Steam Systems II: Impact of Boiler Sizing,

Pressure and Velocity

Welcome to Steam Systems Part II: Impact of Boiler Sizing, Pressure, and Velocity.

Slide 2

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Slide 4

At the completion of this course you will be able to

• Describe a useful measure of boiler efficiency and the impact of boiler size on

efficiency

• Discuss the effect of working pressure on efficiency

• Express the benefits of the correct choice of steam velocity

• Describe the impact of air and non-condensable gases in the steam system

Slide 5

Steam has come a long way from its traditional associations with locomotives and the

Industrial Revolution. Today, it serves as an integral and essential part of modern

technology. Without it, our food, textile, chemical, medical, power, heating and

transport industries could not exist or perform as they do.

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Steam provides a means of transporting controllable amounts of energy from a central,

automated boiler house, where it can be efficiently and economically generated, to the

point of use. Therefore, as steam moves around a plant, it can be considered to be both

the transport and provision of energy.

For many reasons, steam is one of the most widely used commodities for conveying

heat energy. Its use is popular throughout industry for a broad range of tasks from

mechanical power production to space heating and process applications.

Slide 6

Boilers and all associated firing equipment should be designed and sized for maximum

efficiency. Boiler manufacturers have improved their equipment designs to provide this

maximum efficiency, when the equipment is new, sized correctly for the load conditions,

and the firing equipment is properly tuned.

Slide 7

There are many different efficiencies that are claimed when discussing boilers but the

only true measure of a boiler’s efficiency is the fuel-to-steam efficiency. Fuel-to-steam

efficiency is calculated using one of two methods.

The first method is input-output. This is the ratio of kJ or BTU output divided by kJ or

BTU being input, multiplied by 100.

The second method is heat balance. This method considers stack temperature and

losses, excess air levels, and radiation and convection losses. Therefore, the heat

balance calculation for fuel-to-steam efficiency is 100 minus the total percent stack

loss and the percent radiation and convection losses.

Slide 8

The sizing of a boiler for a particular application is not a simple task. Steam usages vary

based upon the percentage of boiler load that is used for heating versus process and

then combining those loads. These potentially wide load variations are generally

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overcome by installing not just one large boiler but possibly two smaller units or a large

and a small boiler to accommodate the load variations.

Slide 9

Boiler turndown is a ratio of the capacity at full fire as compared to its lowest firing

point before shut-down. Old boilers may have only two firing positions, low and high.

Newer boilers fire over a wider range of capacities. Depending on the controls, there

may be fixed setting points or fully variable settings. If a 1,200 kW or 4.1 million BTU/hr

boiler can fire as low as 120 kW or 410,000 BTUs/hr, then it has a 10:1 turndown ratio.

Turndown ratios are important for boilers that must operate over a wide range of

capacities/demands. In general, from an efficiency standpoint it is best to have the

boiler sized to match the load. Boilers that have a wide turn-down ratio are therefore

typically more efficient at meeting variable loads. Boiler manufacturers will usually

recommend that the turndown ratio from maximum load to low load not exceed 4:1.

Turndown ratios exceeding 4:1 will increase the firing cycles and decrease efficiency.

Slide 10

Boilers must run a purge cycle at the start of each on-cycle to assure that there is no

accumulation of explosive gases in the fire box. Depending on the local code, air must

be blown through the boiler to perform a multiple air exchange of the fire box. This cold

air also removes heat from the boiler. Flames tend to be the most unstable and

radiation heat transfer is at its lowest at start-up. Therefore, boilers are the least

efficient at the start of the on-cycle.

Reducing the number of on-cycles should therefore increase boiler efficiency over a

longer period of operating time. Boiler cycling also affects emissions. A boiler operating

at low load conditions can cycle as frequently as 12 times per hour, or 288 times a day.

With each cycle, pre- and post-purge air flow removes heat from the boiler and sends it

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out the stack. This energy loss can be eliminated by keeping the boiler on at low firing

rates.

Note that every time the boiler cycles off, the start-up requires about one to two

minutes to place the boiler back on line. And, if there’s a sudden load demand, the start-

up sequence cannot be accelerated. Keeping the boiler on line assures the quickest

response to load changes. Frequent cycling also accelerates wear of boiler components.

Maintenance is increased and, more importantly, the chance of component failure

increases.

