used to determine the amount of water in an
oil sample on a weight-to-weight (mg/kg) basis or what is (Equation 2) RS = Wc /So (100%)
commonly known as ppm (parts per million).
The concepts of solubility and relative saturation can Where: Wc is in ppm wt./wt.
sometimes be difficult to understand, but it is an impor- So is in ppm wt./wt.
tant concept when trying to assess the dryness or wetness
of a transformer system. Solubility is defined as the total For example, a sample of oil was taken for determination
amount of water than can be dissolved in the oil at a spe- of the water content. The temperature of the oil at the time
cific temperature. The solubility of water is not constant of sampling was 62°C. The laboratory performed the analy-
in oil but changes due to temperature. As the temperature sis and determined the water content to be 11 ppm. From
increases, the amount of water that can be dissolved in oil Equation 1, it is calculated that the solubility level at 62°C
also increases. The increase is not linear but exponential in is 259 ppm. As discussed previously, relative saturation is
function. For example, at 10°C only 36 ppm of water can the actual measured value compared to the solubility value.
be dissolved in the oil, whereas when the temperature in- In this case it is 11 ppm divided by 259 ppm resulting in a
creases to 90°C, the amount of water that can be dissolved relative saturation of 4.25 percent.
in the oil increases tremendously to almost 600 ppm. The
table shown lists the calculated solubility limits for oil at
various temperatures. These levels are the greatest amount Effects of Relative Saturation on Dielectric
of water that can be dissolved at the temperatures listed. If Strength
the concentration of water in oil is greater than that shown To properly maintain and operate transformers, an
for that specific temperature then, in all likelihood, the oil understanding of the effects of moisture on the dielectric
is supersaturated with water, and free or emulsified water breakdown strength of the electrical insulating liquids is
could exist. necessary. Increasing moisture content reduces the dielectric
breakdown voltage of insulating liquids. The correlation be-
Table 1 — Water in Oil Solubility as a tween the water content in new, filtered, mineral oils at room
Function of Temperature temperature and the dielectric breakdown voltage using
ASTM method D 1816 (0.04 inch gap) is given in Figure
Oil Temperature Water Content in Oil, ppm 1 (water content, ppm). Of course, the dielectric breakdown
0°C 22 voltage is also a function of the number and type of particles
and their conductivity, not just the water content.
10°C 36
Taking the same dielectric breakdown voltage data
20°C 55 and converting it to RS (Figure 1, %RS graph) provides a
30°C 83 much straighter curve except at the extremes. It is evident
40°C 121 that there is a better correlation between RS and dielectric
breakdown voltage than with moisture concentration and
50°C 173
dielectric breakdown voltage.
60°C 242
70°C 331
80°C 446
90°C 592
100°C 772

The solubility for mineral oil can be calculated using

Equation 1:

(Equation 1) Log So = -1567/K + 7.0895

50 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1
48
Dielectric Break down Voltage, k 44
40 The water
High RS

Decreasing Relative
36
concentration was
constant at 30 ppm.

Saturation, %
32
The temperature was
28 changed to change the
24
Medium RS relative saturation.
20
16
Low RS
12
8
4
Increasing Dielectric Strength
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60
Figure 2 — Relationship between Dielectric Strength and RS
Water Content, ppm, wt./wt.
48 Transformers are more complicated systems than this
simple example. However, the same basic principles apply
Dielectric Break down Voltage, k

44
40 for the dielectric breakdown strength of the liquid dielectric.
36 That is, it remains a function of the relative saturation of
32 water in the oil. During the cool-down cycle of a thermal
28 transient in a transformer some of the moisture returns to
24 the paper and some of the moisture remains in the oil. The
20 relative saturation of water remaining in the oil will influ-
16 ence its dielectric breakdown voltage.
12
8 What Does This All Mean for a
4
Transformer System?
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Water does not remain at the same concentration in
RS, %@22°C insulations but, rather, it is continuously migrating between
the solid and liquid insulation. In order to understand
Figure 1— Dielectric Strength Versus Water Content the significance of the water-in-oil value, the operating
and Relative Saturation (RS) temperature of the transformer at the time of sampling
must be known. Most of the water in a transformer sys-
A simple example illustrates that the dielectric break- tem resides in the solid insulation (paper and pressboard)
down voltage of insulating oils is proportional to the rela- and not in the oil. As temperature increases the water is
tive saturation of water in oil rather than the concentration forced from the paper into the oil. Although the amount
in ppm. The humidity is controlled in this example so the of water in the paper will change relatively little, the
concentration of water is held constant at 30 ppm. The concentration in the oil may change by an order of mag-
first dielectric breakdown measurement is made at 100°C. nitude or more, depending upon the initial water content
At this temperature the solubility of water in oil is about of the paper and the temperature increase. Fortunately, as
772 ppm (Table 1). The relative saturation of water in oil described previously, the solubility of water in oil
is therefore about four percent (30 ppm/772 ppm x 100), increases with temperature such that the relative saturation
and the dielectric breakdown voltage of a well-filtered oil may not change much under such conditions, even though
would be quite high. The temperature is now reduced to the absolute water values in ppm can increase tremendously.
room temperature or about 22°C. The solubility of water In fact, the normal suggested limits of 30 to 35 ppm may
in oil is about 60 ppm (Table 1), and the relative saturation be indicative of a wet transformer if the insulation was at
is 50 percent. equilibrium at temperatures of 25°C or below since this
The dielectric breakdown voltage would be expected to represents a relative saturation of 50 percent or greater
be about half of what it was when the relative saturation in the oil. To maintain reasonable dielectric breakdown
was very low. If the temperature is cooled to 0°C, the re- strength of oil, it should remain below 50 percent satura-
sults of a dielectric breakdown voltage should be quite low tion of water in oil.
because the solubility of water in oil at this temperature is
about 22 ppm (Table 1). As the water content in the oil is
higher than this, the water forms an emulsion and begins
to condense. During all this time the concentration of References
water in oil has not changed. This relationship is shown in Doble, F. “The Doble Water Extraction Method,” Minutes
Figure 2. of the Thirteenth Annual conference of Doble Clients, 1946,
Sec. 10-401.
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 51
Griffin, P. J. “Water in Transformers – So What!,” National
Grid Condition Monitoring Conference, May 1996.
Lewand, L. R. and Griffin, P. J., “How to Reduce the Rate
of Aging of Transformer Insulation,” NETA World,
Spring 1995, pp. 6-11.
Moser, H.P. “Part II. Aging of Insulating Materials,”
Transformerboard, Special Print of Scientia Electrica,
translated by W. Heidemann, EHV-Weidmann Lim.,
1979, pp. 12-15.
Griffin, P. J., Bruce, C. M., and Christie, J. D. “Compari-
son of Water Equilibrium in Silicone and Mineral Oil
Transformers,” Minutes of the Fifty-Fifth Annual Inter-
national Conference of Doble Clients, 1988, Sec. 10-9.1.

