Chapter 18

Blasting Design for Underground

Excavation

18.1 Blasting Design for Tunnel (Cavern)

18.1.1 Hole Layout and Firing Sequence

The blasts in tunnels are characterized by the initial lack of an available free surface
toward which breakage can occur, only the tunnel heading itself. The principle
behind tunnel blasting is to create an opening by means of a cut, and then, stoping
(reliever) is carried toward the opening. For easy illustration of the blasting procedure
of tunneling, we divide the tunnel face into five separate zones, A–E (see Fig. 18.1):
A the cut section,
B the stoping holes breaking horizontally,
C the stoping holes breaking downward,
D contour holes, and
E the lifter holes.
The general firing sequence must be A > B > C > D > E.
The most important operation in the blasting procedure of tunneling is to create
an opening in the face in order to develop another free face in the rock. This is the
function of the cut holes. If this stage fails, the round can definitely not be con-
sidered a success.

18.1.2 Types of Cut-Hole Pattern

The cut-hole pattern can be classified in two large groups:

• angled hole cuts and
• parallel-hole cuts.

© Metallurgical Industry Press and Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2017 509
D. Zou, Theory and Technology of Rock Excavation for Civil Engineering,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-1989-0_18
510 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

Fig. 18.1 Zones in tunnel

blasting

The most common type of cuts today are the parallel-hole cuts and angled hole
cuts. The angled hole cut is the old type and is still occasionally used in con-
struction. It is quite an effective type of cut for tunnels with a fairly large cross
section, and it requires fewer holes than a parallel cut.
The parallel-hole cut was introduced when the first mechanized drilling
machines came to the market and made accurate parallel drilling possible.

18.1.2.1 Angled Hole Cuts

The angled cut is a traditional cut type based on the symmetrically drilled, angled
holes. It has lost some of its popularity with the widespread adoption of the parallel
cut and longer rounds. However, it is still commonly used in wide tunnels where the
tunnel width sets no limitations on drilling. The advantage is a lower drilling length
and explosive consumption than the parallel cut because there is better utilization of
the free face surface and the possibility of orientation toward the visible disconti-
nuities in the section. But its biggest disadvantage is that it ejects rock violently, the
rock is thrown a considerable distance resulting in services being destroyed, e.g.,
ventilation, power, air, and communications, and its use is banned in some places.
The following explains the most common angled cuts.
• V-cut
V-cut is also called wedge cut. With this angular cut, a wedge is detonated out of
the center of the face and after that, the remaining part of the advance length is
detonated. The V-cut can be positioned vertically or horizontally (or at an angle
depending on the layering of the rock mass) as a single or staged wedge.
Figure 18.2 shows a horizontal V-cut.
The angle at the bottom of the cut holes should not be less than 60°. Maintaining
the right angle is the main difficulty in V-cut drilling; in addition, the correct drilling
angle limits the round length in narrow tunnels (Fig. 18.3). Tunnel width limits the
use of the V-cut. In narrow tunnels, the advance per round can be less than
one-third of the tunnel width.
18.1 Blasting Design for Tunnel (Cavern) 511

Fig. 18.2 Horizontal “V”-cut

blast (reproduced from Ref.
[14] with the permission from
Sandvik)

• Fan Cut
The fan cut is also an angled cut. For this arrangement, several drillhole rows are
placed in a fan shape. They have different lengths and angles. Figure 18.4 shows a
fan cut. This type of cut was widely used before, but it is not favored nowadays
because of the complicated drilling.

18.1.2.2 Parallel-Hole Cut

Parallel-hole cuts are also called cylindrical cuts. The characteristic for this cut is
that the drillholes are the same length and obviously parallel to each other. At the
moment, this type of cut is the most frequently used in tunneling and cavern
blasting, regardless of their dimensions. This type of cut consists of one or several
uncharged or relief blastholes toward which the charged holes break at intervals.
512 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

Fig. 18.3 Feed setup and drilling limitation in V-cut (reproduced from Ref. [14] with the
permission from Sandvik)

Fig. 18.4 Horizontal fan cut

(reproduced from Ref. [14]
with the permission from
Sandvik)
18.1 Blasting Design for Tunnel (Cavern) 513

The principal advantages of the parallel-hole cuts are as follows:

1. The depth of the round is not dependent on the working space available for
drilling holes at an angle.
2. The cut allows a deep pull even in tough rock formations.
3. It is relatively simple to drill, because all holes are parallel.
4. There is generally less throw with better fragmentation.
5. The resultant muckpile is higher, so it provides a better platform for scaling and
bolting work.
6. Round length may be shortened or lengthened without any difficulties.
Principal disadvantages of the parallel-hole cuts are as follows:
1. If large relief holes are used, it requires reaming or larger drilling equipment.
2. Drilling and explosives requirements (powder factor) are higher.
3. Drilling must be accurate; otherwise, the results will be unfavorable.
There are two kinds of parallel-hole cuts: burn cuts and parallel-hole cuts with
large empty hole(s). They will be discussed in separate sections later.

Burn Cuts

Burn cuts are also called Swedish cuts as they were first used in Sweden. In this cut,
all the blastholes are drilled parallel and with the same diameter. Some are charged
with a large quantity of explosive, while others are left empty. The empty holes
provide a free face for reflection of shock waves. It is important that these holes are
accurately drilled and parallel to each other in order to achieve a good blasting
result. Figure 18.5 shows some hole patterns of burn cuts.
As the charge concentration is high, the fragmented rock is centralized in the far
end of the cut and is difficult to breakout, so that the advance is reduced and does
not surpass 2.5 m per round.