Slide 11

Once the boiler or boilers have been sized for their steam output, with either joules or

BTUs or kg/hr or lb/hr, then the operating pressures have to be determined. Boiler

operating pressures are generally determined by the system needs as to

product/process temperatures needed and/or the pressure losses in transmission of the

steam in distribution throughout the facility.

The steam distribution system is an important link between the steam source and the

steam user. It must supply good quality steam at the required rate and at the right

pressure. It must do this with a minimum of heat loss, and be economical in capital cost.

Slide 12

The pressure at which the steam is to be distributed is determined by the point of

usage in the plant needing the highest pressure. We must remember however, that as

the steam passes through the distribution pipe work, it will lose some of its pressure

due to resistance to flow. Additionally, some of it will condense due to loss of heat from

the piping. Therefore, allowance should be made for this pressure loss when deciding

upon the initial distribution pressure.

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So when operating pressure is determined, the following is taken into account:

• Pressure level required at the point of usage

• The degree of pressure drop along the pipe due to resistance of flow (friction) and

• Pipe heat losses

Slide 13

It is a recommended practice to select a boiler operating pressure greater than that

actually required. However, selecting a boiler with a much greater operating pressure

than is required, and then operating it at a lower pressure will cause a loss in efficiency

for the boiler.

The better strategy is for steam to be generated at a pressure as close as possible to

the boiler’s design, even if this is higher than needed for the plant.

Pressure reduction to the levels needed by the steam using equipment can then take

place through pressure reduction stations close to the steam users themselves. The

individual reducing valves will be smaller in size, will tend to give tighter control of

reduced pressures, and will emit less noise. Problems of having a whole plant dependent

on a single reducing station are avoided, and the effects on the steam users of pressure

drops through the pipe work (which change with varying loads) will disappear.

Slide 14

So, why does a boiler operated at lower pressures lose efficiency? The efficiency loss

comes from increased radiation and convection losses. Another area of efficiency loss

comes from the lower quality (dryness) of the steam produced due to increased water

level in the boiler and the increased steam bubble size because of the lower operating

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pressures internally. The reasoning behind this is clear when consideration is given to

what happens in the water and steam space in the boiler. Energy flows into the boiler

water through the outer surface of the tubes and if the water is already at saturation

temperature, bubbles of steam are produced. These bubbles then rise to the surface

and break, releasing steam into the steam space.

Foaming occurs when steam bubbles arrive at the surface faster than they can burst,

and accumulate as foam.

Slide 15

The volume of a given weight of steam contained in the bubbles depends directly on

the pressure at which the boiler is operating. If this pressure is lower than the design

pressure, the volume in the bubbles is greater. It follows that as this volume increases,

the apparent water level is raised. The volume of the steam space above the water level

is thereby reduced. There is increased turbulence as the greater volume of bubbles

break the surface and less room for separation of water droplets is available above the

surface. Further, the steam moving towards the crown or steam take-off valve must

move at greater velocity with a higher volume moving across a smaller space. All of

these factors tend to encourage carryover of water droplets with the steam.

Priming occurs when the volume of the steam space is decreased and the speed of

steam across the surface increases, drawing foam and water droplets to the steam

outlet. A sudden increase in steam demand can then cause a slug of boiler water to

enter the steam outlet. This is priming.

Slide 16

There are a number of reasons that favor carrying the steam close to the points of use

at a high pressure, near to that of the boiler. The use of such pressure means that the

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size of the distribution mains is reduced. The smaller mains have smaller heat losses and

better quality steam at the steam users is the likely result.

It is always recommended to operate the boiler at or as close to the maximum

operating pressure that the vessel was designed for. The boiler’s operating pressure has

a definite impact on the potential of priming or foaming and carryover which can cause

serious problems not only for the system but for the boiler also.

Slide 17

Many of the boiler manufacturers today design their equipment to provide 99.5% dry

saturated steam to be generated and admitted into the distribution system. This means

that less than 1/2 of 1% of the volume exiting the boiler will be water, not steam. In

practice, steam often carries tiny droplets of water with it which cannot be described as

dry saturated steam. Steam quality is described by its dryness fraction, the portion of

completely dry steam present in the steam being considered. The steam becomes wet

if water droplets in suspension are present in the steam space, carrying no latent heat

content.

