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1. Module 5. Nuclear Chemistry

2. Introduction
Nuclear chemistry is the study of physical and chemical properties of elements which are
influenced by changes in the structure of the atomic nucleus. It also deals with the energy released from
nuclear reactions and its uses. It focuses on the heaviest elements, their nuclear properties, structure,
reactions and decay.
Nuclear chemistry is associated with the manipulation of radioactivity and related phenomena.
While it commands dreads because of recent memories of the previous global war, today advances in the
discipline had somehow tamed the negative attitude on the subject because of its contribution especially
to the many applications towards man’s well-being.
3. Objectives
After finishing the chapter, the students should be able to:
a. Define nuclear chemistry and other terms associated with it.
b. Write, balance and interpret simple nuclear reactions
c. Define and distinguish among various modes of nuclear decay
d. Describe nuclear fission and fusion and explain how both processes could be highly
exothermic.
e. Discuss the potential of both fusion and fission as source of energy and identify the pros and
cons of the two technologies
f. Explain how penetrating power and ionizing power combine to determine the effect of
radiation on materials including living tissues.
g. Identify and differentiate the physics particles of the atom
h. Name and discuss some of the applications of nuclear chemistry in man’s daily life and
activities.
4. Learning Content
4.1. Models of the Atom
The evolution of the concept of atoms started from crude philosophical description of the idea of
atoms by ancient Greeks as simple small geometrically different objects, like
cubes, spheres, etc. to the modern interpretation known as quantum mechanics.

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Democritus, a Greek philosopher and thinker, by the

5th century stated that atoms are the smallest parts of any
matter. Atoms is a word which means inseparable or
Fig. 1. The Thomson
indestructible or indivisible. The 19th century saw Dalton
model (pudding
proposed his version of atomic theory of matter. From the model) of an atom
law of constant proportion, he concluded that some matter
consists of small groups of different atoms called
molecules. By the later part of the 19th century a rapid change in the atomic models was ushered based
on new experimental results. Electron was discovered which led to the “pudding” model of atom by
Thomson (1897). Problem: some alpha particles bounce back when fired at the thin gold foil.
In his model, Rutherford suggested that the + charge of the atom should be allocated within the center
of the atoms within a tiny massive core. Problem: Has no explanation why the negatively charged
electrons do not collapse into the positively charged atomic nucleus.
Niels Bohr suggested a new atomic theory
based on an experiment that atoms absorb
light of specific wavelength only, which
seemed to solve Rutherford model difficulty:
that electrons bound within the atom assume
certain levels of energy (quantized energy).
The energy being given by Coulomb equation:
Fig. 2. The alpha particles
−e 2 m v2 and gold foil experiment
F Coulomb= =−F center =
( 4 π ε0 ) r2 r
(Eq. 1)
r = radius of the e orbit around the atom
v = velocity of the e around the positively charged core of the atom
F = energy
1
Ekin = m v2 kinetic energy of the moving electrons (Eq. 2)
2

−me e 4 (Eq. 3)
En = ¿ ¿

−m e e 4 (Eq. 4)
En =En 2−E n1= ¿¿
h = 6.626x10-24 J∙s = Planck’s constant
n = integer for energy levels
m e = mass of the electron
= 9.109 x 10-31 kg

4.1.1. The Atom

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The atom is the environment where most nuclei exist. The radii of atoms are more or less
1-5 x 10-10 m or 1-5 Å . At the center is the nucleus, a small center with a radius (r 1−10x 10
-15
m) that contains almost all the mass of the atom.

4.1.1.1. The Nucleus Nomenclature Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of relative sizes

of atoms and the nucleus
A nucleus is composed of nucleons,
namely, the neutrons and the protons. A nucleus
with a given number of neutrons and protons is called a nuclide. The atomic number Z is the
number of protons in the nucleus while N, the neutron number is used to designate the number
of neutrons in the nucleus. The total number of nucleons is assigned the symbol A, the mass
number. So, A=N+Z BUT notice that the mass of the nucleus is not an integer while A, the
number of nucleons is an integer.
Nuclides with the same number of protons in the nucleus BUT differ in number of
neutrons ae called isotopes (from Greek word iso + tops meaning “same place in the periodic
table). Isotopes have very similar chemical behavior because they have the same electronic
configurations. Nuclides with the same number of neutrons but differing number of protons are
called isotones. Nuclides same mass number but differing numbers of neutrons and protons are
called isobars. They are important in radioactive decay processes. Isomer refers to a nuclide in
an excited nuclear state that has a measurable lifetime (> 10−9 s). Radioactive nuclides are called
radionuclides but they are not radioisotopes as fondly called by some.
The convention for nuclide designation is:
A
Z Chemical Symbol N
27
Ex. For Aluminum, 13 Al 14 For carbon: 146Cl 8

Illustrative Problem. Given are the following nuclei: 60Cm, 14C, 14N, 12C and 13N

Which are isotopes? Isotones? Isobars? Isomers?

Answer: 60Cm is the isomer, 14C and 12C are isotopes of C, 13N and 14N are isotopes of N, 14C and
14
N are isobars (A = 14), while 12C and 13N are isotones (N = 6).
Size and Density of a Typical Nucleus
mass A amu
ρ ≡density = ≈
volume 4 (Eq. 5)
π R3
3
Assuming: Mass of each nucleon = 1 u Nucleus = spherical
(u = atomic mass unit, amu)
Then: The empirical rule to describe the radii of stable nuclei is
Note: A cancels out in the equation. Evaluating:

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ρ=( A u)¿ ¿
Or ρ=2 X 1017 kg /m3 (200,000,000,000,000,000 kg/m3)

(For more understanding about UNITS go to the last topic of the Module)

Understanding the Concept: Problem. Fill up the following table

Element Z M P N E
1. I 74 53

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2. Mn 25 30
3. Ra 88 226
4. Po 209 84
5. Th 90 142

4.1.2. Atomic Processes

4.1.2.1. Ionization
When collisions of nuclei are inelastic, the two possible occurrences may proceed:
a. Excitation of one or both colliding nuclei. This may happen when electron
configuration is altered.
b. Ionization of one or both atoms to an atomic state where electrons as removed and
becomes a positively charge species.
For ionization to occur, an atomic e- must acquire an energy ≥ its binding energy

For K electrons,
Binding energy = ¿ (Eq. 6)

where Z eff =¿ effective nuclear charge felt by the electron

= may be estimated by (Z-0.3)

4.1.2.2. X-ray Emission
X-ray is the electromagnetic radiation produced when an electron in an outer atomic
electron shell drops down to fill a vacancy in an inner atomic electron shell. Example:
going from M shell to fill up the vacancy in the L s hell

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X-rays as a result of electron transfer from L to K shell are called

K α X-rays.
K X-ray
X-rays as a result of electron transfer from M to K shell are called emission
K β X-rays

K α 1 K α 2 refer to X-rays coming from the different subshells An

(2 p 3 , 2 p1 /2 )of the L shell.
,
2
Fig. 4. Diagram showing how X-ray
X-rays from M to L transfer of electrons are called Lα X-rays. emission happen to fill up nuclear
decay.

equation similar to Eq. 3 and Eq. 4 is given below by Bohr’s H model:

1 1
∆ E=Einitial −Efinal =R∞ hc Z 2
( n 2
initial
−
n 2
final
) (Eq. 7)

where: R∞ =Rydberg constant

h = Planck constant
c = speed of light
n = principal quantum number for the orbial electron

Z = Z effective since the nucleus is surrounded by not only one but many electrons

The X-ray energy is

1 1
E x =−∆ E=13.6 Z
2
( n 2
final
−
n 2
initial
) eV

1 1
For K α X-rays with only 1e: E x =−∆ E=13.6 Z
K 2
( n2
final
−
n2
initial
) eV (Eq. 8)

E Kx =−∆ E=13.6
( 11 − 21 ) Z eV
2 2
2

1 1
For Lα X-Rays:
L
E =−∆ E=13.6
x
( 2 − 3 ) Z eV 2 2
2

Mosely’s correction showing the frequencies, v, of the K α series X-Rays:

ν1 /2 =const (Z −1) (Eq. 9)

For Lα series X-rays:

ν1 /2 =const (Z −7.4) (Eq. 10)

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1 1
Thus X-ray energies: E x =−∆ E=13.6 Z
2
( n 2
final
−
n 2
initial
)
=hv eV (Eq. 11)

4.2. Cosmic Rays and Carbon Dating

Cosmic rays are atom fragments or atomic nuclei that bombard the Earth from outside of the
solar system blazing at the speed of light and have been blamed for electronics problems in satellites
and other machinery. Ninety nine percent are the nuclei of well-known atoms stripped of their electron
shells and about 1% are solitary electrons (similar to β particles). About 90% of the nuclei are H
nuclei, 9% are alpha particles (He nuclei) and 1% are heavier elements called HZEs (high atomic
number high-energy ions).
Cosmic rays have much higher energies than other atoms. Chemical energies are expressed in
kJ/mol while cosmic rays are measured in electron volts (eV).
Upon entering the atmosphere, the high energy nuclei collide with gaseous molecules creating
nuclear reactions. One such reaction is the formation of the radioisotope called carbon-14 ( 14C) which
is used in carbon dating. When cosmic rays (highly ionizing radiation from space) knocks off
neutrons from atoms in collision with it in the atmosphere, these neutrons are absorbed by N atom
(14N) and it emits a proton, changing that atom to 14C.
Atmosphere

gas molecules
free neutron released
Ionizing radiation • • and absorbed by
(cosmic rays) • Nitrogen (N) nucleus

Fig. 5. Radiation interaction with matter in the atmosphere (ionizing radiation or cosmic rays).

