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Acknowledgements
God comes first, who let us start and finish everything needed for the completion of the project.
We are grateful to our advisor, Laboratory Assistants for them wise, careful and genuine advice
that they gave us in the course of this Project Period. We are also thankful to Debre Birhan
University Chemical Engineering Staff for allowing us to do Experiment in their laboratory and
for their Support While doing Laboratory experimental activities. Lastly and most importantly,
we would like to thank our parents and other members of our family for their unlimited Support
and for their being in faith for the success of our completion.

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Table CONTENTS

Contents Page
acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................................... I
Table Contents .............................................................................................................................................. II
List Of Tables ............................................................................................................................................... V
List Of Figures ............................................................................................................................................. VI
List Of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................. VII
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................................... VIII
Chapter One .................................................................................................................................................. 1
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Statement Of The Problem................................................................................................................. 3
1.2. Objectives .......................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2.1. General Objective ....................................................................................................................... 4
1.2.2. Specific Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 4
1.3. Significance Of The Study ................................................................................................................. 5
Chapter Two.................................................................................................................................................. 6
2. Literature Review...................................................................................................................................... 6
2.1. Type And Classification Of Paper ..................................................................................................... 7
2.1. Type Of Paper ................................................................................................................................ 7
2.1.2. Classification Of Paper ............................................................................................................... 8
2.2. Product Description And Application ................................................................................................ 9
2.2.1. Pulp And Paper Making Processing Steps .................................................................................. 9
2.2.2. Description Of Processing Steps For Pulp And Paper Making ................................................... 9
2.3. Pulping ............................................................................................................................................. 13
2.3.1. Types Of Pulping ...................................................................................................................... 13
2.4. Manufacturing Processes ................................................................................................................. 15
2.5. Pulp Properties ................................................................................................................................. 16
2.5.1. Basic Pulp Properties ................................................................................................................ 16
2.5.2. Properties Of Paper ................................................................................................................... 17
Chapter Three.............................................................................................................................................. 19
3. Methodology (Raw Material & Methods) .............................................................................................. 19

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3.1. Banana Fiber Collection Process ..................................................................................................... 19

3.1.1. Parts Of Banana Trees............................................................................................................... 19
3.1.2. Banana Fibers............................................................................................................................ 20
3.2. Raw Materials .................................................................................................................................. 21
3.3. Equipments Used ............................................................................................................................. 22
3.4. Chemicals......................................................................................................................................... 23
3.4. Experimental Procedure For Lab Scale Production Of Pulp ........................................................... 24
Chapter Four ............................................................................................................................................... 30
4. Result And Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 30
4.1. Soda Process .................................................................................................................................... 30
4.2. Kraft Process .................................................................................................................................... 30
Chapter Five ................................................................................................................................................ 36
5. Material And Energy Balance ................................................................................................................. 36
5.1. Material Balance .............................................................................................................................. 36
5.2 Energy Balance ................................................................................................................................. 39
Chapter Six.................................................................................................................................................. 42
6. Main Equipment Design And Equipment Sizing .................................................................................... 42
6.1. Equipment Design ............................................................................................................................ 42
6.1.1 Mixer .......................................................................................................................................... 42
6.1.2 Digester Design .......................................................................................................................... 48
6.1.3 Dryer .......................................................................................................................................... 56
6.1.4 Boiler System ............................................................................................................................. 61
6.2. Equipment Sizing ............................................................................................................................. 70
CHAPTER SEVEN .................................................................................................................................... 79
7. Cost Analysis And Economic Evaluation ............................................................................................... 79
7.1. Purchased Equipment Cost .............................................................................................................. 79
7.2. Estimation Of Total Capital Investment .......................................................................................... 88
7.3. Estimation Of Total Product Cost .................................................................................................... 90
7.4. Economic Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 93
CHAPTER SEVEN .................................................................................................................................... 97
7. Site Location And Environmental Concerns Of Pulping ....................................................................... 97
7.1 Site Location ..................................................................................................................................... 97

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7.2 Environmental Impacts ..................................................................................................................... 97

CHAPTER EIGHT ..................................................................................................................................... 99
8. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ...................................................................................... 99
8.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 99
8.2 Recommendation ............................................................................................................................ 100
Reference .................................................................................................................................................. 101
Appendix ................................................................................................................................................... 102