Lance Lewand received his BS degree at St. Mary’s College of Mary-

land in 1980. He has been employed by the Doble Engineering Company
for the past seven years and is currently Project Manager of Research
in the materials laboratory and Product Manager for the DOMINOTM
product line. Prior to his present position at Doble, he was the Manager
of the Transformer Fluid Test Laboratory and PCB and Oil Services at
MET Electrical Testing in Baltimore, MD. Mr. Lewand is a member
of ASTM committee D 27.
52 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1

It Meggered Fine — Sorry it

Scorched the Building!
PowerTest 2003
(NETA Annual Technical Conference)

Presenter
John Cadick
Co-Author
Al Rose

In the words of the famous commercial, “We’ve come a The Core

long way baby!” From the early days of the “run it until it The core is the heart of a transformer and surprisingly
fails” generation, through preventive maintenance, predictive has not changed much since the beginning of ac power;
maintenance, and thin, flat laminations of soft iron. Early on core materials
now – more re- changed to sheet steel, and then to silicone steel, but the
cently – condition basic configuration of the core has not significantly changed.
based maintenance Thin laminations are normally around .30 millimeters thick
(CBM) or reliabil- and are stacked to a size and height determined by design.
ity centered main- After the core is assembled it is clamped to ensure the
tenance (RCM), laminations are tight.
electrical testing An improperly clamped core will vibrate excessively, in-
and maintenance creasing the “hum” of the unit and eventually contributing
of transformers to a premature failure. (and you thought units “hummed”
has truly moved into the 21st century. because they didn’t know the words!)
This paper discusses some of the well recognized and
accepted testing methods for oil-filled power transformers,
but it adds a twist. Here you will read about the collec-
tion, trending, and statistical analysis of the data derived
from these tests. An overview is provided which allows the
informed reader to begin the development of new philoso-
phies and to better understand the value of using modern,
scientific approaches to electrical maintenance and testing.
It should be noted that this paper has kept the discussed
tests somewhat simple to better facilitate understanding of
trending and analysis. Additional testing and analysis may
be useful and sometimes necessary