So where does 14C come from? a) from outer space b) the atmosphere by virtue of the diagram above c)
produced in coolant at boiling water reactors (BWRs) and pressurized water reactors (PWRs), typically
released into the atmosphere in the form of CO 2 at BWRs and in the form of methane in PWRs.

Naturally occurring C is 98.9% carbon-12 (126C ) and 1.11% carbon-13 (136C ). These C isotopes are
both stable. 146C is unstable and undergoes spontaneous radioactive decay or disintegration.

4.3 Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions

4.3.1 Radioactive Decay

In the nuclear reactions, the reactants and products are atoms or subatomic particles instead of
molecules. In chemical reactions, reactants are on the left side of the arrow and the products are placed
after the arrow. The species involved are molecules and atoms

14
N + 10n ⇢ 14
7 6 C + 11 p

atomic number A
Recall: mass number E Neutron number or Z EN

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The equation is not balanced like an ordinary chemical reaction. Nuclear reactions have their
own set of conservation rules. The chemical equation given shows:
 Balanced with respect to mass number and charge: sum is 15 on each side
 Sum of the charges on each side is 7.
 Equation contains only atoms, protons and neutrons
4.3.2 Types of radiation
a. Alpha (⍺) rays. Stopped by thin sheet of Al; deflected by magnetic or electric field; more
massive and positively charged particle; it is actually the Helium nucleus ( 42He )
+¿ ¿
b. Beta (β) rays. Nuclear beta decay occurs in three ways: β−¿ ,β ¿ and electron capture (EC). The
particles passed through thin sheet of Al, deflected by a magnetic or electric field. The particles that
are negatively charged are actually electrons, −10e . However, electrons that are emitted from the
nucleus are usually called beta particles (β- or −10 β ). There is also a positive beta particle called a
positron, 01 β .

c. Gamma (γ ) rays. The particles unaffected, unstopped and undeflected by both Al sheet and
magnetic field. They are high-energy photons of electromagnetic radiation.
4.3.3 Alpha Decay
When a nucleus undergoes an alpha decay, it ejects an alpha particle so that its mass number
decreases by 4 and its atomic number decreases by 2.
238
U ⇢ 234 4
Ex. 92 90 Th + 2He

Parent – the reactant nucleus

Daughter – the product nucleus of the decay
4.3.4. Beta Decay
0
A 14
❑C nucleus undergoes spontaneous decay by emitting a beta particle, (β or −1 β , an electron
-

ejected from the nucleus. The reason for this is that in beta decay, a neutron must decay into a proton
and an electron. There is an additional particle with no charge and virtually no mass MUST also be
emitted. This is called antineutrino, v́.
1
0 n ⇢ p+ 11 β +−10¿ v́ ¿
The proton remains in the nucleus and increase atomic number by 1.

Recall: cosmic ray collision: N + 10n ⇢ 147C + 146¿ 146 p ¿

Radioactive
14 14
6 C decay process: 6 C → 147N + −10 β+ v́
In this process and any β- decay,
a. the atomic number increases by 1.
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b. The proton takes the place of the neutron that decayed

c. The emitted beta particle is released and can be detected by C dating.
4.3.5. Gamma Decay
Gamma decay is the emission of a high-energy photon and tends to accompany other types of
decay. How does it happen?
a. When alpha and beta particles leave the nucleus some energy levels in the nucleus are
unoccupied
b. The nucleus is in excited states and to return to its ground state it emits a photon.
c. The photon will take the form of very high energy gamma radiation (wavelength = 10-12 m
and frequency is 3 x 1020 s-1 (105 kJ/mol).
Gamma radiation changes neither the mass number nor the atomic number of a nuclide
accompanies the beta decay of most nuclei including the carbon 14:
14
The reaction is: 6 C → 147N + −10 β + v́+ ¿ 00γ
Note: The balance of the equation is unchanged by the emission of the gamma rays.
4.3.6. Electron Capture
The nucleus captures an electron from the first shell (n=1) in the atom. This is referred to as K
capture. As a result, the proton in the nucleus is converted to a neutron. It is the reverse of beta
emission. Additional particle is needed to conserve energy. In this case, the particle is a neutrino:
1
Equation: 1 p+−10e → 10n+ v
Result: Nuclear charge decreases by 1 a shown by the ff. reaction:
26
13 Al + −10e → 26
12 Mg+ v

4.3.7. Positron Emission

A positron is a positively charged electron, β+ or 01 β . A positron and an electron form a matter-

antimatter pair. They are identical in mass and spin but opposite in charge. A collision of particles and
antiparticles annihilate each other and converts their combined masses to energy.
1
β+ decay process: 1 p→ 10n+ 01β + v (Eq. 12)

Positron decay has the same effect as electron capture: the nuclear charge decreases by 1.
15
Example: Complete the ff equation: 8 O→ 147 N +?
Ans:
4.3.8. Kinetics of Radioactive Decay
In radioactive decay, one can measure each decay by counting the photons produced over a
period of time. The rate at which a sample decays is called activity of the sample. The unit is the
becquerel (Bq) defined as one nuclear disintegration per second. The older term, the curie (Ci) which

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much larger unit is defined as the number of disintegrations per second in 1 gram of radium-226. 1 Ci
is exactly 3.7 x 1010 Bq.
∆N
For a sample of N nuclei, rate of disintegration = (Eq. 13)
∆t

By simplification: N=N o e−kt (Eq. 14)

Where: N = number of nuclei after a given period of time t

N o = initial number of nuclei

k = decay constant

Using the natural logarithm: ln N = ln N o - kt

No
ln = kt first order process (Eq. 15)
N
Activity is the number of decays that occur in a radioactive sample in a given amount of time. It
is equal to the number of nuclei present, N, multiplied by the probability of decay per nucleus,
k, that is A = kN. Hence, it will also decrease exponentially with time:

A=A 0 e−kt (Eq. 16)

where: A0 = the activity at t=0

A = number of disintegration per unit time at any time t

k = probability of decay per nucleus
Half-life of a radioactive sample is the amount of time it would take to spend half of the original
1
amount. Hence, N = N
2 o
ln 2 0.693
Evaluating the equation t 1/ 2= or t 1/ 2= (Eq. 17)
k k
Ex. The half-life of 14C, used in carbon dating, is 5730 years. What is the decay constant for
14
C?
Ans: k = 1.21x 10-4 yr-1
Radiocarbon Dating is a procedure of determining the age of artifacts based on the amount of
14
C incorporated in living organisms. The 14C is formed in the atmosphere when the cosmic
radiation from space collides with gaseous molecules in the atmosphere and the carbon is
incorporated into plants and animals. The 14C/12C remain constant over a long period of time.
Illustrative Problem. A piece of cloth is discovered in a burial pit in the southwestern United
States. A tiny sample of the cloth is burned to CO2 and the 14C/12C ratio is 0.250 times the ratio in
today’s atmosphere. How old is the cloth?
Given. A piece of cloth, tiny sample taken
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The sample burned to CO2 and the 14C/12C = 0.250 times the
ratio of the present atmosphere
Required: How old is the artifact, t

Solution: The half-life of 14C is 5730 years and k = 1.21 x 10−4 yr−1

No
ln = kt where: N is the amount of 14C now
N
No = the amount of 14C at the time the
artifact existed.

1 N 1 1
t = ln o = −1 ln t = 11,500 yr
k −4
N 1.21 x 10 yr 0.250

4.3.9. Energetics of Nuclear Reactions

The key to understanding energetics of radioactive nuclei is to understand the nuclei and the
forces that hold them together.

Stable nucleus does not tear apart. So, how much energy might be required to take it apart?

Binding energy of a nucleus is the energy that would be released if the nucleus were formed
from a collection of three nucleons. The greater the binding energy the more stable the nucleus is.