Parallel-Hole Cuts with Large Empty Hole(S): Cylinder Cuts

The difference with the burn cut is that the uncharged or relief hole(s) is (are) larger
than the charged holes. The large diameter blastholes (76–175 mm) are drilled with
reamer bits which are adapted to the same drill steel which is used to drill the rest of
blastholes.
All the blastholes in the cut are placed with little spacing, in line and parallel.
Figure 18.6 shows some parallel-hole cuts with large relief holes.
514 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

Fig. 18.5 Examples of parallel-hole cuts with large relief hole(s)

18.1 Blasting Design for Tunnel (Cavern) 515

Fig. 18.6 Examples of burn cut

18.1.3 Some Important Issues on Cut Holes and Tunnel

Blasting

18.1.3.1 The Concept of Cut “Freezing”

As the cut holes are tightly spaced and overloaded, some of the problems that can
rise in blasting with parallel-hole cuts are sympathetic detonation and dynamic
pressure desensitization. Any one of these two problems can cause the cut to
“freeze” and fail. The first phenomenon can appear in a hole that is adjacent to the
detonating hole when the explosive used has a high degree of sensitivity, such as
those with nitroglycerine in their composition. On the other hand, the dynamic
pressure desensitization takes place in many explosives, and water-based emulsion
or water gel explosives are most susceptible to dead-pressing failure when they are
used in closely spaced holes because the shock wave of a charge can elevate the
density of the adjacent charge above the critical or death density (refer to Chap. 3,
Sect. 3.7.8).
516 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

Fig. 18.7 Shielded burn-cut layout in hard rock recommended by Hagan (reproduced from Ref.
[1] with the permission from Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy)

The following guidelines can be used to minimize cut “freezing”:

1. Carefully align and drill all cut holes to ensure that they are parallel.
2. Provide more or large uncharged relief holes to accommodate the “swell” of
broken rock.
3. Reduce the explosives energy per meter of blasthole in the cut (e.g., use smaller
diameter packaged explosives in the cut holes).
4. Alter the geometry and spacing of the cut blastholes and relief holes, to allow for
changes in ground conditions.
5. Ensure that blastholes in the cut area fire in a controlled sequence, with adequate
time between successive detonations.
Figure 18.7 is suggested by Dr. T. N. Hagan [1] for eliminating sympathetic
detonation and dynamic pressure desensitization.
If the cut fails due to precompression, try spreading the loaded holes farther
apart. Adding more tightly spaced holes will aggravate the problem and unneces-
sarily increase the costs. In soft or seamy rock, adjacent loaded holes that are
separately delayed should be at least 30 cm apart.
To pull rounds deeper than 2.5 m, use parallel-hole cut designs with an adequate
volume of uncharged relief holes. In rounds exceeding 2.5 m, the relief-hole area
should be at least 25 % of the total area in the immediate cut.
To further aid rock ejection from the burn, a small “kicker” or “booster” charge
can be placed at the bottom of the normally empty void holes. These charges are
delayed to fire just after the other fully loaded holes in the immediate cut have fired.
Generally, long-period delays are used to ensure that there is sufficient time for
the rock from each hole, or group of holes, to break and be ejected from the cut,
before subsequent holes fire. Some amount of bootleg normally occurs in the cut
area. When this occurs, a similar or greater length of advance is usually lost in the
rest of the face area. To minimize this lost advance, when drill steel length allows it,
18.1 Blasting Design for Tunnel (Cavern) 517

the cut holes should be overdrilled by 15–30 cm (6–12 in.). If this extra drilling for
a few holes returns an equal length of advance for the whole face, it is well worth
the investment in extra drilling.

18.1.3.2 Stemming

Stemming refers to an inert material that is placed in the borehole between the top
of the explosive column and the collar of the hole.
There are two completely opposite views on the roles of blasthole stemming.
One view is that it is unnecessary to use stemming for blastholes in tunnel
blasting. They said: “It has been discovered that the explosive used in tunneling the
stemming does not have an improved effect for a long charged column. The inertia
of the molecules within the air column in the drillhole (in relation to the very high
detonation speed) is sufficient to act as the stemming.” “Therefore the decision is
often taken not to use stemming, in order to save cost and time” (refer to 5.6.4
Stemming on p. 169 of [2]).
But most practice has shown that it is necessary to confine the charge to localize
the effect of the gases produced by the explosive reaction. When a stemmed
blasthole detonates, the stemming momentarily retains the energy within the
blasthole, only a few milliseconds but that is sufficient. When a blasthole is
improperly stemmed or not stemmed at all, the resulting action is called “rifling.”
Rifling gets its name from the action of blowing the stemming material, much like a
bullet from a rifle. The action of rifling can be flyrock, increased air overpressure,
poor fragmentation, and boulders.
Stemming material can consist of sand, drill fines, gravel, or pea stone; sandy
clay is usually used. Sometimes, wet cardboard, wet paper, or hessian bags are used
as the stemming material, but practice shows they are not effective.
Practice has shown that using stemming of crushed rock granular with a
blasthole-to-size ratio of 17:1 (refer to [3]) in thin plastic sausages can get the best
result as the granular rock can “lock” in the blasthole due to its angular shape.
Table 18.1 (refer to Table 5.5, p. 151 in [3]) gives the idea crushed rock sizes based
on the blasthole diameter.

Table 18.1 Common stemming sizes based on hole diameter (reproduced from Ref. [3] with the
permission from John Wiley & Sons Ltd)
Hole diameter (mm) Hole diameter (in) Size of stemming Size of stemming
38 1.5 10 mm minus chips 3/8 in minus chips
50–90 2–3.5 10–13 mm chips 3/8–1/2 in chips
100–127 4–5 16 mm chips 5/8 in chips
127 and above 5 and above 19 mm minus chips 3/4 in minus chips
Source: From Atlas Powder Company (1987)
518 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

Generally, the amount of stemming material required will range from 0.7B to
1B, where B represents the burden or 10 times of the blasthole diameter. The rock
characteristics affect the amount of stemming material, and more stemming amount
is required in a highly fractured rock mass.

18.1.3.3 Lookout Angle

To maintain the designed cross section from one round to another, the contour holes
have to be angled outside the designed cross section. This is to make sure that when
drilling the next round, there is required space for the rock drill. If the contour holes
were drilled parallel to the designed line of the tunnel, the tunnel face would get
smaller and smaller after each round. The lookout is depending on the equipment
used, but normally amounts to not less than 0.1–0.2 m (see Fig. 18.8). Modern
drilling rigs have electronic or automatic lookout angle indicators that enable
correct adjustment of the lookout angle relative to standard alignment.
Computerized drilling jumbos make setting, adjustment, and monitoring of the
lookout angle even easier.

18.1.4 Parallel-Hole Cut Design: Cylinder Cuts

The parallel-hole cut has a large number of minor variations, but the basic layout
always involves the drilling of one or several uncharged large diameter holes at or
very near the center of the cut. These holes give empty space for the adjacent
blasted holes to swell into. As the drilling equipment has become more and more
powerful, this type of cut has become more and more used. The large diameter
holes (65–175 mm) are drilled with reamer bits which are adapted to the same drill
steel which is used to drill the rest of blastholes.