Transformers — A Background
High and medium voltage transformers are probably
the most complex and easily the most expensive pieces
of equipment in a transmission and distribution system.
They can range anywhere from 750,000 volts down to
4160 volts primary voltage, from a few hundred VA up to
1000MVA, and be either liquid filled, gas filled, or dry type
Figure 1 — Three-Phase LTC Core and Coil Assembly
in configuration.
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 53
The Windings Dielectric Breakdown Strength, ASTM D-877 and D-1816,
The windings are assembled around the core and are of tests for conductive contaminants present in the oil such as
two types of materials; copper and aluminum. Copper has metallic cuttings, fibers, or free water.
the advantage of having a greater mechanical strength and Neutralization Number, ASTM D-974, commonly called
better electrical conductivity, while aluminum is lighter, the acid number, this measurement shows the amount of
costs less, and can be better at heat dissipation. Most large acid in the oil. The acidity is a result of oxidation of the oil
distribution and transmission units are copper, while small caused by the release of water into the oil from insulation
distribution and dry types are increasingly aluminum. material due to aging, overheating, or operational stresses
Kraft paper or pressboard paper insulates the windings. such as internal or through faults. The acidity is measured as
For coil winding construction Kraft paper is tightly wound the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) it
around the copper coils, the number of turns of paper be- takes to neutralize the acid in one gram of oil. An increase in
ing determined by the voltage and kVA rating of the unit. the acidity indicates a deterioration of the oil. This process
Sheet windings can use either Kraft paper or pressboard causes the formation of sludge within the windings which
paper between layers. After assembly of the windings the in turn can result in premature failure of the unit.
entire unit is tightened, or “clamped” down. The unit is then
baked and vacuum impressed, hot liquid flushed for liquid Interfacial Tension(IFT), ASTM D-971, measures the ten-
units or epoxy impregnated for dry and gas units, and then sion at the interface between two immiscible liquids, oil
tightened again. The unit is then installed in its tank, ac- and water. It is expressed in dynes/centimeter. This test is
ceptance tested, and prepared for shipment. extremely sensitive to oil decay products and contamination
from solid insulating materials. Good oil will have an IFT
The Liquid of 40 to 50 dynes/cm, and will normally “float” on top of
water. As transformer and breaker insulation ages, contami-
The most common type of transformers in a transmission
nates such as Oxygen and free water are released into the
and distribution system use insulating oil as a dielectric and
oil. The properties that allow the oil to “float” on top of the
cooling medium. Some, depending on their size, have oil-
oil then begin to break down and the result is a lower IFT.
circulating systems for enhanced cooling. This is important
Along with the neutralization number, the IFT can reveal
because heat is the main enemy of any transformer. Steady
the presence of sludge in insulating oils.
state operation of a transformer at only 10o Celsius above
its nameplate rating can reduce its life by up to 50%. Heat Color, ASTM D-1524, as insulating oils in electrical equip-
can breakdown the winding insulation and, under the right ment age, the color of the oil tends to gradually darken. A
conditions, degrade the insulating oil. Therefore, determin- marked color change from one year to the next indicates
ing the insulation integrity and oil condition is of primary a problem.
importance.
Oil is the lifeblood of an oil filled transformer. Oil tests can Sediment, ASTM D-1698, indicates deterioration and/or
reveal many problems internal to a transformer well before contamination of the oil.
the transformer would fail. The advantage of oil testing is that
Oil Power Factor, ASTM D-924, taken at 25 degrees C, this
it doesn’t require the transformer to be taken off line. All oil
test can reveal the presence of moisture, resins, varnishes, or
samples can be drawn with the transformer on line, even at
other products of oxidation or foreign contaminates such as
100% load. Oil tests fall into two classifications - Oil Screens
motor oil and fuel oil. The power factor of new oil should
and Dissolved Gases.
always be below .05%.
Oil Screens Visual Examination, ASTM D-1524, good oil is clear and
Historically, the Dielectric Test has been used to determine sparkling, not cloudy and dull. Cloudiness indicates the
the condition of transformer oil under the assumption that presence of moisture or other contaminates. This is a good
if it had a high dielectric withstand voltage it had to be OK. “quick look” field test; however a Karl Fisher or Dielectric
Unfortunately, having a high withstand doesn’t guarantee a Breakdown test will be much more definitive.
soundly operating transformer, as the dielectric test is only
affected by free water and/or other contaminates in the oil. Of all the above tests, the Karl Fischer, Interfacial Tension,
As a result, other tests are necessary in order to better evaluate Neutralization Number, Dielectric Breakdown, and Oil Power
the oil. Standard oil screen tests performed on transformers Factor are the most important. These are the oil screen tests
include: that not only need to be looked at, but, unlike traditional
analysis, they need to be trended, and when the trends are
Karl Fisher, ASTM D-1533-88, tests for water in insulating getting worse the rate of change needs to be examined. (It
fluids. This test reveals total water content in oil, both dis- should be noted that as of today the Dielectric Breakdown
solved and free. High readings could indicate a leak in the test has not been shown to be as effective in trending as the
equipment housing or insulation breakdown. other four tests; however its value for determining the voltage
withstand capability of insulating fluid is unquestioned)
54 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1
First, here are the industry standards, taken from IEEE
standards and various industry publications:

Water < 25ppm @20 degrees C (varies with both

fluid type and voltage rating)
Interfacial tension > 27 dynes/cm for in-service oil
> 40 dynes/cm for new oil
Power factor < .5% at 25 degrees C for in-service oil
< .05% at 25 degrees C for new oil
Acid number < .15 for in-service oil.
< .05mg KOH/gm for new

Traditional analysis says that as long as the test values do

not exceed the standards the transformer is OK. However,
lets look at a unit that, while still testing good raises some
significant questions.
The unit is a 3000kVA, 6.9kV to 480V unit, 10 years
old, good operating history. Here is a chart of the last 5 oil
screens:

Date Karl Fischer NN IFT Power Factor

2/3/1998 12 0.03 48 0.08%

1/15/1999 18 0.03 44 0.10%
From a percentage standpoint, the Karl Fischer has in-
creased by 100%, the NN has increased by 133%, the IFT
2/4/2000 16 0.05 42 0.22%
has decreased by 35%, and the Power Factor has increased
1/29/2001 19 0.05 39 0.29%
by 330% Clearly, something is going on inside the trans-
2/1/2002 24 0.07 31 0.35% former. But what?
Unfortunately, one set or type of test usually can not
Notice that all four tests are within the standards, and determine a specific problem. Transformer analysis requires
if the only comparison is with the standards then this unit looking at multiple tests, and using all the results to reach
would be classed as good. However, all of the trends are a conclusion. So let’s look at the next test - dissolved gas
going in a negative direction. The graphs show this very analysis, sometimes called Gas-in-Oil analysis or abbrevi-
well: ated as dgio.

