Quantum Computers

(K.Anjana,B.Kalyani;ECE,S.R.K.Institute of technology,S.R.K.Institute of Technology,Vijayawada.)

([email protected],[email protected])

Introduction
A quantum computer is a device for computation that makes direct use of quantum mechanical
phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations on data. Quantum
computers are different from traditional computers based on transistors. The basic principle behind
quantum computation is that quantum properties can be used to represent data and perform
operations on these data. A classical computer has a memory made up of bits, where each bit
represents either a one or a zero. A quantum computer maintains a sequence of qubits. A single qubit
can represent a one, a zero, or, crucially, any quantum superposition of these; moreover, a pair of qubits
can be in any quantum superposition of 4 states, and three qubits in any superposition of 8. In general a
quantum computer with n qubits can be in an arbitrary superposition of up to 2n different states
simultaneously (this compares to a normal computer that can only be in one of these 2n states at any
one time). A quantum computer operates by manipulating those qubits with a fixed sequence of
quantum logic gates. The sequence of gates to be applied is called a quantum algorithm.

Consider first a classical computer that operates on a three-bit register. The state of the
computer at any time is a probability distribution over the 23 = 8 different three-bit strings 000,
001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111. If it is a deterministic computer, then it is in exactly one of these
states with probability 1. However, if it is a probabilistic computer, then there is a possibility of
it being in any one of a number of different states. We can describe this probabilistic state by
eight nonnegative numbers a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h (where a = probability computer is in state 000, b =
probability computer is in state 001, etc.). There is a restriction that these probabilities sum to 1.

The state of a three-qubit quantum computer is similarly described by an eight-dimensional

vector (a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h), called a ket. However, instead of adding to one, the sum of the squares
of the coefficient magnitudes, | a | 2 + | b | 2 + ... + | h | 2, must equal one. Moreover, the
coefficients are complex numbers. Since states are represented by complex wavefunctions, two
states being added together will undergo interference. This is a key difference between
quantum computing and probabilistic classical computing.

If you measure the three qubits, then you will observe a three-bit string. The probability of
measuring a string will equal the squared magnitude of that string's coefficients (using our
example, probability that we read state as 000 = | a | 2, probability that we read state as 001 = |
b | 2, etc..). Thus a measurement of the quantum state with coefficients (a,b,...,h) gives the
classical probability distribution ( | a | 2, | b | 2,..., | h | 2). We say that the quantum state
"collapses" to a classical state.

Quantum Superposition

Quantum superposition refers to the quantum mechanical property of solutions to the

Schrödinger equation. Since the Schrödinger equation is linear, any linear combination of solutions to a
particular equation will also be a solution. This mathematical property of linear equations is known as
the superposition principle. In quantum mechanics such solutions are often made to be orthogonal, such
as the orthogonal energy levels of an electron. In doing so the overlap energy of the states is nullfied,
and the expectation value of an operator any superposition state is the expectation value of the
operator in the individual states, multiplied by the fraction of the superposition state that is "in" that
state.

Quantum superposition is the application of the superposition principle to quantum mechanics.The

superposition principle is the addition of the amplitudes of wave functions , or state vectors.It
occurs when an object simultaneously possesses two or more values for an observable quantity.

Quantum entanglement

Quantum entanglement is a property of the quantum mechanical state of a system containing

two or more objects, where the objects that make up the system are linked in such a way that the
quantum state of any member of the system cannot be adequately described without full mention of
the other members of the system, even if the individual objects are spatially separated. It is a quantum
mechanical phenomenon in which the quantum states of two or more objects have to be
described with reference to each other, even though the individual objects may be spatially
separated . It leads to correlations between observable physical properties of the systems.

Quantum Decoherence

Decoherence does not generate actual wave function collapse. It only provides an explanation for
the appearance of wavefunction collapse. The quantum nature of the system is simply "leaked" into the
environment. A total superposition of the universal wavefunction still occurs, but its ultimate fate
remains an interpretational issue. Specifically, decoherence does not attempt to explain the problem of
measurement. Rather, decoherence provides an explanation for the transition of the system to a
mixture of states that seem to correspond to those states we perceive as determinate. Moreover, our
observation tells us that this mixture looks like a proper quantum ensemble in a measurement situation,
as we observe that measurements lead to the "realization" of precisely one state in the "ensemble". But
within the framework of the interpretation of quantum mechanics, decoherence cannot explain this
crucial step from an apparent mixture to the existence and/or perception of single outcomes. Quantum
Decoherence is the mechanism by which quantum systems interact with their environments to
exhibit probabilistically additive behavior - a feature of classical physics - and give the
appearance of wave function collapse.