Fig. 18.8 The lookout angle (reproduced from Ref. [14] with the permission from Sandvik)
18.1 Blasting Design for Tunnel (Cavern) 519

18.1.4.1 Large Hole Diameter and Number

It is proved that the diameter of the large hole should be a function of the blasthole
depth used. In order to reach an acceptable advance/round 95 % of the blasthole
depth, an “equivalent” hole diameter, df , can be calculated:

df
ð3:2  lÞ2 ð18:1Þ

where
df equivalent hole diameter, in mm;
l blasthole depth, in m.
Individual hole diameter now can be calculated as follows:
pffiffiffi
dl ¼ df = n ð18:2Þ

where
n number of large holes.

18.1.4.2 Spacing of Cut Holes

The charged holes closest to the large hole(s) are named “cut holes.”
Generally, the center-to-center distance between the empty large hole and the cut
hole should be about 1.5 times the diameter of the large empty hole. That means the
burden of the cut holes, v; should be as follows:
pffiffiffi
v ¼ 1:5  df ¼ 1:5  dl  n ð18:3Þ

For two or more large holes, v is calculated for the holes marked in black in
Fig. 18.9 and the remaining holes are added in order to achieve a square system.
U. Langefors and B. Kilhström indicated that v should not be more than 1.7 df to
obtain fragmentation and a satisfactory movement of the rock [4]. The conditions of
fragmentation vary greatly depending upon the type of explosive, rock properties,

Fig. 18.9 Burden of cut holes

520 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

Fig. 18.10 Result when

blasting toward an empty hole
at different distance and
dimension of the empty hole
(reproduced from Ref. [4]
with the permission from John
Wiley & Sons Ltd

and the distance between the charged blastholes and the large empty hole. As
reflected in Fig. 18.10, for burdens larger than 2 df , the break angle is too small and
a plastic deformation of the rock between the two holes is produced.
It is quite obvious that the accuracy when drilling these holes is extremely
important. When drilling deviation is more than 1 %, the practical burden is cal-
culated from:
0
v1 ¼ 1:7df  Ep ¼ 1:7df  ða  L þ e Þ ð18:4Þ

where Ep is the drilling error (m), a is the angular deviation (m/m), L is the blasthole
0
depth (m), and e is the collaring error (m) (from [5]).

18.1.4.3 Four-Section Design for Parallel-Hole Cut

In order to reach an opening enough for stoping hole blasting, some cut spreader
holes are needed. For the convenience of arranging these spreader holes around the
cut holes, a number of quadrants are arranged (refer to Fig. 18.11).
Four-section cut is an empirical method for blasting design in underground
excavations and tunnels. This method has often been used for excavating tunnels
with cross-sectional area of more than 10 m2.
18.1 Blasting Design for Tunnel (Cavern) 521

Fig. 18.11 Four-section cut

method

Table 18.2 Equation for blasting pattern design of four-section cut model (refer to [15])
Section Burden (B) Spacing (S, X) Stemming (St)
pffiffiffi
First square cut B1 ¼ 1:5;e2 X1 ¼ B1 2 St1 ¼ B1
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi pffiffi
Second square B2 ¼ B1 2 X2 ¼ 1:5B2 2 St2 ¼ B1 22
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi pffiffi pffiffi
Third square B3 ¼ 1:5B2 2 X3 ¼ 1:5B3 2 St3 ¼ 22 ðB1 22 þ B2 Þ
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi pffiffi pffiffi  pffiffi 
Fourth square B4 ¼ 1:5B3 2 X4 ¼ 1:5B4 2 St4 ¼ 22 ð 22 B1 22 þ B2 þ B3 Þ

The four-section cut is based on the parallel-hole cut. This model started with
Lagnefors and Kihlström in 1963 [5] and has been further developed afterward.
The method suggests the experimental equations listed in Table 18.2. In this
table, X is the length of each quadrangle side (see Fig. 18.11).
Four-section cut method includes an empty large hole in the center. If the
number of empty holes is more than one, equivalent diameter is calculated by the
pffiffiffi
Eq. (18.2), i.e., df ¼ dl n. In Table 18.2, ;e2 ¼ df is the diameter of the equivalent
hole.

18.1.5 Blasthole Pattern for Stoping

The object of the cut is to create a free surface toward which the rest of the blasting
can be carried out. The purpose of stoping holes is to attain just as large an advance
with the remainder of the round as created by the cut holes, to get a satisfactory
fragmentation, and to get a suitable disposal of the broken rock. At the same time,
the remaining rock face should also be left undamaged.
 522

Table 18.3 Concentration of the charge in kg/m for various burden (V) and extension (B) of the free face (preliminary table; reproduced from Ref. [4] with the
permission from John Wiley & Sons Ltd)
Max. burden Extension (B)
(V) m 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.80 1.4
ft 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.8 1 1.2 1.3 1.7 2 2.7 4.7
m ft Concentration of the charge, kg/m (×2/3 for lb/ft)
0.10 0.3 0.12 0.08 0.06
0.15 0.5 0.30 0.18 0.13 0.11 0.09
0.20 0.7 0.60 0.35 0.24 0.20 0.16 0.14 0.12
0.25 0.8 1.0 0.60 0.35 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.18
0.30 1 1.3 0.9 0.60 0.50 0.35 0.31 0.26 0.22 0.18
18

0.35 1.2 1.2 0.9 0.65 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.25
0.40 1.3 1.6 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.24
0.50 1.7 2.0 1.6 1.3 1.0 0.7 0.60 0.50 0.36
0.60 2 2.2 1.9 1.6 1.3 1.0 0.7 0.52
0.70 2.3 2.5 2.2 1.8 1.3 0.9 0.7
0.80 2.7 3.2 2.4 1.8 1.4 1.0 0.6
1.00 3.3 4.0 3.0 2.4 1.4 0.9
1.20 4 4.4 3.8 2.5 1.2
1.40 4.7 5.0 3.6 1.6
1.60 5.3 4.8 2.4
2.00 6.7 4.0
Blasting Design for Underground Excavation
18.1 Blasting Design for Tunnel (Cavern) 523

Fig. 18.12 Blasting toward a narrow opening

Fig. 18.13 Construction of stope pattern should be made as in the right-hand figure and not as in
the left-hand one

The maximum burden of the stoping holes recommended by Langefors and

Kihlström is given in Table 18.3 (reproduced from Table 7.2 in p. 187 of [4])
below and refer to Fig. 18.12.
The burden of the stoping holes should be not greater than the figure in the
column of maximum burden (V). The best way to decide the place of stoping holes
is using the principle of rectangularity. The right-hand stope pattern in Fig. 18.13
(from [4]) shows that in this way, the sequence of ignition to be used is clearly
defined and tearing in the surrounding rock is reduced to a minimum. The left-hand
stope pattern in this figure should be avoided.