The energy in a nucleus is comes from the interconversions of mass and energy, and is given by:

E = mc2 (Eq. 18)

where: m = mass of the atom
c = speed of light = 2.9929 x 108 m/s
E = energy
Illustrative Problem. What is the mass of a Helium-4 atom?
Ans. The He atom has 2 protons, 2 neutrons and 2 electrons
1
H = 1.007825 u
1
n = 1.008665 u
Sum of masses = 2x1.007825 u + 2x 1.008665 u = 4.032980 u
But experimentally, the mass of He-4 atom = 4.002603 u
∆ m=¿ is the difference between the calculated and the observed mass
= also called mass defect
= 4.032980 u – 4.002603 u
= 0.030377 u
Eb = (∆ m)c2
1.66054 x 10−27 kg 2.99792 x 10 8 m 2
= 0.030377 u ( )( ¿
u s
= 4.5335 x 10-13 kg-m2s-2
= 4.5335 x 10-13 J energy release when one 4He is formed
From its constituent nucleons

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For one mol of 4He nuclei (N=6.02214 x 1023 nuclei), the energy released is:
Eb = (4.335 x 10-12 J)(6.02214 x 1023 nuclei/mol)
Eb = 2.7301 x 1012 J/mol
This much energy is so tremendous; it is equal to the energy required to drive an
automobile 30 times around the world through the equator!!!

4.4. Transmutation, Fission and Fusion

The atoms contain tremendous amount of energy. Harnessing that energy is a challenge but if
successful would free the world from the energy shortage it is undergoing and free the world from
using more fossil fuels which in turn hurts the planet because of climate change. There are two ways to
do this: fission and fusion.
4.4.1. Transmutation. Transmutation is a process whereby one nucleus changes to another,
either by natural decay or in response to some outside interventions such as neutron bombardment.
First example is the naturally occurring cosmic ray collision with atmospheric gas molecules to
produce 14C which has been shown earlier. Second is the nuclear reaction arising from neutron
capture. An example is the electron capture by 10B as shown below:

B+ 105¿ 10n→ 115 B' → 73 Li+ 42 He ¿

Compound nucleus
Unstable intermediate nucleus
Decays instantly emitting particles (⍺) to form a stable nucleus

4.4.2. Fission. Fission is the process of splitting a large, unstable nucleus into smaller nuclei of
greater stability. Not all nuclei, though, can undergo fission. Those that can undergo fission are said to
be fissionable or fissile.

Types of fission
a. Spontaneous fission. Large nucleus simply breaks into smaller pieces.
b. Induced fission. This is done by neutron bombardment of a fissile material.

Reaction:
U + 235 1 236 ' 141 92 1
92 ¿ 0 n → 92 U → 56 Ba+ 36 Kr ¿+ 30 n

Fig. 6. Diagram showing

how fission
happens

The entire nucleus splits

into two large fragments
called 'daughter nuclei'.

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Two or three neutrons also explode out of the fission reaction and these can collide with other
uranium nuclei to cause further fission reactions. This is known as a chain reaction.

Illustrative problem.: Calculate the energy released by a uranium-235 nucleus if it splits into
barium-141 nucleus and Krypton-92 nucleus according to the equation:
U + 235 1 236 ' 141 92 1
92 ¿ 0n → 92 U → 56 Ba+ 36 Kr ¿+ 30n

Given: Uranium-235 nucleus splitting into a Barium-141 and Krypton-92 nuclei

Required: Energy released
Solution: The masses of the particles involved are:

Particle mass, u Particle mass, u

235 141
U 235.0439231 Ba 141.9144064
92Kr 91.9261528 neutron 1.0086649

Mass of reactants = 235.0439231 u + 1.0086649 u

= 236.0525880 u
Mass of products = 141.9144064 u + 91.9261528 u + 3x1.0086649
= 235.8665539 u
Change in mass, ∆ m=¿ 235.8665539 u −¿ 236.0525880 u
= −¿ 0.1860341 u
Energy, using the relativity equation:

E =( ∆ m)c 2
1.66053886 x 10−27 kg 2.99792458 X 10 8 2
= −¿ 0.1860341 u( )( )
u s

E = −¿2.776406 x 10-11 J

4.4.3. Fusion. Nuclear fusion happens when two small, light nuclei join together to make one
heavy nucleus. Fusion reactions occur in stars where two hydrogen nuclei fuse together under high
temperatures and pressure to form a nucleus of a helium isotope.

4 11H → 42 He

Mass of 4 H = 6.693 x 10-27 kg

Mass of 1 He nucleus = 6.645 x 10-27 kg.
Difference = 0.048 x 10-27 kg = amount converted to energy

In all nuclear reactions, a small amount of the mass changes to energy.

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4.5. Interaction of Radiation

For example, a 500 ml of water will contain around 3.2
and Matter (IRM)
x 1025 H atoms. Complete fusion of all the atoms would
4.5.1. Classification of release about 3.44 x 1013 J of energy. It is estimated that
the sun releases 3.8 x 1026 J/s of energy
radiation
a. Ionizing radiation. The real problem with fusion is that it requires fusing of
Energy of photon is greater than nuclei which are positively charged. This requires the
the ionization energy of typical nuclei must be in plasma form which is attain at an
atoms or staggering 150,000,000oC temperature, which happens
(b) only in stars like the Sun.
(a)
Fig. 7. (a) Diagram showing how fusion
Happens and (b) electromagnetic
Spectrum of radiation.

molecules, hence, induces ionization in

whatever atom or molecules. Examples
are X-rays
b. Non-ionizing radiation. Non-
ionizing radiation is a form of radiation
with less energy than ionizing radiation. Unlike ionizing radiation, non-ionizing radiation does
not remove electrons from atoms or molecules of materials that include air, water, and living
tissue.

4.5.2. Three main factors governing IRM

There are three factors that govern interaction of radiation ad matter and these are:
a. Amount of radiation matter is exposed to
b. Penetrating power
c. Ionizing power

4.5.2.1. Penetrating and ionizing power

The farther radiation can penetrate into a substance the more extensive the ionization it
will cause. So, the more localized the ionization the less penetrating power it will possess.
a. The alpha (α ¿ particles are the least penetrating ones. They are absorbed by 10 cm
of air, 0.01 mm lead or a sheet of paper. They cause ionization near the surface of the material
they strike, resulting in a small volume of effects. The double charge and considerable mass of
the alphas explains why the impact on matter is so great. Sources of alpha emitters can be
inhaled or swallowed and get lodged in some parts of the body and their cause ionizing effect
where they are localized.
b. The beta ( β ¿ particles penetrate deeper than the alphas and therefore considered
moderate absorbed by 1 m of air, 0.1 mm lead or 3 mm Al sheet. A beta has about 1/8000 of
the mass of an alpha particle and their interaction with matter is less severe compared to alphas
but effects of its ionization is more spread out. All beta radiation sources are dangerous.

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c. The gamma (γ) rays have a very low ionizing power and penetrate very deeply into
matter. The penetrating power is therefore very high, about 99.9% is absorbed by 1 km of air or
10 cm lead. Gamma rays are pure energy - no charge and no mass – hence, their interaction with
matter is much less than the other two. When they strike the body, most just pass through it;
only some interact and therefore dangerous. But they are the only radiation source that is worth
the risk of putting inside a patient for diagnostic reasons.

4.5.3. De Broglie Wavelength, Wave-Particle Duality

In quantum theory of atom, there is no distinction between wave and particle description
of matter. It is convenient to describe matter in terms of particles; it also natural to use a wave
description for light.

4..5.3.1. De Broglie Wave Description

h
λ= ` (Eq. 19)
p
where: λ=¿ de Broglie wavelength
p=¿ momentum of the particle
h=Planc k ' sconstant =6.6 x 10−34 J . s
So, the wavelength of a particle is ONLY important when the momentum is very small
For example: Electrons: p = 9 x 10-31 kg

h hc
λ= = (Eq. 20)
p ¿¿
where: m0 = rest mass (can be obtained from
m¿ =γ m0 = mass of particle in motion (Eq. 21)
γ =¿ ¿ Lorentz factor (Eq. 22)
β=¿ v/c (Eq. 23)
v = speed of the particle
c = speed of light
The total energy of the particle is
ETotal =m¿ c 2 (Eq. 24)
BUT total energy is equal to kinetic energy plus the rest mass energy:
ETotal =T +m0 c2 T = kinetic energy (Eq. 25)
Substituting the appropriate values and simplifying:
T =(γ −1)m0 c 2 (Eq. 26)
2
For a mass at rest: ETotal =m0 c (Eq. 27)
For a massless particle like photon: ETotal = pc (Eq. 28)
where: p = momentum of the photon
= MeV/c
m = MeV/c2

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Table 2. Magnitudes of de Broglie wavelength of particles (Loveland et al,

2006).

Table 3. Comparison of relativistic and classical expressions for a free particle

moving in x direction (Loveland et al, 2006).