Dissolved Gas
This test can show many problems internal to a transformer
before the problem becomes terminal. As events occur inside
a transformer, gasses are liberated into the oil. The primary
causes of these gases are thermal, mechanical, and electrical
stresses in the windings. Some examples are corona discharge
(a spark due to ionization), general overheating (overload
conditions), arcing, and through-faults (which cause large
mechanical stresses).
We are concerned with 9 gasses in this analysis. They
are:
- Nitrogen(N2)
- Oxygen(O2)
- Carbon Dioxide(CO2)
- Carbon Monoxide(CO)
- Methane(CH4)
- Ethane(C2H6)
- Ethylene(C2H4)
- Hydrogen(H2)
- Acetylene(C2H2)
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 55
Different combinations of these gasses reveal different So let’s return to that transformer we looked at in the
problems. Large amounts of CO and CO2 indicates over- oil screens section. The dissolved gas test results from the
heating in the windings, CO, CO2, and CH4 show the last 5 tests are:
possibility of hot spots in the insulation, H2, C2H6, and
CH4 are indicative of corona discharge, and C2H2 is a sign Carbon Carbon
Date Oxygen Nitrogen Hydrogen Methane Ethane Ethylene Acetylene
of internal arcing. After the concentration of each gas (in Monoxide Dioxide

PPM) has been determined, various industry publications 2/3/1998 6692 91,716 32 103 2,398 6 5 16 0
may be used to help determine the potential problem. 1/15/1999 7923 Saturated 37 212 3,259 14 4 15 0

2/4/2000 9453 Saturated 42 343 5,437 20 7 21 0

Types Of Probable Faults 1/29/2001 11,256 Saturated 73 498 7,687 16 5 18 0

2/1/2002 13,267 Saturated 95 663 9,654 24 10 22 0

Detected Gases Interpretations
Nitrogen plus 5% or less Oxygen Normal operation of sealed In looking at these results one can see that the first 4 tests
transformer
are all within the industry limits; however oxygen, hydrogen,
N2 plus more than 5% O2 Check for tightness of sealed carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide are all increasing.
transformer
The rate of rise for these four gases are averaging 18% per
N2, CO2, or CO, or all Transformer overloaded or oper- year for oxygen, 33% per year for hydrogen, 62% per year
ating hot, causing some cellulose
breakdown
for carbon monoxide, and 42% per year for carbon dioxide.
Using these percentages one could almost predict what the
N2 and H2 Corona discharge, electrolysis of concentrations would be for the fifth test. So if this unit was
water, or rusting
being trended the problem would have been discovered in
N2, H2, CO2, and CO Corona discharge involving year four (2001), a full 12 months before the unit exceeded
cellulose or severe overloading of
transformer an industry standard.
So looking at the above probable fault chart we see the
N2, H2, CH4, with small Sparking or other minor fault
amounts of C2H6 and C2H4 causing some breakdown of the
dissolved gas results fall into 4 possible categories:
oil
N2, H2, CH4, with CO2, CO, Sparking or other minor fault in Detected Gases Interpretations
and small amounts of other presence of cellulose N2 plus more than 5% O2 Check for tightness of sealed
hydrocarbons, no C2H2 transformer
N2 with high H2 and other High energy arc causing rapid N2, CO2, or CO, or all Transformer overloaded or operating
hydrocarbons including C2H2 deterioration of oil hot, causing some cellulose breakdown
N2 with high H2, CH4, high High temperature arcing of oil N2 and H2 Corona discharge, electrolysis of water,
C2H4, and some C2H2 but in a confined area, poor con- or rusting
nections or turn-to-turn shorts
are examples N2, H2, CO2, and CO Corona discharge involving cellulose
or severe overloading of transformer
Same as above except CO2 and Same as above except arcing in
CO present combination with cellulose
It appears that we have a transformer that is being
overloaded, maybe with a leak, allowing moist air into the
headspace, or too much water in the windings, and maybe
As with the oil screens, there are industry standards that
some corona discharge. Returning to the oil screens, we see
help determine absolute limits.
that water in the oil will cause the Karl Fischer to increase,
the IFT to decrease, and the Oil Power Factor to increase.
Dissolved Gas Limits Additionally, the NN will increase when free oxygen in the
oil is combined with heat, and overloading a transformer
Hydrogen (H2) < 150 PPM
will cause excessive heat. An increase in hydrogen can be
Methane (CH4) < 25 PPM caused by the breakdown of water in the unit due to heat.
Ethane (C2H6) < 10 PPM So now a picture is beginning to be painted. The oil screens
Ethylene (C2H4) < 20 PPM and dissolved gas analysis support a transformer that has
Carbon Monoxide (CO) < 500 PPM
been overloaded, and has some type of moisture issue, maybe
a leaking gasket, or wet windings. But we need to confirm
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) < 10,000 PPM
what we suspect, and we need one more test to do that.
Nitrogen (N2) 1 to 10%
Oxygen (O2) 0.2 to 3.5%
Total Combustibles < 1000 PPM
56 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1
Insulation Power Factor Figure 4 shows a greatly simplified equivalent circuit of
The Insulation Power Factor test is an ac non-destructive a transformer’s insulation system and where this leakage
test that measures the power loss through the insulation current can go. As the insulation degrades, the amount of
system to ground caused by leakage current. It is equal to leakage current will increase, going from the windings to
the insulation resistance divided by the insulation imped- ground, or from winding to winding. Unfortunately, just
ance. To measure this value a known voltage is applied to the knowing the amount leakage current is not enough. The
transformer windings and the resulting current is measured. condition of the insulation needs to be established so a
Because the insulation system in a transformer is capacitive trend can be identified. Since the capacitance value of the
in nature, there will be a phase angle between the voltage insulation is part of the impedance of the circuit, and any
applied and the resulting current. The cosine of this angle change in the impedance will change the resultant phase
is called the power factor and the measured current squared angle between the applied voltage and current, the cosine
times the insulation resistance is called the watts loss. of that angle, the Power Factor, is trended.