18.1.6 Lifter Holes

Similar as the bench blasting, just taking the advance of the tunnel as the height of
the bench height, the following equation can be used to calculate the burden of the
lifter holes (from [6]):
524 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
qe  PRPANFO
B ¼ 0:9 ð18:5Þ
c  f  ðS=BÞ

where
f Fixation factor, generally 1.45, is taken to consider the gravitation effect
and the delay timing between holes.
qe Explosive loading density (kg/dm3).
PRPANFO Weight strength of explosive relative to ANFO (1–1.4).
S=B Ratio of spacing/burden is usually considered equal 1.
c Rock constant calculated from c. Constant c is the quantity of explosive
necessary to fragment one cubic meter of rock, normally in surface
blasts and with hard rock c = 0.4 which is taken.
c ¼ c þ 0:05 for B ≥ 1.4 m and c ¼ c þ 0:07=B for B < 1.4 m.
The burden B should comply with the condition of B ≤ 0.6L, where L is the hole
length.
In lifters, it is necessary to consider the lookout angle γ to give enough space for
the rig drilling blastholes of the next round. For an advance of 3 m, an angle of 3°,
which has an equivalent of 6 cm/m, is usually enough; however, it will depend
upon the characteristics of the equipment, as shown in Fig. 18.14.
The number of lifter holes can be given by:
 
B þ 2L  sin c
NB ¼ integer of þ2 ð18:6Þ
B

The stemming is fixed in T = 10 × d1, where d1 is the drillhole diameter.

Fig. 18.14 Geometry of the lifters (reproduced from Ref. [6] with the permission from Taylor &
Francis Book UK)
18.1 Blasting Design for Tunnel (Cavern) 525

18.1.7 Contour Holes

The contour holes, also called perimeter holes, of tunnel blasting, especially the
roof holes, are usually blasted using the smooth blasting method. The technique and
parameters of smooth blasting have been discussed in Chap. 17.
If the blast does not need contour or smooth blasting, the parameters are cal-
culated as for the lifters with the following values [6]: fixation factor, f = 1.2;
S/B = 1.25; column charge concentration, qc = 0.5qf, where qf is the bottom charge
concentration.

18.1.8 Lineal Charge Concentration of Blasthole

18.1.8.1 Cut Holes

Langefors and Kihlström gave the guidelines of the charge concentration of the cut
holes closest to the empty large holes in Table 18.4.

18.1.8.2 Stoping Holes

The recommended charge concentration of stoping holes by Langefors and

Kihlström has been given in Table 18.3.

18.1.8.3 Lifter Holes

The lineal charge concentration is same as the stoping holes in practice. In fact,
considering the gravitational and fixated effects, the burden and spacing are smaller
than the stoping holes and the specific charge (kg/m3 rock) is obviously higher than
stoping holes.

Table 18.4 Concentration of charge (l) in kg/m for cylinder cuts and greatest distance (a) when
blasting toward empty holes with diameter between φ = 2 × 57 and 200 mm (d indicates the
diameter of the loaded hole)
φ (mm) 50 2 × 57 75 83 100 2 × 75 110 125 150 200
D (mm) 32 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.45 0.5 0.6 0.8
37 0.25 0.35 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.53 0.53 0.6 0.7 0.95
45 0.30 0.42 0.42 0.50 0.55 0.65 0.65 0.7 0.85 1.10
a (mm) 90 150 130 145 175 200 190 220 250 330
The weight strength of the explosive is s = 1.0 (reproduced from Ref. [4] with the permission from
John Wiley & Sons Ltd)
526 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

18.1.8.4 Contour Holes

If the tunnel blasting does not need smooth blasting, the charge concentration of the
contour holes can use the following equation:

qlc ¼ 90  d12 ð18:7Þ

where
qlc lineal charge concentration of contour holes other than smooth blasting, in
kg/m;
d1 drillhole diameter, in m.

18.1.9 General Information for Tunnel Blasting Design

The following information can be used as a reference for the estimation of the
tunnel blasting in the initial stage of a project and should be adjusted according to
the geological condition and blasting practice along with the project progress.

18.1.9.1 Simplified Calculation for Designing Drilling and Blasting

Pattern in Tunnels

The following table can be used as a quick initial design method for tunnel blasting
with parallel-hole cuts (Table 18.5).

Table 18.5 Quick design of drilling and blasting pattern for tunnel blasting with parallel-hole
cuts (reproduced from Ref. [6] with the permission from Taylor & Francis Book UK)
Part of Burden Spacing Length of Charge Stemming
round (m) (m) bottom concentration (m)
charge (m) (kg/m)
Bottom Column
Lifters B 1.1B L/3 qf qf 0.2B
Wall* 0.9B 1.1B L/6 qf 0.4qf 0.5B
Roof* 0.9B 1.1B L/6 qf 0.36qf 0.5B
Stoping
Upwards B 1.1B L/3 qf 0.5qf 0.5B
Horizontal B 1.1B L/3 qf 0.5qf 0.5B
Downwards B 1.2B L/3 qf 0.5qf 0.5B
qf—charge concentration in bottom of hole = 7.85 × 10−4 xd2ρ; d—cartridge diameter (mm); ρ—
explosive density (gm/cc); B—burden in stoping area, B = 0.88 q0.35
f ; L—hole depth in the round
*In some cases, smooth blasting is essential and these relationships are not applicable
18.1 Blasting Design for Tunnel (Cavern) 527

18.1.9.2 Relationship between Drillhole Number and Tunnel

Cross-Sectional Area

• Figure of ICI’s Handbook of Blasting Table [7] (Fig. 18.15)

• C. L. Jimeno et al. Figure [6] (Fig. 18.16)