For example, the latent heat energy of 7 bars g or about 100 PSIG steam is 2048 kJ/kg

or 882 BTUs per pound (assuming 99.5% dryness) but, if this steam is only 95% dry,

then the heat content of this steam is only 0.95 X 2048 = 1946 kJ/kg or 0.95 X 882 =

838 BTUs per pound. The small droplets of water in wet steam have weight but occupy

negligible space. The volume of wet steam is less than that of dry saturated steam.

Therefore, steam separators are used at boiler off takes to ensure dry quality steam.

Slide 18

The velocity of the steam flow out of the boiler, at designed operating pressure, is

established by the outlet nozzle of the boiler itself. Target velocities of 30 meters per

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second or 6,000 feet per minute (fpm) or less have become commonplace as design

criteria. These lower velocities provide for less noise, reduced pressure losses, more

efficient condensate drainage, reduced waterhammer potential, and less piping erosion.

Slide 19

Steam is generated and distributed throughout the system and, because of

temperature differences in the surroundings and the insulation losses, the steam gives

up its heat and condenses. Although it may not travel as fast as the steam, the

condensate (water) is still going to erode the bottom of the pipe. This erosion is

accelerated with the velocity of the steam, therefore the lower the steam velocity, the

less erosion will take place.

Slide 20

Waterhammer occurs when a slug of water, pushed by steam pressure along a pipe

rather than draining away at the low points, is suddenly stopped by impact on a valve or

fitting such as a pipe bend or tee. The velocities that such slugs of water can achieve

are not often appreciated. They can be much higher than the normal steam velocity in

the pipe, especially when the waterhammer is occurring at startup.

When these velocities are destroyed, the kinetic energy in the water is converted into

pressure energy and a pressure shock is applied to the obstruction. In mild cases, there

is noise and perhaps movement of the pipe. More severe cases lead to fracture of the

pipe or fittings with almost explosive effect, and consequent escape of the steam at the

fracture.

Slide 21

Waterhammer is avoided completely if steps are taken to ensure that water is drained

away before it accumulates in a sufficient quantity to be picked up by the steam.

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Careful consideration of steam main drainage can help in avoiding damage to the

steam main and possible injury or even loss of life. Steam main drainage offers a better

alternative than acceptance of waterhammer and containment attempts by choice of

materials, or pressure rating of equipment.

We will discuss removal of condensate in another class in this series.

Slide 22

As a review, it is important that the steam velocity, the piping and the nozzle sizing, be

considered when selecting the boiler operating pressure required.

The appropriately sized pipe must be chosen to carry the required amount of steam at

the local pressure. An undersized pipe means high pressure drops and velocities, noise,

and erosion. An oversized pipe is unnecessarily expensive to install and heat losses from

it will be greater than they need to be.

Slide 23

Steam pipes may be sized so that the pressure drop along them is below an acceptable

limit, or so that velocities along them are not too high. In saturated steam lines,

reasonable maximum velocities are often taken between 24 and 36 meters per second

or 4,800 and 7,200 ft per minute. These velocities should only be exceeded where the

pipes are carrying dry gas.

Here is an exercise for you to try using the chart. Steam flow is 450 kg/h. Find pipe

size for a system operating at 7 bars g. Or if you prefer to work in US units, steam flow

is 1,000 lb/h. Find pipe size for a system operating at 100 psig. The answer is given in

the document titled Steam Velocity Chart Example, which you can download from the

paperclip icon.

Slide 24

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The steam system piping and associated equipment, containing this high heat energy

source (steam), will constantly be a source of radiation losses. A simple but often

overlooked energy savings is to insulate all the piping, steam and condensate, and all

heat exchange equipment that can be insulated.

A single meter of 80 mm pipe with 7 bars g steam in it exposed to an ambient

temperature of 15°C will radiate about 2700 KJ per hour of operation. The latent heat

energy content of 7 bars g steam is 2048 KJ/kg.

In US units, a single foot of 3” pipe with 100 psig steam in it exposed to an ambient

temperature of 60 °F will radiate 778 BTUs per hour of operation. The latent heat

energy content of 100 PSI steam is 882 BTU/lb."

Nearly 1.5 kg of steam per hour per metre of pipe is condensed just in distributing this

valuable energy supply to the point of usage. This is equivalent to nearly a pound of

steam per hour per foot of pipe. Flanges, valves, strainers and equipment will waste

much more energy than a single foot of pipe. The net effect is the consumption of

more fuel to produce this lost energy.

For more information about this, please click the paperclip icon and download the

document titled Heat Loss Chart.

Slide 25

Let’s look at air and non-condensable gases in the steam system.