CH

High
T ank
C HL and
C ore
L ow
CL

Figure 2 — Power Factor Phase Relationships Figure 4

To better understand the values of the Power Factor

tests we should examine what the test equipment is actually
seeing. Figure 3 shows a cutaway of a transformer coil with The Power Factor should be measured and recorded
its insulation (Kraft paper). The job of the insulation is to when the transformer is first installed to establish a baseline.
keep the electrical energy from finding a path to ground. A Subsequent test results should be compared to the initial
perfect insulation would have no current leaking from the readings and trended over time. A new oil filled transformer
coil; therefore it would be acting like the perfect dielectric should have a power factor under .5% and an in-service oil
medium, the same function as a capacitor. However, due to filled transformer should have a power factor under 2%.
manufacturing imperfections, age, or abuse the insulation So let’s look at the overall power factor readings for our
material will have a small amount of leakage current. example transformer:

Date High - Low Low - High

Ground
1/28/1994 0.98 0.87
1/30/1996 1.2 1.32
2/4/1998 1.48 1.6
2/5/2000 1.36 1.55
Oil, Paper, Wood
Insulation 2/3/2002 1.62 1.81
CU/AL Conductor or
Strand
Oil, Paper, Wood
Insulation

Ground

Figure 3
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 57
From the looks of it the readings are all within the limits;
however look at a graph of the results:

The power factor values have increased 65% for the high
to low reading, and 108% for the low to high reading over
an eight year period. But, as with the oil screens, nothing is
out of spec yet. A slow increase over time in the power factor
readings is usually indicative of insulation weakening due to
overloading or a winding that is becoming increasingly wet
or dirty. The oil screens and dissolved gas analysis support a
transformer that has been overloaded, and has some type of
moisture issue, maybe a leaking gasket, or wet windings. So
our picture has been painted - a transformer that has exces-
sive moisture, and probably has been operated at more than
it’s KVA rating on occasion. Our recommendations would
be to first inspect the transformer for leaks, insuring that it
is perfectly sealed, then perform a vacuum dehydration on
the unit, then retest for a new baseline.

Conclusions
Historically, transformer analysis consisted of performing
industry accepted tests, comparing the results to industry
standards, and, if the results were within the proper limits
declaring the unit sound and ready for operation. As we
have seen in this paper it is possible for a transformer to be
operating within those parameters, but still have an internal
problem that eventually will require corrective action. It’s
not enough to compare values anymore - we need to know
which direction those values are going, and how fast they
are moving. We can then more effectively plan any required
actions. When we do this we are moving our maintenance
philosophy to condition based, instead of time based. And
in the long run we reduce in-service failures, and increase
up-time. Isn’t that where we all want to be?

A registered professional engineer, John Cadick has specialized for

three decades in electrical engineering, training, and management. In
1986 he created Cadick Professional Services (forerunner to the pres-
ent-day Cadick Corporation), a consulting firm in Garland, Texas. His
firm specializes in electrical engineering and training, working extensively
in the areas of power system design and engineering studies, condition-
based maintenance programs, and electrical safety. He is the author of
the Electrical Safety Handbook as well as Cables and Wiring.
58 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1

Remanufacturing
of Power Transformers
PowerTest 2003
(NETA Annual Technical Conference)
Presenter
D. E. Corsi
Ohio Transformer an S.D. Myers, Inc. Co.