Fig. 18.15 Relationship of number of blastholes to face area (refer to [7])

Fig. 18.16 Number of blastholes per round in function of tunnel’s area (reproduced from Ref. [6]
with the permission from Taylor & Francis Book UK)
528 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

18.1.9.3 Relationship between Explosives Consumption and Tunnel

Cross-Sectional Area

• Figure of ICI’s Handbook of Blasting Table [7] (Fig. 18.17)

• TAMROCK’s Figure [8] (Fig. 18.18)

18.1.9.4 Specific Drilling

The following Fig. 18.19 is reproduced from Fig. 22.19 on p. 225 of [6]:

Fig. 18.17 Relationship of explosives consumption to face area (refer to [7])

Fig. 18.18 Powder factor as

a function of tunnel area and
blasthole diameter
(reproduced from Ref. [8]
with the permission from
Sandvik)
18.2 Blasting Design for Shaft: Full Face Sinking 529

Fig. 18.19 Specific drilling

as a function of the tunnel
area and drillhole diameter
(reproduced from Ref. [6]
with the permission from
Taylor & Francis Book UK)

18.2 Blasting Design for Shaft: Full Face Sinking

The full face method is used frequently in shaft sinking as it suits either rectangular-
or round-section shafts. The principles described earlier for tunnel excavation may
be applied with some modifications for special circumstances. As with tunnel
blasting, the “cut” is critically important. There are various techniques for cut-hole
design to create a free face with a few blastholes, V-cuts, or cone cuts, and
parallel-hole cuts with relief holes.

18.2.1 Types of Cut-Hole Pattern

18.2.1.1 “V”-Cut

“V” cuts are used in rectangular-section shafts. The planes of the dihedrals formed
by the blastholes that are inclined between 50° and 75° should be parallel to the
discontinuities, in order to use them to advantage during breakage. Figure 18.20 is a
sample of “V” cut.

18.2.1.2 Cone Cut

Cone cuts are used most in round-section shafts. It is easy to drill blastholes with a
shaft jumbo. The holes are placed so as to form several inverted cone areas in the
central part, as shown in Fig. 18.21.
530 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

Fig. 18.20 Drilling pattern in a rectangular-section shaft

Fig. 18.21 Cone-cut drilling pattern

18.2 Blasting Design for Shaft: Full Face Sinking 531

18.2.1.3 Parallel-Hole Cut with Relief Hole(S)

Similar to tunnel blasting, parallel-hole cut with large empty hole(s) is widely used
in shaft blasting, especially for relatively small shafts. Figure 18.22 is a sample.

18.2.2 Blasting Parameters for Shaft Blasting

The pull of the rounds, as well as the number of blastholes, depends upon many
factors such as the type of rock mass, the diameter of explosive charge, the blasting
pattern, type of cut, the shaft size to be excavated, and the restriction of the sur-
rounding environment (i.e., the charge weight per delay as the vibration limitation).
All blasting parameters should be adjusted time to time during the blasting
practice to suit the above factors.
At the early stage, the following formula can be used to estimate the number of
blastholes when 32-mm-diameter explosive charge is used:

NB ¼ 2D2p þ 20 ð18:8Þ

Fig. 18.22 Drillhole pattern

using parallel-hole cut with an
empty large hole (reproduced
from Ref. [14] with the
permission of Sandvik)
532 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

Fig. 18.23 Graph of number of holes in shaft of various size (Source [7])

Fig. 18.24 Round advance

as function of shaft area
(reproduced from Ref. [6]
with the permission from
Taylor & Francis Book UK)

where
NB number of blastholes excluding the perimeter holes if contour (smooth)
blasting is carried out;
Dp shaft diameter (m).
The following graphs, as shown in Figs. 18.23, 18.24 and 18.25, can also be
used in the early stage for estimating the blasting parameters of shafts.

18.3 Firing Sequence Design for Underground Blasting

18.3.1 Principle of Firing Sequence Design

As there is only one free face in underground blasting (excluding benching), the
blastholes should be fired in a certain sequence. The firing pattern must be designed
18.3 Firing Sequence Design for Underground Blasting 533

Fig. 18.25 Powder factor as function of shaft area (reproduced from Ref. [6] with the permission
from Taylor & Francis Book UK)

Fig. 18.26 Firing sequence for small tunnel in numerical order (reproduced from Ref. [14] with
the permission from Sandvik)

so that each hole has free breakage. The angle of breakage is smallest in the cut area
where it is around 50°. In the stoping area, the firing pattern should be designed so
that the angle of breakage does not fall below 90° (see Fig. 18.26).
534 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

It is important in tunnel blasting to have a long enough time delay between the
holes. In the cut area, it must be long enough to allow time for breakage and rock
throw through the narrow empty hole. It has been proven that the rock moves with a
velocity of 40–70 m/s. A cut drilled to a depth 4–5 m would therefore require a
delay time of 60–100 ms to be clean blasted. Normally, delay times of 75–100 ms
are used.
In the first two squares of the cut, only one detonator for each delay should be
used. In the following 2 squares, two detonators may be used. In the stoping area,
the delay must be long enough for the rock movement. Normally, the delay time is
100–500 ms.
For contour holes, the scatter in delay between the holes should be as small as
possible to obtain a good smooth blasting effect.
The general firing sequence is as follows:
For tunnel (cavern):
Cut holes → Cut spreader holes → Stoping holes → Wall holes → Roof contour
holes → Lifter holes.
For shaft:
Cut holes → Cut spreader holes → Stoping holes → Wall contour holes.
There are some important principles that must be kept in mind when designing
the firing sequence:
(a) The firing sequence must start from the central cut holes and then progress
outward to the tunnel contour gradually.
(b) The minimal time interval of two adjacent holes must be no less than 25 ms,
especially in shaft blasting with wet holes to avoid the “water hammer effect.”
(c) For the large tunnel or cavern, the blastholes on the working face can be
divided into several groups. The shock tubes of all holes in each group are
bunched together and connected with a surface delay connector (refer to
Sect. 18.3.3 below). The delay time of the first firing in-hole detonator must
longer than the longest delay time among all surface detonators; otherwise, the
first fired blasthole will damage the initiation net for the tunnel blasting.
(d) If there is a restriction of ground vibration, the maximum explosive charge
weight per delay of any simultaneously fired holes must be no greater than the
allowable charge weight per delay.