We know that when steam comes into contact with a cooler surface, it gives up its

latent heat and condenses. As condensation takes place, the condensate begins to form

a film of water. It is a fact that water has a surprisingly high resistance to heat transfer.

A film of water only 0.25mm or 1/100 of an inch thick offers the same resistance to

heat transfer as a 12.5 mm or 1/2 inch thick layer of iron or a 127 mm or 5 inch thick

layer of copper. The air and other non-condensable gases in the steam cause a variety

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of problems to steam systems. Foremost is the reduction of area to deliver the steam.

Air is a simple bi-product of steam generation. It is in all steam systems and should be

dealt with accordingly. The problem occurs when the air collects in the system.

Slide 26

Air and other non-condensable gases are released when steam is generated and passed

down the distribution with the steam. It will collect in areas of high steam consumption

such as heat exchangers, but will also collect at high points and at the end of the steam

piping. If a steam line feeds a series of heat exchangers, such as cooking kettles the air

collects at the end of the main line. The last kettle, therefore, would be fed with a

mixture of steam and non-condensable gases.

Slide 27

Air cannot hold the temperature or latent heat of steam. It will, therefore, initially cause

a reduction in temperature. Keep in mind that air is an insulator. It is generally

accepted that a thin layer of air only 1.0 mm or 1/25th of an inch thick can offer the

same resistance to the flow of heat as a layer of water 25 mm or 1 inch thick. Even a

small amount of air in a steam system will cause fairly drastic temperature losses. Let’s

look at an example of this. 7 bars g or 100 PSIG of saturated steam has a temperature

of 170°C/338°F. If, in this steam, there existed a 10% by volume mixture of air, the

equivalent temperature of this mixture would be 166°C/331°F, or the steam

temperature of 6 bars g or 90 PSIG not 7 bars g or 100 PSIG.

Another major problem with air in the steam system is that it will be absorbed into the

condensate. This reduces the pH of the condensate and creates a substance known as

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carbonic acid. The acidity of the condensate will then attack the piping, heat exchange

equipment, or any other part of the steam system that it comes into contact with.

Slide 28

The use of Thermostatic Air Vents will help remove the accumulating air and rid the

system of the adverse effects. Air Vents are nothing more than thermostatically-

actuated steam traps positioned in the system where the air will collect. Proper design

procedures require air vents to be located at high points, at the end of the steam main

piping, and on all heat exchange equipment.

We will see more about the effective distribution of steam in the next class in this

series.

Slide 29

Let’s take a moment to review what we have covered in this course

• All equipment should be designed and sized appropriately for maximum

efficiency

• The only true measure of a boilers efficiency is the fuel-to-steam

efficiency

• This is calculated using either the input-output method or the heat

balance method

• Turndown ratios are important for boilers that must operate over a wide

range of capacities/demands

• Once a boiler is appropriately sized, operating pressures need to be

determined

• Running a purge cycle at the beginning of each on-cycle is important to rid the

system of accumulation of explosive gases in the fire box

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 • An over-sized boiler will turn off and on many times per day, and every purge

cycle will cause a loss of efficiency

The pressure at which steam is to be distributed is determined by

• Pressure required at point of usage needing the highest pressure

• Pressure drop along pipe due to resistance of flow (friction)

• Pipe heat losses

Slide 30

• It is a best practice for steam to be generated at pressure as close as possible to

boiler’s design, even if higher than required

• A boiler operating at lower pressure

• Loses efficiency due to increased radiation and convection losses

• It also produces lower quality, wet steam due to carryover and is at risk

of priming

• It is best to carry steam at high pressure to the point of usage- allowing for

smaller distribution mains with lower capital cost and less heat loss

• Temperature differences in the system cause steam to give up its heat and

condense

• Condensation causes erosion of pipes

• This erosion is accelerated at higher steam velocity

• Lower steam velocities result in less erosion, less pressure loss, better

drainage, and reduced waterhammer potential

• A simple solution to reduce heat loss is to insulate all piping

• Waterhammer, caused by a slug of water caught in a valve or fitting, can be

avoided if steps are taken to ensure water is drained away before accumulating

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 • Air and other non-condensable gases are released when steam is generated and

passed down the distribution with the steam

• Air causes reduction in temperature and increases the acidity of condensate

Thermostatic air vents will help remove accumulating air and rid the system of adverse

effects

Slide 31

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