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List of Tables

Table3.1:- Chemical Composition Of Banana Stem..................................................................... 20

Table4.1:-Laboratory Experimental Results ................................................................................. 31
Table 4.2.Summary Of Results In Each Unit Operations ............................................................. 32
Table 7.1:- Purchased Cost Of Each Equipment .......................................................................... 87
Table 7.2:- Total Direct Cost ........................................................................................................ 88
Table7.3:- Total Indirect Cost ....................................................................................................... 89
Table7.4:-Total Capital Investment And Total Product Cost. ...................................................... 92
Table 7.5:- Man Power Requirement And Labour Cost ............................................................... 96

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List Of Figures
Figure 2.1:- Classification Of Paper ............................................................................................... 8
Figure 2.2:- Pulp And Paper Making Process ................................................................................. 9
Figure 2.3:- Flow Sheet Making Wrapping Paper ........................................................................ 10
Figure 2.4:-Flow Diagram For Making Warpping Paper ............................................................. 11
Figure 2.5:-Plant Lay Out Of Wrapping Paper ............................................................................. 12
Figure3.1:- Banana Trees .............................................................................................................. 19
Figure 3.2:-Banana Stem .............................................................................................................. 24
Figure 3.3:- Crushed And Dried Banana Stem Pieces .................................................................. 25
Figure3.4:-Cooking Liquor And Raw Material ............................................................................ 26
Figure 3.5:- Cooking ..................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 3.6:- Brown Stock And Black Liquor................................................................................ 27
Figure 3.7:- Washed Pulp ............................................................................................................. 28
Figure3.8:- Finally, The Obtained Product From The Filtration .................................................. 28
Figure 3.9:-Bleaching ................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 4.1:- Effect Of Time On Mass Of Pulp At 12.5% Concentration ..................................... 33
Figure 4.2:- Effect Of Time On Mass Of Pulp At 13.5% Concentration ..................................... 33
Figure 4.3:-Effect Of Time On Mass Of Pulp At 14.5.5% Concentration ................................... 34
Figure 4.4:- Effect Of Concentration On Mass Of Pulp At 5 Hours ............................................ 34
Figure 4.5:-Effect Of Concentration On Mass Of Pulp At 4:45 Hours ........................................ 35
Figure 4.6.:-Effect Of Concentration On Mass Of Pulp At 4:30 Hours ....................................... 35
Figure 6.1 Standard Tank Configurations ..................................................................................... 42
Figure 6.2.Batch Digester ............................................................................................................. 48
Figure 6.3:-Conical Batch Digester .............................................................................................. 56
Figure 6.5 Screen Conveyor Dryer ............................................................................................... 57
Figure 6.6:- Inlet And Outlet Air Pipe Of Dryer .......................................................................... 60
Figure 6.7:- Process Diagram Of Boiler ....................................................................................... 64
Figure 6.8:- External Part Of Shell And Tube Heat Exchanger ................................................... 66
Figure 6.9:- Rectangular Section Of Stretched Cylinder .............................................................. 67
Figure 6.10:- Hemispherical Section Of Heat Exchanger ............................................................ 68

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List Of Abbreviations
Cp- Specific Heat Capacity

Tc,In - Temperature In

Tc, Out -Temperature Out

Q-Amount Of Heat Needed

M- Mass

FCI-Fixed Capital Investment

TCI-Total Capital Investment

NP-Net Profit

ROI-Return On Investment

DEP-Depreciation

PBP- Payback Period

MAR- Minimum Annual Return

Wt. - Weight

X1- Amount Of Product Obtained Before Drying

X2- Amount Of Product Obtained After Drying It In Oven

Cao- Calcium Oxide (Lime)