Note: Arbitrary rule is to use relativistic expression when γ ≥1.1

Illustrative Problem. A 20Ne ion with a kinetic energy of 1 GeV per nucleon. Calculate its
velocity, momentum and total energy.
Given : A 20Ne ion T = 1 GeV/nucleon
Required: v, p, ETotal
Solution: Total kinetic energy = 20 x 1 GeV/nucleon = 20 GeV = 20,000 MeV
T =(γ −1)m 0 c 2
m0 = Rest mass = 20 u or (20)(931.5) MeV/c or 18,630 MeV
T 20,000
Solving for γ: γ = + 1=1+
m0 c 2
18,630
γ = 2.07
Recall: γ =¿
β=¿
¿¿
¿ 0.88
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v = 0.88c = (0.88)(3.00 x 108 m/s

v = 2.6 x 108 m/s
Momentum, p, is
mv
p= 2
=γmv = (2.07)(20 u)(1.67 x 10-27 g)(2.6 x 108 m/s)
√ 1−β
p = 1.8 x 10-17 kg.m/s
Or in other units:
mcv
pc = ¿=( 931.5 )( 20 ) ( 0.88 ) ( 2.07 )=33.9 GeV
√1−β 2 ¿
p = 33.9 GeV/c
Total energy: ETotal = Ek + m0c2
ETotal =γ m0 c 2=( 2.07 )( 20 u ) ( 931.5 )=¿ 38.6 GeV

4.5.3. Particles Physics

4.5.3.1. Classifications of Particles

a. Fermions obey the Pauli principle and have antisymmetric wave functions and half-
integer spins. The neutrons, protons and electrons are fermions.
b. Bosons do not obey the Pauli principle and have symmetric wave functions and integer
spins. Photons are bosons. They are force carriers, which carry the four fundamental forces.
4.5.3.2. Particle Groups
Particle groups can also be divided into:
a. Leptons such as the electron. They cannot interact via the nuclear or strong
interactions.
b. Hadrons such as neutrons and protons. They can interact via the nuclear or strong
interactions. Fermionic hadrons, called baryons, contains three quarks.

There are six different kinds of leptons:

1. v eelectron neutrino: charge: 0 mass: < 1x 10-11 GeV/c2
2. e electron: charge: -1 mass: 0.000511 GeV/c2
3. v μ muon neutrino charge: 0 mass: < 0.0002 GeV/c2
4. μmuon charge: -1 mass: 0.106 GeV/c2
5. v τ tau neutrino charge: 0 mass: < 0.02 GeV/c2
6. τ tau charge: -1 mass: 1.7771 GeV/c2

They can be arranged in three pairs. The electron (e), the muon (μ) and the tau lepton
each carry a charge of -e and have associated with them the electron neutrino (ve), the muon
neutrino (vμ) and tau neutrinos ( v τ ). The electron neutrino is seen in nuclear phenomena such as
β decay, whereas the other neutrinos are involved in high energy processes.

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The fermionic hadrons, called baryons,, are thought to be made up of three

fundamental particles called quarks..

There are six different kinds (flavor) of quarks:

1. U or Up 4. C or charm
2. D or Down 5. T or Top
3. S or Strange 6. B or Bottom

Table 3. Table of quarks and their properties

Flavor Approx. mass, GeV/c2 Electric charge

u up 0.003 2/3
d down 0.006 -1/3
c charm 1.3 2/3
s strange 0.1 -1/3
t top 175 2/3
b bottom 4.3 -1/3

4.5.3.2. Forces Encountered in Nature

There are four fundamental forces found in nature. According to physicists, all the
interactions in the universe are the result of these forces. The weakest is gravity which is
significant when the interacting forces are massive (i.e. planets, stars, etc.). The weak
interaction is important in nuclear β decay. The famous electromagnetic force (emf) which
governs most behavior in the sensory world is next in strength. The strongest force is the
nuclear or strong interaction which is about 100 times stronger than the emf. These are
summarized below:
Table 4. Types of force found in nature.

There is a current effort to unite the strong and electroweak forces (electromagnetic and
weak forces) in a so-called grand unified theory (GUT) with the inclusion of gravity in a final
step: theory of everything.
The force carriers or exchange particles are all bosons, carrying the four fundamental
forces. a) the gluons, - strong interaction carriers b) the W ± ∧W 0 which are the weak interaction
carriers c) the photon – carrier of the electromagnetic force (emf) d) the graviton is the
postulated carrier of gravitation.

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The size of each quark is about ¿ 10−18 m.

MeV
The lightest two quarks, the u and d (m 5−10 ∧pointlike ¿ make up the nucleons.
c2
2 2 1
Proton is a uud combination charge: ( + − ¿
3 3 3
2 1 1
Neutron is a udd combination charge: ( − − ¿
3 3 3
The quarks account for 2 % of the mass of the proton;
98 % is in gluons which connect the quarks
197
The top quark (most massive) has a mass of Au with a life of t = 10-24 s

Fig. 8. An artist’s conception of the standard model for atomic particles taken from
Loveland et al (2006).

Units and Conversion Factors

Unit Length: femtometer = 10−15 (it is called fermi
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Unit Mass : amu or u = atomic mass unit

u = 1.66 x 10-24
u = 931.5 MeV/c2
Unit energy: E = 106 eV
= 1.602 x 10-13 J
e2
=1.43998 MeV fm
4 π ε0
h=6.58212 x 10−22 MeV s
c=2.9979 x 1023 fm. s−1
hc = 197.3 MeV fm
1 year (sidereal) = 3.1558 x 107 s ≈ π x 107 s
(See Table 1a and Table 5 for more information on Units and Conversions Factors)

Table 5. Conversion Factors and Handy Units

5. Teaching and Learning Activities

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Chapter Exercises
A. 1. Alpha Decay Problem. Complete the reaction for each of the following nuclear decay
processes:

Po → 210 206
84 Pb+ 82¿ ¿?

230
90 Th→ ?+ 42 He
2. Beta Decay Problem. Complete the equations for each of the following β- decay reactions
using to represent the beta particle.
234
90 Th→ 234
91 Pa+?

Pa→ ?+ 234 0
91 β + −1 ¿ v́ ¿

3. Gamma ray decay. Complete the equations for the following reactions to represent the γ
particle.
60
27 Co → ?+ e−1+ v +γ
4. Positron Emission Problem. Complete the following equations:

K →? + 40 0
a) 19 ¿ β+ −1¿ v́ ¿ ¿

b) K +? → 40 40
19 Ar+ 18¿ v ¿

B. Problem Solving
1. If radium-223 has a half-life of 10.33 days, what time duration would it require for the activity
associated with this sample to decrease 1.5% of its present value?
2. Determine the number of atoms in a 1.00 mg sample of Carbon-14?
3. What mass of Carbon-14 must be in a sample to have an activity of 2.00 mCi?
4. What are the wavelengths of a 500-MeV photon, a 500-MeV electron, and a 500-MeV proton?
C. Discussion/definition
1. What is the grand unified theory?
2. When a particle is massless (that is m≅ 0, describe its energy with an equation.
3. The idea of an atom is that it is the simplest, indivisible particle of matter. In the light of the
information in this module, write a comment on that idea of Democritus and other scientists
who followed up on his philosophy of atom.

6. Recommended Reading Materials and Resources for Supplementary Reading

A. Videos
1. https://youtu.be/xvqsFTUsOmc
2. https://youtu.be/I2abTNq4AZs
3. Nuclear Chemistry - Radioactivity & Radiation - Alpha, Beta, Gamma
(https://youtu.be/cOE40P5rHCA)
4. How to Balance Nuclear Equations (https://youtu.be/tgBkzUvUy_U)
5. Nuclear Reactions, Radioactivity, Fission and Fusion.

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B. Internet Pages and Sites

1.
www.byjus.com/chemistry/nuclear-chemistry
2. http://www.experts123.com/q/where-does-carbon-14-come-from.html
3. https://www.space.com/32644-cosmic-rays.html
4. https://www.bbc.co.uk
5. https://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/topics/radioact/Radio/ion&penet.htm
6. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-14).

7. Teaching-Learning Modality Adopted

Synchronous and Asynchronous modality (Module, google meet, Edmodo, CP, messenger, e-mail,
exercises and modular quiz)
8. Assessment Task (See Module 5 Assessment Task in separate file)
9. References
1. Brown, Larry and Tom Holme. 2012. Chemistry for Engineering Students. 2nd Edition. Cengage
Learning Asia, Pte. Ltd. ISBN 13-978-981-4392-89-0. 4th Reprint 2013. Philippines.
2. Chartl, Wolfgang. 2014. Basic Physical Chemistry: A complete Introduction to Bachelor of
Science Level. 1st Edition. A Bookboon Publication. ISBN 978-87-403-0669-9
3. Loveland, Walter D., Morrissey, David J. and Glenn T. Seaborg. 2006.Modern Nuclear
Chemistry. Wiley-Interscience. A Publication of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New Jersey.
Simultaneously published in Canada.

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1. MODULE 6. Chemistry of the Environment

2. Introduction

The current development in the world demands increased energy usages. As a result, human
activity to improve human life increased logarithmically. The thriving population in itself is the greatest
source of pollution of the environment. Consequential to the bloating world population are the pollution
and contamination of the water, the air, the soil and the food chain. These are full of toxins with adverse
effects to human, plant as well as animal life.