18.3.2 Small Tunnel

If it is possible to have enough numbers of required delay intervals for a blasting

round, all blastholes of the whole tunnel face can be fired in one time. Fig. 18.26 is
a sample.
18.3 Firing Sequence Design for Underground Blasting 535

18.3.3 Large Tunnel

For the large tunnel or cavern, the working face can be divided into several sectors.
There are two kinds of connection methods: bunch connector method and deto-
nating cord ring connection method.

18.3.3.1 Bunch Connector Method

The shock tubes of all holes in each sector are bunched together and connected with
a surface delay connector (see Fig. 18.27).
The following figure (Fig. 18.28) is a good example of using bunch connectors
to fire a large cross-sectional tunnel.

18.3.3.2 Detonating Cord Ring Connection Method

In this method, all shock tubes have a “J” hook and all detonators within a delay
sector are connected to a ring (circle) of two strands of 5 gm/m detonating cord (see
Fig. 18.29).
• The shock tube from the detonators has “J” hooks at their end which clip onto
the detonating cord (see Fig. 18.30).
• The “ring” of detonating cord should be flush with the face and should not touch
any other shock tube tail hanging from an adjacent delay sector.
• Delay sectors are linked by the appropriate non-electric surface delay connector.
• The surface connectors are attached to a 0-ms delay bunch block which initiates
the detonating cord.

Fig. 18.27 Initiation by means of bunch connectors for a large section of tunnel (courtesy of
“Nonel User’s Guide” of Dyno Nobel)
536 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

Fig. 18.28 Firing plan using snapline connector blocks with different delays (courtesy of Dyno
Nobel)

Fig. 18.29 Detonating cord

ring connection method
(courtesy of Orica)
18.3 Firing Sequence Design for Underground Blasting 537

Fig. 18.30 Detonator’s “J”

hook clips the detonating cord
(courtesy of Orica)

18.3.4 Tunnel Blasting with Electronic Detonators

Electronic detonators possess the advantages of high precision in delay time so that
the blasting is more guaranteed for safety, particularly for ground vibration control.
It is more and more used for construction blasting, including underground blasting,
in sensitive environments, especially in urban areas. The following examples briefly
show how electronic detonators are used in tunnel blasting.

18.3.4.1 Example 1: SmartShot Electronic Detonators’ Tunnel

Blasting Design

Referring to Fig. 18.31, all blastholes are divided into 5 subsectors.

The initiation sequence is as follows: SS3 > SS4 > SS1 > SS5 > SS2. Their
igniting times are as follows: 0, 2151, 2181, 2593 and 2691 ms, respectively, with
different delay intervals between holes in each sector.

18.3.4.2 Double-Deck Tunnel Blasting Using Electronic Detonators [9]

Fig. 18.33 is a tunnel blasting design using Orica’s eDevTM electronic detonators.
This tunnel excavation was carried out in the busy urban area of Hong Kong in
2013. Due to the complex environment of the tunnel project, the surrounding highly
sensitive receivers made the allowable maximum instantaneous charge (MIC) for
tunnel blasting very low, only 0.2–0.4 kg/delay in some tunnel sections.
538 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

Fig. 18.31 Tunnel firing sequence design using SmartShot Electronic System (Courtesy of AMS)

Fig. 18.32 Blasthole

charging structure
(reproduced from Ref. [9],
courtesy of ISEE)

In this design, double-deck blasting technique was applied to increase the

advance of each round. The charging structure is shown in Fig. 18.32. The
allowable MIC is 0.2 kg per delay. The drillhole and firing sequence pattern are
shown in Fig. 18.33.
Holes surrounding the cut were moved closer, reducing burdens, and the initi-
ation sequence was changed substantially. Commencing with hole by hole firing,
the angle of initiation was gradually opened, as shown in the figure. In three
dimensions, this results in expanding conical angles of initiation.
Loading and tie in time for this blast, also consisting of 358 decks, was 185 min; a
small amount of experience with the previous blast offered immediate improvement
in productivity. There were no notable safety issues or increase in risk. All measured
ground vibration was below 1 mm/s, or monitor thresholds were not triggered. The
majority of this blast pulled 100 % or more than the drilled 1.0 m length. There were
very few small butts (sockets) remaining in the face (refer to [9]).
18.4 Computer-Aided Tunnel Design and Management 539

Fig. 18.33 Tunnel blasting design using double charging technique and electronic detonators
(reproduced from Ref. [9], courtesy of ISEE)

18.4 Computer-Aided Tunnel Design and Management

Some drill manufacturers together with some universities have developed some
software to help the engineer to do the works of tunnel blasting design and man-
agement. The manufacturers supply the software together with the drill equipment
and train the engineer, drillers, and shotfirers.
Among them, Atlas Copco’s “Underground Manager” and Sandvik’s “iSURE®”
are the most popular software. Their prominent feature is that the software is
integrated with the drill operation system, and it not only guides the drilling
machine to drill blastholes in accordance with the designed pattern accurately, but
also collects all real-time available drilling information during the drilling process,
using the MWD (Measure While Drilling) data acquisition systems, to analyze and
assess the rock properties and geological features of the rock mass for guiding
tunnel blasting design.
iSURE® and Underground Manager are based on Windows so the user who are
familiar with windows system will not have difficult to master them.
540 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

18.4.1 Sandvik ISURE® Software: Tunnel Management

Software (Reproduced from Refs. [10, 11]
with the permission from Sandvik)