Naoh-Sodium Hydroxide

Na2CO3–Sodium Carbonate

Na2S-Sodium Sulphate

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Abstract
Now a day, the dependency of mankind on paper has grown to larger extent because of its wide
applications in our day to day activities. Wood is the primary raw material used to manufacture
pulp and paper. But it causes deforestation, So Choosing other alternatives like banana tree waste
is the best solution. The reason behind the selection of banana tree waste as raw material is, in
banana plantations, after the fruits are harvested, the trunks or stems will be wasted. Billion tons
of stem and leaves are thrown away annually. Therefore, it makes sense to turn such waste into a
useful product like pulp by using the concept “from waste to wealth”. The general objective of
this project was to produce pulp from banana tree waste. In this Thesis we have done three
Experiments the first experiment was done as our first trial and for comparison of the two basic
pulping methods i.e. kraft and soda pulping. Product obtained after washing with water was
compared in both the processes. The pulp obtained in Kraft process was less dark in colour than
pulp obtained in soda process. The reason for this was, pulp obtained in Kraft process contain
less lignin content in it due to strong basic nature of the solution which break the lignin
effectively. Soda process involves weak basic cooking liquor that acts weak in breaking lignin
bonds. The pulp obtained after bleaching was observed and found that Kraft pulp was whiter in
colour compared to soda process, as bleaching agent required breaking the traces of lignin was
more in soda process than Kraft process. Finally the following parameters were compared i.e.
moisture content, consistency and the yield obtained. Kraft process is more advantage, because
the cooking liquor is able to break and dissolve the lignin in it. Soda process is supplied with
heat for one hour more and still the cooking liquor could not effectively digest the lignin. Finally
when we compare the pulp that we have produced from the standard one it was around Seventy
percent effective. The optimum production of pulp was 72.25% at 13.5% white liquor
concentration for the cooking time of 4:30 hours, but the maximum mass of pulp was 72.25% at
the cooking time of 4:30 minutes with 13.5% white liquor concentration and the minimum mass
was obtained 52.5% at minimum concentration (12.5%) and minimum time (5 hour).

Key words: - kraft pulping, soda pulping

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Chapter One
1. Introduction
Paper is a major product of the forestry industry, and is Banana is one of the important fruit crop
cultivated in tropical parts of the world. Banana farming generates huge quantity of biomass all
of which goes as waste and the above ground parts like pseudo stem and peduncle are the major
source of fiber. Banana fiber can be used as raw material for industry for production of range of
products (1).
Today banana stem is used as a source of raw material for preparation of a paper pulp. This pulp
is used to prepare different types of paper such as tissue, bloating, tracing and writing printing
paper. Banana stems are easily available and cultivates in large scale at the North Eastern (NE)
region of Ethiopia. After harvesting, the farmer cuts the banana trees and throws away enormous
amount of these stems into the fields because after harvesting the fruit, there is no significant use
of banana trees (2).
Constructing a tissue paper through the banana stem will be good for farmers because after
harvesting the fruit there is no use of this but using the banana stem for the production of
wrapping paper will help the farmers get some money and will increase their interest in
culminating banana crops. Several industries manufacture the tissue paper using bamboo,
hardwood, softwood and jute etc. as the raw material, because it contains very good percentage
of cellulose. On this basis, banana stem acts as a very suitable alternative raw material,
containing very good percentage of cellulose.
Banana trees separate into mainly three parts viz. leaves, stem and roots but the leaves and roots
are cut out as it has no use (3).
Cellulose is the main Raw Material for tissue paper (wrapping paper) and the stem part of banana
trees contain the highest percentage of cellulose. In the North Eastern region of Ethiopia, several
varieties of banana trees are found, one of which is genus musa. North Eastern region of has very
suitable weather for banana crops. Genus musa is cultivated in large scale as well as it contains
very good percentage of cellulose (1).
Paper products are used not only in their obvious applications in the publishing industry and for
writing on, but also in a variety of specialty papers, cardboards, brown papers etc. In addition,
various chemicals are produced as a byproduct of the pulp and paper industry (see articles).
Paper is made by pulping wood, bleaching this pulp and then spreading it out into sheets to make

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it into paper. At various stages of the process, chemicals are used to give the paper particular
properties, such as the bleaching chemicals that make paper white (and which also enable it to
subsequently be colored).
The pulping process that is used in New Zealand is known as "Kraft pulping" which relies on a
combination of heat, chemicals and mechanical Pulping to convert the wood into a smooth, soft
pulp suitable for use in paper making. Kraft Pulping is the main pulping process (together with
mechanical pulping) used today (4).