This module will help the students understand the causes and grave consequences of the
environmental chaos we are in.

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3. Learning Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to:

1. Define what is pollution and contamination

2. Identify the areas of the biosphere that are heavily affected by pollution.
3. Enumerate the causes, pathways and effects of pollution in each area
4. Suggest practical solution to the problem of pollution
5. Point out practical indicators of pollution in the environment, and;
6. Discuss the chemistry of ozone depletion and its implication to human life.
7. Cite and explain what is green chemistry and its potential as a positive step to solving environmental
pollution.

4. The Chemistry of Environment

4.1. Pollution and Contamination

The environment includes the biosphere where life thrives. This module will confine the
discussion to the air, water and land. Green chemistry will also be mentioned as a special topic.
Pollution is the excessive discharge or addition of unwanted and undesirable materials into the
environment that causes harm and damage to human, plant and animal life. The undesirable materials
are called pollutants. Example the water in Pasig River are polluted by discharges from the many
manufacturing plants that lined its sides. It is said that in the river no more fish lives.
Contamination is the presence of a substance that may or may not alter the properties of the
environment. The substance may or may not be harmful to the life in the environment. The substances
referred to are called contaminants. For example, a river contains silt from soil erosion.
Chemistry and biology can help us understand the nature and extent of pollution (or
contamination) of a certain part of the environment. The two sciences can also help us identify the best
solution to restore and preserve our environment.

4.1.1. Causes of Pollution

The following are the main causes of pollution:

a. Population increase
b. Industrialization
c. Urbanization
d. Erosion
e. Uncontrolled exploitation of nature (i.e. logging, road construction, etc.)
f. Radioactivity
g. Volcanic eruptions
h. Accidental oil spill
I, Acid rains
m. Disposal of coal ash
n, Buried wastes
o. Disposal of nuclear wastes
f. Agricultural practices
g. Electronic waste
h. Mining
i. Landfill and illegal dumping

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j. GMOs (genetically modified organisms)

k. Intensive farming
l. Manufacturing industries
m. Electronic wastes
n. Greenhouse gases

4.1.2. Classification of Pollution

Pollution is classified into several forms:

a. Air pollution c. Land pollution e. Noise pollution
b. Water pollution d. Food pollution f. Thermal pollution

However, the first three classification will be the major discussion of this module.

4.2. Air Pollution

Air pollution is the release of pollutants into the air that are harmful to
human health and to the planet as a whole. Examples are smog, flue gases
from the tailpipes of vehicles and chimneys of manufacturing plants.

Fig. 1. Flue gases from a

manufacturing plant
4.2.1. Causes of Air Pollution

Air pollution comes from excessive use and production of energy. Burning of fossil fuels
releases gases into the atmosphere. But air pollutants are not limited to gases only. The table below
summarizes the air pollutants in the atmosphere, their sources and effects:

Table 1. Summary of Air Pollutants

Air pollutant Source Effects

A Gases (Inorganic)
1 Sulfur dioxide (SO2) From petroleum industry, Causes respiratory diseases, eye
thermal power station, sulfuric irritation and throat troubles,
acid manufacturing plants damage to agriculture
2 Hydrogen sulfide From industries like petroleum Causes eye irritation, severe
(H2S) refineries, paper and leather throat pain, headache, corrosion
manufacture of metals
3 Hydrogen fluoride Phosphate fertilizer industry, Causes irritation, bone and tooth
(HF) aluminum industry, brick disorders, and respiratory
pottery making diseases
4 Carbon monoxide Combustion of fuels, Causes headache, visual
(CO) automobile industry, oil difficulty, and even paralysis
refineries, cigarette smoke, etc
5 Nitrogen oxides NO2 is a reddish-brown gas Causes respiratory illnesses, eye
(NxOy) with a sharp odor. NO is a free irritation, affects plant growth;
Nitrogen dioxide radical; Comes from reduce visibility; plays a role in
(NO2) combustion of fuels, explosive the formation of tropospheric
Nitrogen monoxide industry, acid manufacture, ozone
(NO) N2O are derived from

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N2O is Nitrous oxide manufacture of panty hoses; 300x GWP than CO2; depletes
also called laughing powerplants, manure ozone; cause euphoria, relaxation
gas); slang name is management; transportation; and short-lived (20 sec) “high”
Nangs chemical production; and from when taken; causes dizziness
agricultural fertilization i.e. difficulty thinking straight and
x, y are subscripts corn farming cause fits of laughter
6 Ozone (O3) From photochemical reactions Cause eye irritation, aggravate
involving NOx (nitrogen respiratory diseases, and damage
oxides) and VOCs (volatile to plants and animals;
organic compounds); Auto-
mobiles are the largest source
of VOCs necessary for these
reactions; Ozone tend to peak
on the afternoon
Gases (Toxic Pollutants: Hazardous Air pollutants (HAPS) - Organic and trace
B elements considered carcinogens)
7 Perchlorethylene Emitted from dry cleaning Toxic and may cause cancer and
Cl2C=CCl2 facilities, air freshers, vrnishes, other serious health effects such
paints, adhesives smoking, birth defects
photocopiers, burning of
woods, fuel oils, gasoline, etc
8 Methylene chloride Manufacturing plants that A neurotoxin that may cause
aka produce it; From plastic, brain and central nervous system
Dichloromethane urethane, synthetics, foam, damage; cause liver and lung
CH2Cl2 electronics and paint industries; cancer; inhalation result to
household paint removal; shortness of breath; and cause
electronic cleaner and aerosols eye irritation or possible eye burn
9 Benzene (C6H6) Emissions from gas or coal Eye, lung and skin irritation in
combustion, from incineration the short term, and blood
processes; tail pipes of cars disorders in the long term.
1 Polycyclic aromatic Traffic exhaust and wildfire Cause eye and lung irritation,
0 hydrocarbons smoke blood and liver issues and
(PAHs) cancer; affects the brain in
children and cause ADHD
(attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder )
1 Dioxins Emissions from plastic Short-term: Affects the liver,
1 manufacturing plants harm the immune, nervous and
endocrine systems; long term:
affects the reproductive functions
1 Lead Emissions from gas or coal Can damage children’s brain and
2 combustion, from incineration kidneys; even in small amounts it
processes; tail pipes of cars can affect children’s IQ and
using gasoline ability to learn.
1 Mercury Emissions from gas or coal Affects the central nervous
3 combustion, from incineration system
processes; tail pipes of cars
C Solids in the Air
1 Dust Cement industry, mining, glass Causes respiratory diseases,
4 industry, ceramics industry affects lungs, affects agriculture,

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accelerates corrosion
1 Smog Emission from fossil fuel Eye and throat irritation, damage
5 combustion; car and truck the lungs; triggers asthma and
factories; power plants, intensify allergies
incinerators, engines
1 Soot Emission from fossil fuel Penetrate the lungs and
6 combustion; car and truck bloodstream and worsen
factories; power plants, bronchitis, lead to heart attack
incinerators, engines and hasten death
Note: 1. Soot are the tiniest particulate matters in air. It is made up of tiny particles of chemicals, soil,
smoke, dust or allergens in the form of gas or solids.
2. Smog is called “ground level ozone” or GLO. It occurs when emissions from fossil burning
plants react with sunlight. Mainly, GLO is a photoreaction of NOx and VOCs with sunlight
and form. They are secondary pollutants are is called “bad ozone”.
3. VOCs examples are benzene, ethylene glycol, formaldehyde, methylene chloride,
tetrachlorethylene, toluene, xylene, 1,3-butadiene.

4.2.2. Acid Rain

The occurrence of acid rains is due to the dissolved oxides of sulfur and nitrogen. The gases
like SO2 and NO2 from industries dissolves in water and form respective acids. So, in simple terms
it means that the rain contains more acids.

4.2.2.1. Reactions
SO 2+ H 2 O→ H 2 S O 3
2 SO2 +O2 → 2 S O3
SO 3+ H 2 O→ H 2 S O 4
2 NO2 + H 2 O → HN O3+ HN O2

4.2.2.2. Harmful Effects of Acid Rain

The following are some of the harmful effects of acid rain to the environment:
a. It makes the soil more acidic thereby reducing its fertility.
b. Affects the growth of crops, plants, etc. It strips nutrients from trees’ foliage.
c. Reduces the survivability of aquatic species.
d. Damages buildings, vehicles, structural materials, etc.
e. Acid rains leaches Al, minerals and nutrients from the soil that plants need to grow.

4.2.3. Radioactive Pollutants

Radioactivity is an air pollutant that is both geogenic (relating to earth’s history) and
anthropogenic (originating from human activity).
Geogenic radioactivity comes from the radionuclides that are present in the radioactive
minerals in the earth’s crust or from the atmospheric gases’ interaction with the cosmic radiation.
In other words, this is a part of the natural formation of earth as a planet.
Anthropogenic radioactive emissions are a result of human activities as it tries to explore
energy resources. They come from nuclear reactors, nuclear weapon’s testing and from
reprocessing of reactor fuels. Examples are uranium, thorium and polonium.