DTi (iSeries) is Sandvik’s automated multipurpose construction drill rig. DTi works
seamlessly with iSURE® (intelligent Sandvik Underground Rock Excavation)
software.
The idea behind iSURE® is to offer a tool to optimize the drill plan in a practical
way and produce all the necessary information to follow up and improve the drill
and blast work cycle.
iSURE® package consists of four models:
• iSURE® I Tunnel,
• iSURE® II Report (require model I),
• iSURE® III Analysis (require models I and II), and
• iSURE® IV Bolting (DTi-series only, require models I, II, and III).
Recently, Sandvik Construction has added a rig-integrated, high precision,
online rock mass analysis and visualization system to its existing offering for
tunneling process optimization—geoSURE. This new option is fully integrated to
the iSURE® tunneling project management software, providing rock mass infor-
mation and a view inside the drilled rock. Its unique features improve the overall
tunneling process in terms of efficiency and quality.
• iSURE® I Tunnel: Drill and Blast Design
Tunnel is the basic module of iSURE®; it will always come with the package. It
includes project files management, tunnel profiles, tunnel location, drill and blast
design, and drilling and blasting patterns. This module offers one of the most
revolutionary features in the iSURE®: pattern design in the end of the round,
providing hole burden calculation and optimization of hole location (Fig. 18.34).
The design of the theoretical profile can be drawn manually or chosen from the
standard profiles provided in iSURE®. It is also possible to import a profile in .dxf
format from AutoCad. As part of the drill plan design, the tunnel module also
includes detonator design into which surface delay design can be incorporated. It
significantly speeds up the design work and decreases the number of errors. The
charger can be supplied with the reports on the explosives and detonator demand.
This allows explosives planning to start immediately.
In the drill pattern, iSURE® offers a possibility to define a range of different
drilling types such as contour holes, field holes, and grouting holes.
ISURE® pullout analysis software (DTi-series only) can compare the start
positions of holes to end positions of the previous round. This can be used to
modify the charging or hole distances in program areas and improve the
productivity.
18.4 Computer-Aided Tunnel Design and Management 541

Fig. 18.34 Use iSure tunnel module to do drilling and blasting design-firing sequence design
(reproduced fro Ref. [11] with the permission from SANDVIK)

• iSURE® Report: Process Control and Reporting

The report module supplies clear reports that can be used directly for reporting.
Information on the actual drilling process can be received on four levels: per round,
per user (instance of use), per service (maintenance interval), and per lifetime. The
reports include data on the time used for different phases in the drilling process and
rock tools’ consumption per set intervals (Fig. 18.35).
• iSURE® Vibration Feedback (Fig. 18.36)
iSURE® introduces a practical approach to vibration control, as it knows the
charges, detonation timing (momentary situation), and planned and drilled drill plan
(burden). Blasting vibration data from third-party systems can be imported into
542 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

Fig. 18.35 With iSURE (Office program), the capabilities of the accurate iSeries drilling rig are
fully capitalized. iSURE produces all the necessary data for drilling and blasting as well as
analyzes the drill rig data. Pullout analysis and blast vibration feedback offer a new way of
improving the D&B, and team improvement shows the trend of work cycles along the advance of
the tunnel. geoSURE adds a rock quality reporting system that utilizes real-time data analyses
onboard (reproduced with the permission from Sandvik)

Fig. 18.36 Deviation in kg versus PPV can be pinpointed into the drill and blast plan. This
connection can be used in charging work quality control, adjustment of the blast/detonation and
tuning the round length while approaching a sensitive area (reproduced with the permission from
Sandvik)

iSURE in order to compare blasting-generated vibration against momentary mass of

explosives. This comparison of information is then used to reveal the problem areas
in the drill and blast plan.
18.4 Computer-Aided Tunnel Design and Management 543

Fig. 18.37 iSURE use MWD to collect drilling data and analyze rock characters (reproduced with
the permission from SANDVIK)

• iSURE® Analysis: MWD Data Collection and Reporting

iSURE® Analysis offers Measuring-While-Drilling (MWD) data collection and
reporting for analyzing rock structure and characteristics. The module collects data
on 19 parameters—more than any other software in the market—among those being
parameters such as airflow, feed pressure setting, rotation speed setting,
anti-jamming state, and drilling control setting. The MWD data can be studied and
analyzed after drilling (Fig. 18.37).
As an option, an online MWD is available. It offers MWD data and visualization
of the rock surface in real time in 3D. The data can be exported to external
programs from iSURE® to do further analysis in other analysis environment.
544 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

Fig. 18.38 iSURE IV Bolting module is used to design and report the bolting works (reproduced
with the permission from Sandvik)

• iSURE® Bolting (DTi-series only)—Bolt Plan Design, Data Collection, and

Reporting
iSURE® Bolting makes the use of one machine possible in both drilling the face
holes and bolt holes simultaneously. The program enables utilization of the drill and
bolt plans at the same time, with one navigation when appropriate. Reporting is
possible on both the drill plan and the project coordinate systems, promoting
systematic bolting and reporting of actual bolt-hole locations. Additionally, the
iSURE® Analysis offers a possibility to illustrate the tunnel profile based on the
actual bolt locations.
The bolting module allows the design of up to 5 bolting fans in the same plan.
The plan includes hole placement and direction, hole generating and fan manage-
ment tools, and 3D visualization (Fig. 18.38).
• geoSURE
Based on the MWD, Sandvik Construction recently launched geoSURE. The
new system provides accurate geological information for companies or individuals
involved in tunneling or underground operations, through a completely new,
rig-integrated onboard rock mass analysis and visualization system. Designed to be
used with Sandvik underground construction drill rigs, it delivers real-time onboard
analysis of the rock mass which includes features such as fracture, rock strength,
and water indication. The extended analysis of the data allows the evaluation of the
rock strength class, rock quality class, and rock quality index. These features can
then be further visualized using the iSURE® tunneling project management soft-
ware. The 2D planar view provides an overall outlook of the tunnel section,
18.4 Computer-Aided Tunnel Design and Management 545

Fig. 18.39 geoSURE—rock mass analysis and visualization system (reproduced with the
permission from Sandvik)

including 2D interpolation, side view, top view, and unrolled view. For more
detailed inspection, the 3D structural view of the tunnel section can be used. This
features 3D interpolations, plane intersections, and iso-surfaces, and curves. The
iSURE® system also provides the former 3D view and one hole MWD diagram
with the new geoSURE variables.
Not only is it an easy way to fulfill the most advanced reporting requirements in
the industry, but it also acts as an important tool for the assessment of rock rein-
forcement or injection requirements. Additionally, it serves as an assisting tool for
charging and blasting control as well as a complementary tool for geological
mapping (Fig. 18.39).