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1.1. Statement of the Problem

In Ethiopia the wrapping paper supply is not sufficient for the communities. Wood has been the
primary fiber used to manufacture paper. We need more paper. So, we need to find other
alternative to reduce the use of wood fibers to be converted into paper.
In fact, securing adequate raw material to satisfy the increasing paper demand has developed into
a serious global environmental issue. Growth in pulp and wrapping paper production entails
massive cutting of trees which turns lead to deforestation. Increasing competition for wood
supplies coupled with gradually rising costs of wood have generated renewed interest in the use
of non-wood plant fibers for wrapping paper making.
Chemical pulping gives a lot of bad effects to the environment because of the high chemical and
energy consumption. In industrial scale, big amount of chemical have to be used to produce
paper and it also produce chemical waste that is bad for our environment. Thus, producing pulp
from banana fiber less chemical amount than wood pulp, therefore less environment effect.

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1.2. Objectives

1.2.1. General Objective

The general objective of the project was production of wrapping paper from banana fiber

1.2.2. Specific Objectives

The Specific objectives of the project were:
1. To produce pulp from banana fiber
2. Characterize the physical and chemical properties of produced fiber
3. To determine parameters affecting production of wrapping paper
4. To study economic feasibility of the plant

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1.3. Significance of the Study

 The study is significant in that it will be used as an initial idea to do further detailed
researches regarding to decrease the environmental impacts of the waste and producing a
quality pulp.
 The use of renewable agricultural by products for pulp production as non-wood cellulosic
fibers would be great advantage for countries with limited wood forests, and would increase
the profit of farmers in developing countries.
 Saving foreign currency since the pulp is imported
 It can be used as an alternative raw material for production of paper in Ethiopian pulp and
paper factory

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Chapter Two
2. Literature Review
Ethiopia has a diverse agro-ecology and sufficient surface and ground water resources, suitable
for growing various temperate and tropical fruits. Although various tropical and temperate fruits
are grown in the lowland/midland and highland agro-ecologies, the area coverage is very limited.
Utilization of banana fiber for producing wrapping paper has been investigated. Banana fiber is a
multiple celled structure. Banana is grown in many developing countries and is mainly
distributed between North and South latitude. It is the fourth most important food crop in terms
of gross value of production. Banana has long been considered a food, fruit and fodder crop. In
addition to this, now a day, it is also gaining importance as a source of fibers (2).
The conventional paper is derived from wood that is the paper industry is mainly depending
upon forest resources, as a result deforestation take place to meet the availability of raw material
for paper making industry. It is broadly accepted that the deforestation causes environmental
pollutions and global warming. In recent year, people have placed a high emphasis on forest
preservation and rational use of forestry and agriculture residues. Hence, due to harmful effects
of deforestation, it is important to search for alternative cellulose containing resources. Studies
have shown that the production process of paper from non -wood fiber is significantly less
expensive than from wood fiber (5).
Banana is one of non wood plant, it contains three main parts. These are root, leaf and stem.
Banana fibers obtained from the stem of banana plant have been characterized for their diameter
variability and their mechanical properties, with a stress on fracture morphology.
Paper is used for writing and printing, for wrapping and packaging, and a variety of other
applications ranging from kitchen towels to the manufacture of building materials.
In modern times, its production in large quantities has been a significant factor in the increase in
literacy and the raising of educational levels of people throughout the world generally, woods are
two types. Hard woods and Soft woods, Wood from conifers (e.g. pine) is called softwood, and
the wood from dicotyledons (usually broad-leaved trees, e.g. oak) is called hardwood.
Hard woods are not necessarily hard, and softwoods are not necessarily soft. The well-known
balsa (a hardwood) is actually softer than any commercial softwood. Conversely, some soft
woods (e.g. yew) are harder than many hardwoods.

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These non woods contain basically three materials in them. They are: Cellulose, Hemi cellulose,
and Lignin.
The cellulose present in non wood is mostly in the form of fibers. The cellulose fibers are
obtained as pulp after pulping process. The term “non wood” was coined to distinguish plant
fibers from the two main sources of wood fibers, hardwood and softwood. Non wood or agro-
based fibers are derived from selected tissues of various mono or dicotyledonous plants. Non
wood fibers can reduce the amount of chemicals needed for pulping as well as shorten time, thus
saving energy. Non wood plants are wheat straw, rice straw, banana fiber and other. But in this
project we done on wrapping paper, it has many application in overall world.
Wrapping paper is softer than the other paper. The basic raw material is banana fiber due to
consumption of energy and chemical in to the processes are better. Non wood not just rich with
cellulose fibers but the composition of lignin is also low. So, it is easy to be degraded and
consumed short period of time compared to wood fibers in chemical pulping process.
Non-wood pulping is the production of pulp from fiber sources other than trees. Non-wood fibers
used for paper making.
Pulping of these fibers may be performed by mechanical means at high temperatures or using a
modified Kraft or soda process (3).