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4.2.4. Green House Effect

The earth atmosphere gets warmer because of the greenhouse effect of pollutants like CO2
present in the atmosphere.

4.2.4.1. Types of Green House Gases

There are several greenhouse gases that synergistically cause this effect. The are called GHGs
(greenhouse gases). The following gases are identified as GHGs:
a. CO2 f. fluorinated gases
b. N2O f.1 Perfluorocarbons or PFCs
c. H2O vapor f.2 Hydrofluorocarbons or HFCs
d. CH4 (HFC 123, HFC 125, HPC 134a, HFC 152a
e. Surface-level O3 f.3 Hexafluorides or SF6

4.2.4.2. Global Warming Potential (GWP) of Green House Gases

Global warming is the slow (or gradual) increase in the overall temperature of the earth’s
atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of GHGs

Global warming potential of a gas refers to the total contribution of the gas to global
warming resulting from the emission of one unit of the gas relative to one unit of the reference
gas. It is the scale of impact of a GHG in the warming of the atmosphere. It has something to do
also with radiative forcing or heat capacity of the gas.

In the comparison of the GWP of the GHGs, CO2 is taken as the benchmark and all
GHGs are compared relative to this value using a 100-year time scale. It is expressed in terms of
CO2 equivalent or CO2e.

CO2 e = GWP x Q

where: CO2 e = carbon dioxide equivalence

GWP = global warming potential
Q = quantity of the gas

4.2.4.3. GWP Comparison of Greenhouse gases

The following table is a comparison of the relative GWP of the GHG gases with a 100-
year equivalency taken from IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change):

Table 2. IPCC GWP ranking of the different green house gases in the atmosphere.

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Gas GWP Residence, yr

Carbon dioxide, CO2 1 50-200
Methane, CH4 25 120
Nitrous oxide, N2O 310 120
Low-level ozone, O3
Fluorinated gases:
a) Hydrofluorocarbons 140-11, 700
HFC 23 (CHF3) 14,800 270
HFC 125 3,500 4.9
HFC 134a 1,430 14
HFC 152a 140 1.4
b) PFCs 6500-9200 800-50,000
c) SF6 23,900 3,200
d) NF3 17,200 740
e) CFCs: CFC 11 4,750 45
CFC 12 10,900 100
CFC 13 16,400 640
CFC 113 6,130 85
CFC 114 8,730 300
CFC 115 9,990 1,700

4.2.4.4. Effects of Global Warming

1. Increase in temperatures in the atmospheric and bodies of water.

2. Evaporation of surface water is enhanced.
3. Sea level rises due to polar cap melting.
4. Low lying areas will be flooded.
5. Mosquito-inflicted diseases will rise
6. Natural calamitous like typhoons, hurricanes, tsunamis, etc may occur frequently.
7. More warming will happen due to the release of about 4 billion tons of trapped methane
in the polar caps and tundras.
8. More plant, animal and aquatic species will be lost due to increase in temperature

4.2.5. Ozone Layer Depletion

The ozone layer is a layer in the earth’s

stratosphere at an altitude of about 15 to 40 km
containing a high concentration of ozone which
absorbs most of the UV radiation reaching the
earth from the sun. It is about 25-30 km thick and
shields the earth from the destructive UV
radiation. The large purple and blue area in the
2008 and 2020 images is the ozone hole. By 1982 two thirds of the ozone August 2020
layer over Antartica disappeared. In 1987 the hole extended about 10 o
latitude from south pole and there was about 70-97% disappearance of
ozone. By 2020, the largest ozone hole is observed (Picture: Courtesy of
NASA).

Fig. 2. The ozone depletion progression: 1979,2008 and 2020

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4.2.5.1. Ultraviolet Radiation

There are two types of UV radiation that the earth receives from the Sun: the UVB and
the UVA.
The UVB rays are responsible for producing skin burns. It also plays a role in causing
skin cancer including melanoma.
The UVA also plays a role in skin cancer formation. It penetrates more deeply into the
skin and cause premature skin aging including wrinkle formation (photoaging).There are about
500 times more UVA rays in sunlight than UVB rays.

4.2.5.2. Ozone Formation and Importance (a)

Ozone layer covers the earth surface and prevents the entry of the
harmful UV radiation. It saves the lives of human and animals due to
its UV light reflecting and deflecting function. The ozone layer is
formed by the conversion of the diatomic oxygen gas to ozone as
follows:
Fig. 3. (a)(b) Ozone (b)
molecule structure and (c)
natural chemistry
radiation
3 O2 (g ) → 2O3 (g)

4.2.5.3. Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion

(c)
Ozone molecules in the atmosphere are so stable that
when hit by light they breakdown into an oxygen radical and
diatomic oxygen (c). They reform back to ozone molecules as
fast as they are split up. In this manner the ozone layer is kept
intact to do its function as a shield of the earth from harmful
UV rays.
Substances, as a result of human activities, that are
harmful to the ozone layer are released into the atmosphere
and disrupt the split-and-combine reaction of the O 3
molecules. The chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), for example, are so reactive that when they are at
the near the ozone molecule, a chlorine atom in them reacts with the O . radical that splits from
the O 3 when struck by a UV light to form a ClO . complex. This process stops the
recombination of O .And O 2 to form back O 3 leaving the diatomic oxygen (O 2) alone and
therefore reduce the amount of O 3 slowly. However, it will take another set of reaction to
produce another O 3 again as shown below:

radiation
3 O2 (g ) → 2O3 (g)

The ozone layer depletion reaction is shown below:

Formation of Cl . radical: CF 2 Cl2 +hv →Cl . +CF 2 Cl−¿¿
Dichlorodifluoromethane

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Breaking up of O 3: O 3 +hv →O . +O 2
Capture of the O . radical: Cl . +O. +O2 →ClO. + O2
The ClO . further reacts with ClO . +O . → Cl . +O 2
another O . radical

4.2.5.4. Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion

1. It causes skin diseases and eye defects.

2. More harmful radiation may enter freely into the
earth’s surface and affect life on earth.
3. It reduces population of animal and aquatic
species
4. It also affects the ecosystem very badly.

4.2.6. Control of Air Pollution Fig. 4. (Below) Ozone depletion chemistry

1. Exhaust gases from vehicles may be reduced by use of gadgets that will absorb the flue
gases or using catalysts.
2. Chimneys may be re-engineered to limit exhaust gas concentrations by the use of adsorbing
agents.
3. Suspended particulates and smog can be removed by using controlling the emissions of
power plants where soot and dusts originate.
4. Use of alternative fuels like renewable energy sources where appropriate.
5. More tree should be planted especially in the urban areas
6. CO 2 absorbing plants may also be planted along the city avenues and roof tops.
7. Expand the use of CO 2 absorbing paints in buildings.
8. Use of electric vehicles instead of gasoline-burning ones.
9. Switching off lights when they are not needed.

4.3. Water Pollution

Water is important to life. It is needed by man, animals, plants and microorganisms to stay alive.
If the water is contaminated or polluted with substances which are not supposed to there, it becomes
harmful to human beings, plants, animals and any forms life,

4.3.1. Causes of Water Pollution

Some of the sources of water pollution are

1. Domestic sewage
2. Industrial effluents
2.1. Heavy metals
2.2. Eutrophication
2.3. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
2.3.1. Carcinogens (cancer-causing substances)
2.3.2. Insecticides, pesticides, herbicides, etc
3. Algae
4. Microorganisms

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4.3.1.1 Domestic Sewage

Sewage is the liquid community waste which contain human wastes, kitchen wastes and
street wastes. This is a serious problem especially in big congested cities or developing ones. It is
always a part of planning when a community is about to be established because in the long run it
will become a water consideration. Sewers and water pipelines must far from each other to avoid
contamination or pollution.

4.3.1.1.1. Problems Caused by Sewage

Some of the problems caused by sewage are the following:

1. Hydrogen sulfide gas is produced in the sewage due to the digestion and decomposition
of the wastes.
2. It affects the pipelines due to its corrosive nature.
3. The odor from decomposing wastes are very obnoxious and repulsive.
4. It serves as the breeding ground for bacteria, viruses, insects and pests.
5. Digestion and decomposition may produce flammable gases that may cause accidental
fire.

4.3.1.1.2. Treatment of Sewage

Treatment of sewage by some established processes can render the waste safe when it finally
finds its way into the bodies of water. The following are processes that can be applied to improve
their quality:

1. The floating impurities can be removed by mechanical means using steel screens with
fine mesh. The floating solids makes the place where they are, unsightly.
2. Organic impurities can be removed by oxidation process.
3. The fine suspended impurities may be removed by filtration or may be coagulated to
make them bigger.
4. Corrosive acids in the sewage can be removed by neutralization process.
5. Bacterial impurities can be removed by chlorination
6. After treatment, the sewage may be subjected to purification and use it for other purposes.