Abstract The gathering of design data is done for a number of

reasons. First, it allows the designer to estimate the original
The following paper will summarize the design con-
stray and eddy losses. Second, it gives an estimate on the
siderations involved in the remanufacturing process. The
original average winding gradients and oil rises. Finally, it
main considerations involved in the redesign process will
provides a glimpse at the transformer as it was delivered
be discussed in general terms. The design process is critical
to the factory. The physical reality of the as-is design is
in determining transformer reliability in service. A forensic
compared to the stated results on the OEM’s Certified
study performed in the United Kingdom stated that 35%
Test Report to ascertain if the unit met the stated capacity,
of transformer failures in the United Kingdom are due to
performance and guarantees. Winding Design
design defects. [1] Given that a significant percentage of
The first step in the design process is to evaluate if the
transformer failures have their root cause in design defects,
existing core can be reused. [2] A newer core that has not
the manufacturer’s design philosophy, methods and ap-
sustained failure damage can be reused and the transformer
proach are critical to in-service reliability.
windings can be redesigned around the original core. Rede-
signing the core and coils around the existing core provides
Introduction the greater economic opportunity relative to purchasing a
The benefits of remanufacturing are many: voltage new transformer.
changes, higher capacity, increase in dielectric margins and Cores with extensive failure damage can be replaced. A
improvements in efficiency. [References 2 & 3] The design replacement core provides an opportunity to optimize the
process in remanufacturing is concentrated around the core and coil design. A new core constructed with modern
redesign of the transformer’s core and coils. materials, design techniques and manufacturing practices
can be operated at higher levels of induction. Transformers
The Redesign Process redesigned with a new core will be more efficient than the
original transformer. The economic benefit of the optimized
The usual sequence of events in the redesign process is to
core and coil design must be weighed against the additional
gather teardown data and recreate the original as-is design;
cost of the new core. This is accomplished by calculating the
then proceed to design the transformer’s core and coils with
benefits of the reduced losses over the expected life of the
the following major areas of concern; insulation design, short
transformer to the first cost of ownership of the redesigned
circuit design and thermal performance. Since in a redesign
transformer.
the original core is typically reused, the major effort in the
The types and arrangements of windings are selected to
redesign process revolves around the winding design.
provide the best overall solution to the insulation design,
The design process is iterative. Any design adaptations
short circuit design and thermal requirements of the trans-
made to windings, for example, permeate throughout the en-
former. Specific windings and winding arrangements are
tire design process and will affect the insulation design, short
selected to provide optimum balance of electrical, magnetic
circuit design and thermal performance of the transformer.
and thermal performance considering all tap positions and
This process is repeated until a balance is reached among
operating conditions.
all three and technical requirements of the design are met.
Transformer Handbook — Volume 1 59
There are two ways in which winding design affect the distribute the electric stress in all oil ducts. The location
magnetic circuit of the transformer. First, the volts per turn and number of barriers will have a great influence on the
of the design will establish the operating point (average in- stress in oil ducts. Therefore the proper placement of insu-
duction) of the core. Second, the winding design, conductor lation is very important. The designer of a remanufactured
stranding and strand dimensions are important in reducing transformer can optimize the insulation system beyond the
additional losses in the windings. original design. Using rigid barriers and countered insula-
In addition, the winding design should limit the core’s tion the designer divides the oils spaces between windings
maximum operating point (average induction) of the trans- and on the end of the windings to increase the dielectric
former at 100 percent of rated voltage to be no more than strength of the transformer. The designer can then create
the original levels. Designing the transformer to operate a design with greater dielectric margins or for a given di-
above the original operating point will increase the core electric margin the insulation level of the transformer can
losses, real and apparent, and the metallic hot spot rise in be increased. [7]
the core joints.
Another point that must be made is that the winding de- Short Circuit Design
sign must also limit the maximum operating point (average
The redesign of transformers must minimize axial and
induction) of the core at 110 percent of rated voltage. The
radial forces that a transformer will experience during fault
current ANSI/IEEE standards require that a transformer be
conditions. If the short circuit forces during a fault cannot
designed to operate at 110 percent of rated voltage without
be eliminated then steps must be undertaken to mitigate
load. If the operating induction level of the core is too high
the resulting mechanical stresses to the windings and the
the transformer core will begin to saturate and will not be
clamping structure of the transformer. This can be accom-
able to provide the required output voltage at 110 percent
plished by the specific windings and winding arrangements
of rated voltage.
selected to provide optimum electrical and magnetic balance
considering all tap positions and operating conditions. If the
Insulation Design forces can not be mitigated, then material can be selected
Transformer windings must withstand the electrical stress with the proper mechanical properties such as (high-den-
imposed upon them by testing and the electrical stress that sity pressboard material, high proof stress copper, epoxy
the windings will be exposed to during their life in service. coated Continuously Transposed Cable (CTC), high yield
During testing in the factory the dielectric tests are three strength steel lockplates. etc.) to enhance the transformer
fold: [5] short circuit ability to withstand a self-limiting through
faults on its terminals.
(1) A test at power frequency applied for 1 minute to The modern practice is to calculate the resulting maxi-
prove the design margins above operating voltage mum short circuit forces for all tap connections and all
levels applicable system fault conditions with Finite Element
(2) An impulse test to validate the transformer design Analysis software (FEA). The calculated maximum forces
and construction to withstand surge voltages due to on winding segments and the claming structure are cal-
atmospheric disturbances culated and compared to allowable design limits on every
redesign.
(3) Switching surge test to validate the transformer The clamping structure with the use of high-density
design and construction to withstand system tran- pressboard in the windings provides a high strength and
sients and switching. [5] securely clamped assembly that will resist short circuit forces.
The clamping is accomplished by the end-frames and lock-
Karsai [6] explains the correlation between dielectric plates. The end-frames hold the core yokes together and
factory testing levels and the transformer in service suit- provide a stable base for the windings. The lock-plates tie
ability. Therefore verification of the transformers insulation the top and bottom end-frames to one another providing
system through factory dielectric tests provides indication the rigid backbone of the clamping system. [7]
that the transformer is suitable for trouble free service over
its expected life under the conditions that are prevalent in Thermal Design
electrical systems.
Major insulation is located between windings or wind- There are three components of the thermal design that
ings and ground. Major insulation is made from high- must be evaluated on every redesign. First, the oil rises are
density pressboard. The ability to utilize formed parts exacted from the teardown data and the original Certified
from transformer board [4] that are dimensionally stable Test Report (CTR) provided by the original equipment
at elevated temperatures provides added flexibility to the manufacturer. Secondly, the winding rises are calculated
transformer designer. Solid insulation that is dimensionally from the winding design and using FEA software to cal-
stable allows the maintenance of gaps and consequently the culate additional winding losses. Lastly, the metallic hot
electric stress across the oil ducts. The designer uses rigid spot rises (non-winding) are calculated using the FEA
barriers and contoured insulation to appropriately subdivide software.
space within the transformer in such a way to appropriately
60 Transformer Handbook — Volume 1
In the majority of redesign the cooling equipment, radia- combustible gas generation. These temperature calculations
tor and air blast equipment, is refurbished or replaced in kind become more significant if the winding design has been
with new. The air delivery of the air blast equipment and the altered from the original construction or an increase in
amount of surface area on the radiators is not increased un- capacity was made.
less deficiencies are discovered during the initial evaluation
or an increase in the transformer capacity is required. Summary
The exception is FOA coolers. FOA coolers will require
In conclusion, the design process was briefly discussed for
an increase in the air delivery or an increase in oil flow to
a remanufactured transformer. In the redesign process the
compensate for the affects of aging. The years of operating
first step is to gather teardown data and recreate the origi-
in exposed environments will damage the heat exchangers
nal as-is design; then proceed to design the transformer’s
and even proper remanufacturing and refurbishment will
core and coils with the following major areas of concern:
not restore the coolers to the original capacity. Typically,
insulation design, short circuit design and thermal perfor-
an estimate is made on the effective reduction in cooling
mance. The design engineer must use his transformer design
due to ageing and this is compensated by an increase in air
knowledge and experience, as well as modern design tools
delivery or oil flow rate. [7]
like FEA to analyze each one of the different major areas
The oil rises that are derived from the Certified Test
in the design process.
Report (CTR) are the top oil rise and the average oil rise.
The top oil rise is required to determine the transformers
hot spot rise and consequently its loading capability. The
average oil rise is used to calculate the transformer average
winding rise as compared to the guaranteed values. References:
The last step in determining the average winding rise 1. Woodcock, David J., Wright Jeffrey C., “Power Trans-
is to determine the average winding gradient. The average former Design Enhancements Made to Increase Op-
winding gradient is the difference in temperature between erational Life, page 2 (2000)
the average winding rise and the average oil rise. The aver- 2. Ganser, R., et. al., “Remanufacturing Failed Transform-
age winding gradient is calculated from the total winding ers: An Alternative to Replacement” , Electricity Today,
losses and the surface area available to dissipate the gener- pp. 21 & 23 (1992)
ated losses.
The total losses in a winding are comprised of the I2R 3. Templeton, James et. al., “Re-manufacturing transform-
and the additional losses. The additional losses in a wind- ers, Power Industry Development 2001, p. 37 (2001)
ing include eddy and circulating losses. These losses much 4. Moser, H. P., “Transformerboard”, Scientia Electri-
like the short circuit forces are impacted by the conductor ca,(1979)
size and location in the leakage field generated within the
transformer due to load current. The eddy loss is a function 5. Feinberg, R., et. Al., “Modern Power Transformer Prac-
of the conductor dimensions, conductor location within tice”, Halsted Press, (1979)
the leakage field, conductor material properties and the 6. Karsai, K., Kerenyi, D. and Kiss, L., “Large Power Trans-
frequency of the load current. former”, Elsevier, N.Y., pp. 187-195(1987)
In windings with multiple conductors in parallel per turn
7. Corsi, D. E., Thierry, Juan Luis, “Design Consideration
it is important to transpose the conductors. Transposition
for Remanufacturing Transformers”, Conference of
is the act of making each conductor within a turn occupy
Doble Clients Paper, page 3, (2002)
the same location within the leakage field. This movement
of conductors equalizes the induced voltage among the
parallel strands consequently, reducing circulating losses.
[7] A well-designed and built winding will have very little Domenicao Corsi is an engineering manager with thirteen years of
experience in the power transformer industry. Before joining S.D. Myers,
or no circulation loss. he was at Ohio Transformer and previously worked for ABB Power T &
The clamping system is a major contributor to the stray D Co. in Muncie, Indiana. Corsi received his Bachelors of Engineering
loss in a transformer. Structural members of the clamping in Electrical Engineering from Gannon University and his Masters of
system are exposed to high leakage fields. The losses in Science in Electrical Power Engineering from Rensselaer. He is currently
the clamp due to leakage flux must be controlled and not chairman for the Transformers Committee Task Force for the Revision
of C57.17 “Arc Furnace Transformers,” and an active participant in the
increased in the redesign. The main components of the IEEE Transformer committee representing Ohio Transformer.
clamping system that are subjected to high leakage fields
are the lockplates and endframes. The magnetic flux den-
sity impinging on these parts must be calculated and the
temperature gradient calculated. FEA software is used to
determine the axial and radial flux density in these mem-
bers and the temperature rise is calculated based upon the
FEA results. The ultimate temperature for these parts is
to be limited to acceptable levels to mitigate heating and
 NETA Accredited Companies
The following is a listing of all NETA Accredited Companies as of August 2011.
Please visit the NETA website at www.netaworld.org for the most current list.