18.4.2 Atlas Copco: Underground Manager MWD

(Reproduced from Refs. [12, 13] with the permission
from Atlas Copco)

Underground Manager (Tunnel Manager) is a support software for planning,

administration, and evaluation of the drilling operation in mining and tunneling
projects.
The Windows-based program Underground Manager (UM) is suited for Atlas
Copco Boomer rigs equipped with Rig Control System (RCS) and the Advanced
Boom Control function (ABC Regular or ABC Total). The upgraded Tunnel
Manager software is available in three different packages: Tunnel Manager, Tunnel
Manager Pro, and Tunnel Manager MWD.
546 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

The most advanced package, Underground Manager MWD, offers a completely

new functionality built on several years of research at Luleå University of
Technology in Sweden.
The first package, Underground Manager, offers basic functions, such as gen-
erating drill plans and following up the result. The second package, Underground
Manager Pro, contains the upgraded Measure-While-Drilling function, whereas the
most advanced package, Underground Manager MWD, also contains the possibility
to analyze the collected data. This means that the user can swiftly translate rock
drilling data into relevant rock mass characteristics such as rock hardness and
fracturing.
UM is based on an SQL Server Compact Edition database, where all tunnel data
(tunnel lines, laser lines, drill plans, contours, section logs, MWD logs, etc.) are
kept in a defined structure.
The procedure starts with a 3D image of the tunnel that is imported into the
Underground Manager tool. This includes tunnel lines, contours, fix points, and
laser points.
• Drill Plan Generator and Charging and Firing Pattern
The drill plan designing is a key function of UM where all lines, shapes, and
holes (length, lookout, type, and diameter) are allocated. Each defined section of a
tunnel can also be given an individual contour design for generating drill plans as
shown in Fig. 18.43. Any given number of holes can be allocated that may vary
between the defined or interpolated contours. Once the drill plan is complete, the
UM can be linked up with Atlas Copco’s Rig Remote Access System (Fig. 18.40).
Following proper analysis of the geometry and rock conditions, a lot of prepa-
ration goes into selecting the right explosives and firing sequences in order to
achieve good contours and also make sure that vibrations do not exceed stipulated
limits and regulations for the project. All these can be designed and simulated using
the UM, which offers dynamic drawing tools for both charging and blasting. By
selecting designated sections and using a drawing tool, the UM enables various
blasting scenarios to be tried and tested. Sections of blastholes can be given indi-
vidual delay times according to a chosen sequence, including block and surface
delays, as shown in Fig. 18.41. This is very useful in ensuring that the right ignition
sequence is employed. Any changes to the drill plan will be synchronized and
shown in the firing and charging pattern.
• MWD and reporting
The technique is to extract rock mass properties while drilling is called MWD,
which stands for “Measurement While Drilling.”
The parameters recorded are as follows: penetration rate, feed force, percussive
pressure, rotation pressure, rotation speed, damp pressure, water pressure, and water
flow.
The MWD technology consists of two separate processes: registration of data
and presentation/evaluation/interpretation of data.
18.4 Computer-Aided Tunnel Design and Management 547

Fig. 18.40 Edit a drill plan using tunnel manager MWD (reproduced with the permission from
Atlas Copco)

Fig. 18.41 Firing sequence design (reproduced with the permission from Atlas Copco)
548 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

The registration part has developed as the drill rigs get more and more computer
capacity, but is still a critical process.
The evaluation/interpretation took a great step forward when Håkan
Schunnesson published his doctor’s thesis “Drill process monitoring in percussive
drilling for location of structural features” at Luleå University of Technology in
1997.
MWD technology is one tool that can generate considerably better information
on the real characteristics of the rock mass. MWD is often employed in projects
developed in sensitive host rock due to either nearby structures or installations, such
as in urban infrastructure projects, or because of poor ground conditions. In these
cases, rock conditions can be visualized through MWD technology and be dis-
played as maps over the tunnel perimeter or some specific holes.
Optional reporting features in MWD also include geological indices based on the
drilling process and estimates of hardness and fracturing. Rock hardness and rock
fracturing indices are calculated by the program. This evaluation model incorpo-
rates data such as penetration rate, drill speed, feed pressure, and other parameters
that, when combined, provide an index for rock variations (see Fig. 18.42). This
index is often matched with real observation.

Fig. 18.42 Using MWD output the index of rock hardness distribution on the tunnel face
(reproduced from Ref. [13] with the permission from Atlas Copco)
18.4 Computer-Aided Tunnel Design and Management 549

Fig. 18.43 Total navigation system with a tripod-mounted (reproduced with the permission from
Atlas Copco)

• Total navigation system

That is an input method of surveying with a total station which starts with a
station setup where the instrument is placed on a tripod and either centered over a
known point, or set up as a free station.
As shown in Fig. 18.43, the instrument is centered over an existing point with
known coordinates and the orientation of the instrument is obtained by reference
direction measured against another known point. The second case is free station
which means that the instrument is set up in any location, preferably next to the
item to be measured in order to obtain a higher accuracy. Determination of the total
station’s locations is carried out by measuring against other known objects. Known
point is the most common method of station establishment, but the method of free
station is preferred when measuring is made within a small geographic area.
In recent years, the total station has evolved to become increasingly automated,
thereby simplifying the surveying work. An example of this is the so-called auto-
matic prism lock, or automatic target recognition (ATR), which enables the
instrument to be directed toward the prism automatically using a CCD camera
(Jodahl and Larsson 2007). The technology requires only a rough orientation of the
instrument, while the fine tuning is handled automatically. ATR technology along
with the development of the automatic prism called LOCK (or automatic target
tracking) has also enabled more effective surveying.
550 18 Blasting Design for Underground Excavation

Fig. 18.44 Using tunnel profiler to measure overbreak (reproduced with the permission from
Atlas Copco)

By attaching the total station control panel directly on the prism pole and
through radio connection to communicate with the instrument, the meter could
move from the instrument directly to the object to be measured. This has completely
changed the method of data entry. Today, in many cases, only one person is
required to carry out field work. Another technique that is still evolving toward a
better accuracy is reflectorless measurement, where neither prism nor reflectors are
used. Instead, the distance is measured directly at the object via the reflection of the
laser beam. The technology allows inaccessible objects to be measured, however,
with a slightly reduced accuracy than when the prism is used.
• Tunnel profiler (Fig. 18.44)
Tunnel profiler is a fully integrated system for measuring the excavation profile
and is reliant on network communications. The accuracy of the scanned surface is
3–5 cm, by saving the overbreak scanning of the profile and making adjustments on
the drilling pattern may save some 5 cm on overbreak. By limiting the overbreak, it
can reduce the cost of concrete for secondary lining, reduce the mucking cost of
extra rock material, and shorten the construction time.
References 551

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