4.3.1.2. Algae in the Sewage and its Treatment

The presence of algae in the sewage causes the following problems:

1. Foul odor
2. Dying algae may produce gaseous by-products which can be flammable.
3. Breeding ground for insects and pests that are attracted by the presence of algae.
4. Wading may infect people with leptospirosis, tetanus, etc.
5. Block the pipelines and filters.
6. Decrease dissolved oxygen in the water which may kill aquatic animals in it.

Algae in the sewage can be treated with copper sulfate to control their growth. The use of
bleaching powder, activated carbon and lime may destroy the algae in the sewage. Further,
preventing sunlight to fall on the surface of the water can control the growth of algae.
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4.3.1.3. Industrial Effluents

Manufacturing plants are always built beside rivers or creeks because this bodies of water
area good way to dispose plant sewage. The water the comes out of the plant is called an effluent.

But effluents cause problems in the river and creeks as their effluents join the water in the
river. The following are some of the problems created by dumping effluents in rivers and creeks:

1. The effluents may cause sever damage to aquatic life.

2. The metals present in the effluents may seriously affect the human organs like
kidney, brain, etc.
3. The acidic nature of effluents causes corrosion in pipelines.
4. Effluents from chemical industries highly affect the lives of human beings and
animals within their vicinity.
5. Effluents may cause increased acidity in soil and water which consequently affect
plant growth.
6. Effluents help in the eutrophication of urban rivers.

4.3.1.3.1. Treatment of Effluents

Waste disposal and management is one major component of a manufacturing plant. Effluents
are treated within the plant before integrating it into water bodies (usually creeks and rivers). The
purpose is to purify the wastewater so that it will not affect aquatic life and human life.
1. Toxic effluents are stored in ponds or lagoons and are treated with chemical to
remove toxic substances.
2. Acidic nature of effluents is reduced by neutralization process.
3. Effluents organic in nature are impounded in lagoons and are aerated for days.
4. Radioactive wastes are carefully stored in sealed drums to avoid leakage and are
stored deep underground (more than 100 meters)
5. Effluents with heavy metals are treated to removed the metals using special methods.

4.3.1.3.2. Harmful Effects of Heavy Metals

Table 3. Heavy metals in waster water from plant industries.

Metals Sources Harmful Effects
1 Lead, Pb From cars, burning of coal, Affect liver, kidney, fertility and
mining and lead smelters pregnancy; mental disorders and
retardation in children; and
produce gastro-intestinal
damage.
2 Cadmium, From Ni-Cd batteries; from Damage the kidney ad intestine;
Cd fertilizer industries; electroplating affect the liver, brain and throat
and welding
3 Zinc, Zn From refineries, metal plating, Affect the skin and cause
galvanization and plumbing irritation, vomiting and diarrhea
4 Copper, Cu From processes, jewelry making, Severely affect the digestive
bronze manufacturing and system; cause vomiting and
plumbing diarrhea; affect the liver;

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produce gastrointestinal damage

4.3.1.3.3. Eutrophication

The enrichment of nutrients like phosphates, nitrogen compounds from agricultural

wastes, organic chemical wastes in lake water and other waterbodies is known as
eutrophication. It enhances the growth of algae and makes the lake and ponds useless.

Harmful effects of eutrophication are:

1. It enhances the growth of algae in the water which lead to depletion of oxygen in the
water.
2. It kills rivers, creeks, ponds or lakes.
3. It becomes a breeding ground of bacteria
4. It creates bad odor within the immediate vicinity.

4.3.1.4. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

Organic compounds that stays in the environment for a long time and cause damage to
water, crops, human, animals and insects. They are very persistent and soluble in lipids causing
health problems. They are rapidly absorbed through the skin, lungs and gastrointestinal tract,
hence, are hazardous to those who are using them. They show symptoms like nausea, blurred
vision, vomiting, tremor, confusion, slurred speech, muscle twisting and convulsion.

4.3.1.4.1. Carcinogenic wastes and chemicals

a. Benzene: Lung cancer, death

b. Vinyl chloride: Liver cancer
c. Ethylene dichloride: Stomach pain and liver cancer
d. Formalin
e. Hexane
f. Ether

4.3.1.4.2. Pesticides, Insecticides, Herbicides and Fungicides

Pesticides are synthetic chemicals used to kill undesirable organisms like insect pests. They
include insecticides, herbicides and fungicides.

a. Organochlorines are chlorinated hydrocarbons: DDT or Dichlorodiphenyl

trichloroethane; Chlordane, Heptachlor, etc
b. Organophosphates: Pathion, malathion
c. Carbamates: Carbaryl, Propxur

4.3.1.5. Microorganisms

Microorganisms are bacteria and viruses that cause diseases like cholera, jaundice, typhoid
fever, flu, heart disease, etc. Most of these can be controlled by disinfectants like chlorine and
bleaching powder.

4.4. Solid Waste Management

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Waste is a substance which is left after something is used, processed or consumed.

Solid waste is a perennial problem by rural as well as urban areas. The amount of solid wastes is
directly proportional to the number of people living in a certain place. The problem is usually
compounded by its impact on water which brings one back to water pollution.

4.4.1 Types of Solid Waste

1. Commercial garbage
2. Agricultural wastes
3. Rural wastes
4. Plastic wastes
5. Medicinal wastes
6. Food wastes
7. Industrial wastes

4.4.1.1. Problems Caused by Wastes

Solid wastes render the surroundings unsightly. Air becomes unclean with bad smell and
human health is affected. Some solid waste by products may reach the water table and may make
the water impure and contaminated with foreign substance. The taste of water pumped out of the
deep well may change differently. Liquid leaching from dumpsites may change the color of water
and may also encourage the proliferation of water borne microorganisms like E. coli which is
harmful to human. Waste from hospitals like bottles, syringes, discarded medicines, solid
chemical discards form schools and universities, etc all contribute to the problem of solid waste
management.

4.4.1.2. Solid Waste Management

Solid waste management is the monitoring, collection and transport of garbage waste and
dumping in a predesignated area (dumpsites) where it is processed, recycled, disposed of to
reduce their effect on health and environment.
It is usually not fully implemented because the following factors:

1. Lack of education and awareness on the solid waste management.

2. Lack of motivation by the people.
3. Resistance to change.
4. Lack of information dissemination on the adverse effects of garbage in human and
environmental welfare.
5. Lack of government resources to effectively collect people’s garbage daily especially in
the cities.
6. People exploiting the garbage dumpsite as source of livelihood.
7. Garbage collection is done by private contractors.

4.4.1.3. Methods of Disposal

There several ways on how to dispose off solid wastes.

1. Land Fill

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The land fill method is done by burying the waste underground and covered with earth.
These are usually done in abandoned areas or places far from the population centers. This is
because the presence of the landfill creates a number of adverse environmental problems like
odor and leaching. A poorly designed landfill may become source of litters and may become
playground of garbage-loving animals and insect that may eventually source of health issues
among the population.

2. Incineration

Burning of solid waste such as wood, plastics, hazardous wastes may be carried out using
incinerators. Organic wastes may be got rid by combustion and converted into residues, heat and
gaseous products.

3. The Rs Method: Recycle, Reduce, and Reuse

A more friendly and economically beneficial approach to solid waste management is

recycling, reduction and reuse of the waste.
Recycle is the process of collecting solid wastes and reprocess them into new usable form.
This had proven to have benefitted many people who earn their living out of rummaging the
garbage site for still useful things (like plastics and glass bottles, cans, paper, cardboards and
irons) and sell it to garbage recyclers.

Reduce is the act of conserving resources to reduce waste.

Reuse is the practice of using again that which was previously utilized like plastic and glass
bottles instead of dumping them after use.

Some advantages of recycling are:

1. It helps the conservation of natural resources.

2. It can protect people’s health
3. It protects the environment.
4. It help improve air and water quality.
5. It reduces the pollution of water bodies.
6. It helps the people economically.

Some recycling technologies are:

1. Conversion of wastes into solid fuel.

2. Composting of some garbage into organic fertilizers.
3. Conversion of biomass into compost.
4. Processing of garbage into gaseous fuels.
5. Used PET bottles are powdered and used as a raw material for new plastic products.
6. Used glass bottles are broken in fine form and used as raw materials for new glass
products.

4.5. Green Chemistry

One of the best concepts of solution to pollution is green chemistry.

Green chemistry is the design of environment friendly chemical products and processes reduce or
eliminate the generation of hazardous substances. Natural process is “green” while synthetic process is
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often “gray” Cleaner process and cleaner synthesis will certainly contribute to better environmental
protection.