Inevitability of Quantum Computers

As our technology rushes forward, several factors work together to push us toward the quantum
computing world, and push out the classical silicon-based chips. These factors are: scaling in size, energy
consumption, economics of building leading edge computers, and new applications that are available with
quantum computers that cannot be executed with classical computers. At the current rate of chip
miniaturization, energy efficiency, and economics, the classical computer of the year 2020 (if it could
happen at all), would contain a CPU running at 40 GHz (or 40,000 MHz), with 160 Gb (160,000 MB)
RAM, and run on 40 watts of power.

1. Scaling

Our computing world is surrounded by breath-taking innovations, and many of them involve more
powerful and smaller chips. Chip capacity has doubled every 18 months, according to Moore’s
Law, but the chip size remains constant. The number of transistors on a single chip is rising
exponentially also. Keyes extrapolates that if miniaturization continues at the current rate, a bit
will be represented by a single atom by the year 2020. This trend inevitably leads us into the
micoworld of quantum effects, where classical rules no longer apply.

2. Energy

The speed of chips is also rising exponentially. Faster, more densely-packed, and closer
transistors cause thermodynamic problems. Advances in energy efficiency are required to keep
the chips from melting during use. Fortunately, energy efficiencies are increasing, and the
thermodynamic problems are being resolved. These energy advances are also pushing the
physics of chips into the quantum realm.

Quantum computers are reversible, therefore there is theoretically no net energy consumption.
Quantum reversibility means that quantum computers drive themselves forward in infinitesimal
(reversible) steps, much the same way that molecules of perfume would diffuse from a perfume
bottle. Quantum computer programs are not "run", but are said to "evolve," as they process the
program’s inputs to outputs. Incidentally, reversibility also means that the inputs of a quantum
computer can be implied from the outputs; the program can be run backwards to get the inputs.)

The argument for energy inevitability is a "carrot-and-stick" argument: the energy inefficiencies
drive us away from classical computers, and the appeal for energy-free (or at least, much
reduced energy consumption) computing drives us toward quantum computers.

1. New Applications
1. Encryption Technology

The speed of quantum computers also jeopardizes the encryption schemes that rely on
impracticably-long times to decrypt by brute force methods. Encryption schemes that may
take millions of years to guess and check are now vulnerable to quantum computers that
may reach a solution within one year. Many governments, included ours, use such
encryption schemes for national security. They are very interested in any technology that
puts that at risk. As a result, the Office of Naval Research, the CIA, and DARPA, are
sinking huge funds into quantum computer research. DARPA is funding $5 million for a
 Quantum Information and Computing Institute, and the CIA is funding an unknown
amount for factoring of large integers, a fundamental part of encryption technology.

2. Ultra-secure and Super-dense Communications

It is possible to transmit information without a signal path by using a newly-discovered

quantum principles, quantum teleportation. There is no way to intercept the path and
extract information. Ultra-secure communication is also possible by super-dense
information coding, which is a new technology in its own right. Quantum bits can be used
to allow more information to be communicated per bit than the same number of classical
bits.

3. Improved Error Correction and Error Detection

Through similar processes that support ultra-secure and super-dense communications,

the existing bit streams can be made more robust and secure by improvements in error
correction and detection. Recovering informational from a noisy transmission path will
also be a lucrative and useful practice.

4. Molecular Simulations

Richard Feynman showed in 1982 that classical computers cannot simulate quantum
effects without slowing down exponentially; a quantum computer can simulate physical
processes of quantum effects in real time. Molecular simulations of chemical interactions
will allow chemists and pharmacists to learn more about how their products interaction
with each other, and with biological processes such as how a drug may interact with a
person’s metabolism or disease. Pharmaceutical research offers a big market to such
applications.

5. True Randomness

Classical computers do not have the ability to generate true random numbers. The random
number generators on today’s computers are pseudo-random generators—there is always a cycle or a
trend, however subtle. Pseudo-random generators cannot simulate natural random processes accurately
for some applications, and can not reproduce certain random effects. Quantum computers can generate
true randomness, thus give more veracity to programs that need true randomness in their processing.
Randomness plays a significant part of applications with a heavy reliance on statistical approaches, for
simulations, for code making, randomized algorithms for problems solving, and for stock market
predictions, to name a few.

With the global forces of computer competition, encryption technology for national security, new
applications, and the thermodynamics of computer systems changing as they are, there is a rush toward
the new quantum technology to produce the first viable quantum computer. The world is moving toward a
place that no classical computer has gone before, nor can go.
Conclusion

The race is on to build a computer that exploits quantum mechanics. Such a machine could solve
problems in physics, mathematics and cryptography that were once thought intractable, revolutionizing
information technology and illuminating the foundations of physics.

References

http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v463/n7280/full/463441a.html

http://www.quantiki.org/wiki/Category:Quantum_Computation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computer

http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-quant.html