A&F Electrical Testing., Inc...................................................................................Kevin Chilton

Advanced Testing Systems ............................................................................Patrick MacCarthy
American Electrical Testing Co., Inc. ......................................................................Scott Blizard
Apparatus Testing and Engineering ....................................................................... James Lawler
Applied Engineering Concepts .................................................................... Michel Castonguay
Burlington Electrical Testing Company, Inc. ........................................................... Walter Cleary
C.E. Testing, Inc. ........................................................................................... Mark Chapman
CE Power Solutions of Wisconsin, LLC............................................................. James VanHandel
DYMAX Holdings, Inc. ....................................................................................... Gene Philipp
Eastern High Voltage ....................................................................................... Joseph Wilson
ELECT, P.C. .................................................................................................Barry W. Tyndall
Electric Power Systems, Inc. .................................................................................. Steve Reed
Electrical and Electronic Controls ..................................................................... Michael Hughes
Electrical Energy Experts, Inc............................................................................... William Styer
Electrical Equipment Upgrading, Inc. .......................................................................Kevin Miller
Electrical Maintenance & Testing, Inc........................................................................ Brian Borst
Electrical Reliability Services ..................................................................................Lee Bigham
Electrical Testing, Inc. ................................................................................. Steve C. Dodd Sr.
Elemco Services, Inc. ...................................................................................... Robert J. White
Hampton Tedder Technical Services ....................................................................... Matt Tedder
Harford Electrical Testing Co., Inc. ................................................................... Vincent Biondino
High Energy Electrical Testing, Inc..................................................................... James P. Ratshin
High Voltage Maintenance Corp. ........................................................................... Eric Nation
HMT, Inc. .........................................................................................................John Pertgen
Industrial Electric Testing, Inc. ........................................................................ Gary Benzenberg
Industrial Electronics Group ................................................................................. Butch E. Teal
Industrial Tests, Inc. .............................................................................................. Greg Poole
Infra-Red Building and Power Service ............................................................ Thomas McDonald
M&L Power Systems, Inc. .................................................................................. Darshan Arora
Magna Electric Corporation ................................................................................... Kerry Heid
Magna IV Engineering – Edmonton ...................................................................Jereme Wentzell
Magna IV Engineering (BC), Ltd. ........................................................................ Cameron Hite