4.5.1. Goals of Green Chemistry

The key to successful green chemistry approach is designing products and determining the
process to achieve desired “green” product. Some guidelines are given below:
1. To prevent the formation of waste material before it is formed.
2. To convert almost all the materials used in the process into the final product.
3. To design some synthetic methodologies that does not give toxic chemicals.
4. To avoid the usage of auxiliary substances (solvents) wherever possible.
5. To ensure the conduction of synthetic methods at ambient temperature and pressure.
6. To reduce the formation of by-products which are harmful.
7. To make use of renewable materials as raw materials during the process.
8. To perform the process in a safe and controlled way.
9. To reduce the quantity of highly hazardous chemicals during the process.

4.5.2. The Safer Chemical Ingredients List (SCIL)

The website https://www.epa.gov published online a list of chemical ingredients, arranged by

functional-use class known as Safer Chemicals Ingredients List (SCIL). This is designed to help the
manufacturers find safer chemical alternatives that meet the criteria of the Safer Choice Program. The
Safer Choice Program evaluates and determines materials that are safer than traditional chemical
ingredients based on the standards established for the purpose.

4.5.2.1. Categories of Safer Chemical Ingredients

Functional-Use Class:

1. Antimicrobial Actives

2. Chelating Agents

3. Colorants

4. Defoamers

5. Emollients

6. Fragrances

7. Oxidants and Oxidant

Stabilizers

8. Enzyme and enzyme

stabilizers

9. Polymers

10. Preservatives and Antioxidants

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11. Processing Aids and Additives

12. Skin Conditioning Agents

13. Solvents

14. Specialized Industrial Chemicals

15. Surfactants

16. Uncategorized

Chemicals are marked as a

Green circle,    Green half-circle,    Yellow triangle, or    Grey square.

Green circle - The chemical has been verified to be of low concern based on experimental
and modeled data.

Green half-circle - The chemical is expected to be of low concern based on experimental and
modeled data. The chemical has safer status.

Yellow triangle - The chemical has met Safer Choice Criteria for its functional ingredient-
class, but has some hazard profile issues. Specifically, a chemical with this code is not
associated with a low level of hazard concern for all human health and environmental
endpoints. While it is a best-in-class chemical and among the safest available for a particular
function, the function fulfilled by the chemical should be considered an area for safer
chemistry innovation.

Grey square - This chemical will not be acceptable for use in products that are candidates for
the Safer Choice label and currently labeled products that contain it must reformulate per Safer
Choice Compliance Schedules.
5. Teaching and Learning Activities

5.1. Exercises

A. Air Pollution

a.1. What are air pollutants? Give five of them.

a.2. Define air pollution.
a.3. What is greenhouse effect?
a.4. What causes ozone layer depletion?
a.5. Give some effects of ozone layer depletion
a.6. Scenario: You are living in a city and wanted to know if the air is polluted. What are some
practical ways you can take to do this?

B. Water Pollution

b.1. Define water pollutants? Give the examples of water pollutants.

b.2. What causes eutrophication and how does it happen?
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b.3. Do the following activities in your home and write a report on what you observed and learned.
Document your set up with pictures and send to my messenger account with your name, subject,
time and school year.
b.3.1. Activity 1. Look for a water kettle (in your home or your friend’s) used to boil water for
coffee or other purposes which has been used for the past 2 years or more. Take a look at the
inner bottom and inner sides of the kettle.
a. Note and write what you observe?
b. What do you think are the materials deposited in them?
c. Where do you think did these come from?

b.3.2. Activity 2.
1. Gather five 1-liter (or 1.5-liter will also do) PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottles in a junk
shop.
2. Wash them clean with detergents in water. Let them stand (inverted) without caps to drain
and dry.
3. Number, label and fill each bottle with the following:
Bottle #1 Pure hard water (water from a water pump)
Bottle #2 Urea solution (2 tablespoon of urea in 1 or 1.5 liter of tap water)
Bottle #3 Water dissolved with clayey soil (a fistful of clay soil. Shake well to dissolve the soil
particles.
Bottle #4 Water with a fistful of sandy loam soil (morong).
Bottle #5 Water with 1 tablespoon of any pesticide or herbicide or fungicide you use in the
farm. (WARNING: If not sure how to handle the chemicals, ask your father to do this step
for Don’t smell, touch or taste them. Pesticides are poisonous. Please be very careful).
Bottle #6 Water with 1 fistful of clay soil and 1 fistful of sandy loam soil. Shake well.
(Note: Mark each bottle with a line using a Pentel pen. All bottles must be filled up to
volume after mixing using the Pentel pen mark.)
4. Place the bottles in a spot where they will not be disturbed by any motion. Allow the bottles
to stand for 5 days. Observe and note your observations daily, i.e. appearance, color,
presence of particulates or any indicator that the water is mixed with something.
a. Write a note about your observation for each
b. Suppose you did not see these bottles prepared. Can you tell if the liquid inside are
mixtures of some kind? Why? Why not?
c. What does these activities tell you about water pollution or contamination?

C. Solid Waste Pollution

1. Choose one problem for each of the following and discuss concisely:
a. Air pollution b. Water pollution c. Solid waste pollution
2. Name the 3 Rs of solid waste management and define each.
3. Enumerate some advantages of recycling.
4. 2-Week Activity. Think of a project that will showcase solid waste management. Your set up
and result should be documented from start to finish (i.e. pictures) and send it through
messenger or email.

D. Green Chemistry

1. Write a thought about green chemistry. (See guideline below)

Sample
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Guidelines for a Write Up

(Use this for all write up activities asked in this module)

Topic: Aquatic Habitat: River

A river is an aquatic habitat that depends on the monsoon rain or some tributaries that feed
water into it. It may be a year end-year out river or one that dries out on the summer. As a habitat,
the river has abiotic and biotic components. There are species confined to the water (like fish) and
there are land species that use its banks (crocodiles, birds, etc.). Amphibian creatures like frogs and
aquatic insects use both the water and the land. And then you can go on to a) Describe the aquatic
life and the land activity b) Describe the characteristics of the river: its depth, banks, siltation, flow,
etc. c) Describe the various species of flora and fauna in and around the river d) Describe the
microworld property in the water under a microscope e) Observe the food chains, animal-prey
relationship, water-land creature relationships .

6. Recommended Learning Materials and Resources for Supplementary Reading

A. Videos

1. EPA Green Chemistry (https://youtu.be/rIE4T2HLW7c)

2. Science to Protect he Air We Breathe (https://youtu.be/3PO_3exwN-I?
list=TLPQMjMwODIwMjCGzZAE1OugcA)
3. Water Pollution Documentary https://youtu.be/h198sZXP7fU?
list=TLPQMjMwODIwMjCGzZAE1OugcA
4. Environmental Problems in the Philippines (https://youtu.be/Dru4tp-AmkE?
list=TLPQMjMwODIwMjCGzZAE1OugcA)
5. Philippines Environmental Monitor (https://youtu.be/KZhqEUyxhmM?
list=TLPQMjMwODIwMjCGzZAE1OugcA)

B. Internet Pages and Documents

1. https://image.slidesharecdn.com/
2. https://www.researchgate.net/post
3. https://www.worldatlas.com/
4. www.nrdc.org/stories/air-pollution
5. http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/dichloromethane
6. https://medicalxpress.com/news/2018-12-nitrous-oxide-dangerous.html
7. https://www.nho.no/samarbeid/nox-fondet/the-nox-fund/articles/what-is-nox/
8. https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/effects-acid-rain
9. https://www.britannica.com/list/5-notorious-greenhouse-gases
10. https://www.greenfacts.org/glossary/ghi/global-warming-potential.htm
11. https://www.rsc.org/journals-books-databases/about-journals/green-chemistry
12. https://www.thenakedscientists.com/articles/science-features/nitrogen-bad-guy-global-
warming
13. https://www.duplichecker.com/

7. Flexible Teaching-Learning Modality (FTLM) Adopted

Edmodo, Google Meet, Google Drive, Google classroom, Messenger, Cell phone

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8. Assessment Task

9. References

1. Asimov, Isaac and Frederik Pohl. 1991. Our Angry Earth: Bantam Books Publication. New
York. USA.
2. Bharucha, Erach. 2004. Textbook for Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses of
all Branches of Higher Education. Preliminary pages. University Grants Commission, New
Delhi, India.
3. Brown, Larry and Tom Holme. 2012. Chemistry for Engineering Students. 2 nd Edition.
Cengage Learning Asia, Pte. Ltd. ISBN 13-978-981-4392-89-0. 4th Reprint 2013. Philippines.
4. Chartl, Wolfgang. 2014. Basic Physical Chemistry: A complete Introduction to Bachelor of Science
Level. 1st Edition. A Bookboon Publication. ISBN 978-87-403-0669-9
5. Trivedi R.K., Handbook of Environmental Laws, Rules Guidelines, Compliances and
Standards, Vol I and II.
6. Wanger, K.D., 1998. Environmental Management. W.B. Saunders Co. Philadelphia, USA
7. Walker, Pamela and Wood, Elaine. 2011. Chemistry Experiments. Facts on File Science
Experiments. Facts on File, Inc. Infobased Publishing. New York 10001.

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