Setting the Standard

MET Electrical Testing, LLC .......................................................................... William McKenzie
National Field Services...................................................................................... Eric Beckman
Nationwide Electrical Testing, Inc. ...............................................................Shashikant B. Bagle
North Central Electric, Inc. ...............................................................................Robert Messina
Northern Electrical Testing, Inc. .......................................................................... Lyle Detterman
Orbis Engineering Field Service, Ltd. ....................................................................... Lorne Gara
Pacific Power Testing, Inc. ...................................................................................Steve Emmert
Phasor Engineering ........................................................................................... Rafael Castro
Potomac Testing, Inc. ........................................................................................... Ken Bassett
Power & Generation Testing, Inc.......................................................................... Mose Ramieh
Power Engineering Services, Inc. ..................................................................... Miles R. Engelke
POWER PLUS Engineering, Inc. ...................................................................Salvatore Mancuso
Power Products & Solutions, Inc. ........................................................................ Ralph Patterson
Power Services, LLC ........................................................................................ Gerald Bydash
Power Solutions Group, Ltd ...........................................................................Barry Willoughby
Power Systems Testing Co. ............................................................................... David Huffman
Power Test, Inc. ..............................................................................................Richard Walker
POWER Testing and Energization, Inc. ............................................................... Chris Zavadlov
Powertech Services, Inc. ................................................................................... Jean A. Brown
Precision Testing Group .................................................................................... Glenn Stuckey
PRIT Service, Inc. ........................................................................................ Roderic Hageman
Reuter & Hanney, Inc....................................................................................... Michael Reuter
REV Engineering, LTD ................................................................................ Roland Davidson IV
Scott Testing, Inc................................................................................................Russ Sorbello
Shermco Industries ............................................................................................... Ron Widup
Sigma Six Solutions, Inc. ....................................................................................... John White
Southern New England Electrical Testing, LLC ................................................. David Asplund, Sr.
Southwest Energy Systems, LLC .......................................................................Robert Sheppard
Taurus Power & Controls, Inc. ............................................................................... Rob Bulfinch
Three-C Electrical Co., Inc.................................................................................James Cialdea
Tidal Power Services, LLC ....................................................................................Monty Janak
Tony Demaria Electric, Inc. ............................................................................ Anthony Demaria
Trace Electrical Services & Testing, LLC ...................................................................Joseph Vasta
Utilities Instrumentation Service, Inc. ........................................................................Gary Walls
Utility Service Corporation.................................................................................. Alan Peterson
Western Electrical Services ......................................................................................Dan Hook

Setting the Standard

 About NETA
NETA (InterNational Electrical Testing Association) is an association of leading electrical testing companies;
visionaries, committed to advancing the industry’s standards for power system installation and maintenance
to ensure the highest level of reliability and safety.
NETA is an accredited standards developer for the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and defines
the standards by which electrical equipment is deemed safe and reliable.
NETA is also the leading source of specifications, procedures, testing, and requirements, not only for
commissioning new equipment but for testing the reliability and performance of existing equipment.

QUALIFICATIONS OF THE TESTING ORGANIZATION

An independent overview is the only method of determining the long-term usage of electrical apparatus and
its suitability for the intended purpose. NETA Accredited Companies best support the interest of the owner, as
the objectivity and competency of the testing firm is as important as the competency of the individual technician.
NETA Accredited Companies are part of an independent, third-party electrical testing association dedicated to
setting world standards in electrical maintenance and acceptance testing.

Hiring a NETA Accredited Company assures the customer that:

• The NETA Technician has broad-based knowledge — this person is trained to inspect, test, maintain, and
calibrate all types of electrical equipment in all types of industries.
• NETA Technicians meet stringent educational and experience requirements in accordance with ANSI/NETA
Standard for Certification of Electrical Testing Technicians, (ANSI/NETA ETT).
• A registered Professional Engineer will review all engineering reports.
• All tests will be performed objectively, according to NETA specifications, using calibrated instruments traceable
to the National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST).
• The firm is a well-established, full-service electrical testing business.

CERTIFICATION
NETA Certified Technicians conduct the tests that ensure that electrical power equipment meets the ANSI/NETA
standards’ stringent specifications.
Certification of competency is particularly important in the electrical testing industry. Inherent in the
determination of the equipment’s serviceability is the prerequisite that individuals performing the tests be
capable of conducting the tests in a safe manner and with complete knowledge of the hazards involved. They
must also evaluate the test data and make an informed judgment on the continued serviceability, deterioration,
or nonserviceability of the specific equipment. NETA, a nationally-recognized certification agency, provides
recognition of four levels of competency within the electrical testing industry in accordance with ANSI/NETA
Standard for Certification of Electrical Testing Technicians, (ANSI/NETA ETT).

Setting the Standard