2.1. Type and Classification of paper

2.1. Type of paper

Some paper types include:-
 Bank paper  Inkjet paper
 Banana paper  Kraft paper
 Bond paper  Laid paper
 Book paper  Leather paper
 Coated paper: glossy and matte  Mummy paper
surface  Oak tag paper
 Construction paper/sugar paper  Sandpaper
 Cotton paper  Tyvek paper
 Fish paper (vulcanized fibres for  Wallpaper
electrical insulation)  Washi

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 Waterproof paper  Wove paper

 Wax paper

2.1.2. Classification of paper

Paper may be classified into three categories

Figure 2.1:- Classification of Paper (6)

 Printing papers of wide variety.
 Wrapping papers for the protection of goods and merchandise. This includes wax and kraft
papers.
 Writing paper suitable for stationery requirements. This includes ledger, bank, and bond paper.
 Blotting papers containing little or no size.
 Drawing papers usually with rough surfaces used by artists and designers, including cartridge
paper.
 Handmade papers including most decorative papers, Ingres papers, Japanese paper and tissues,
all characterized by lack of grain direction.
Specialty papers including cigarette paper, toilet tissue, and other industrial.

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2.2. Product Description and Application

Paper is used for writing and printing, for wrapping and packaging, and a variety of other
applications ranging from kitchen towels to the manufacture of building materials.
In modern times, its production in large quantities has been a significant factor in the increase in
literacy and the raising of educational levels of people throughout the world.
The most commonly used paper types are stationary paper (i.e. Printing and writing), news print,
wrapping & packaging, and paper card. (6)

2.2.1. Pulp and Paper Making Processing Steps

The pulp and paper making process is carried out in following way steps.
Raw material collection cutting

Digestion

Washing beating storage

Paper making Drying

Figure 2.2:- Pulp and Paper Making Process [10]
2.2.2. Description of Processing Steps For Pulp And Paper Making [10]
Raw Material Collection
Banana stem waste, which is thrown away by farmers after harvesting of fruits, is obtained as raw
material.
Cutting
The stems are cutting into small pieces of 3-4 inch in size.
Digestion
The material is soaked in NaOH, Na2CO3, and Na2S for appropriate period. The alkali loosens the
lingo-cellulosic bonds, thereby softening the material
Washing
The softened material is washed with water to remove the black liquor of sodium lignite and unused
alkali.
Beating

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The washed material is then subjected to beating. Beating is required for a getting good quality pulp,
depending upon the quality of boards/paper to be produced.
Storage
After beating, the desired pulp is produced which is then stored in storage tanks.
Paper making
Paper is then making from the pulp of desired quality.
Drying
The wet boards/papers are then allowed to dry.
Flow Sheet for Making Wrapping Paper

Harvesting Banana fiber Banana fiber

Washing Cutting Crushing

Drying Cooking& Filtration

Digesting

Paper machine Bleaching Washing pulp

Drying of
Wrapping paper
paper

Figure 2.3:- Flow Sheet Making Wrapping Paper (6)

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Block Flow Diagram for Making Wrapping Paper

Figure 2.4:-Flow Diagram for Making Wrapping Paper (6)

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Figure 2.5:-Plant Lay Out Of Wrapping Paper

Processes Description
Raw Material Collection banana stem waste, which is thrown away by farmers after harvesting
of fruits, is obtained as raw material. The softened material is washed with water to remove the
black liquor of sodium lignite and unused alkali.
The stems are cutting into small pieces of 3-4 inch in size, then cutting or crushing banana stem
is dried by sun for 4days. Then the dried banana is mixed with three chemical if the processes is
Kraft pulp like Na2CO3, NaOH, Na2S and distilled water. But if the processes are soda pulp the
dried banana stem is mixing with one chemical like NaOH and distilled water, to form cooking
liquor and mix into digester equipment. Then in filtration stage separate lignin from pulp by
using filter paper (6).

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After this filtration, washing the pulp for five times, because remove the remaining lignin.
Bleaching is the brightening of pulp by the addition of oxidizing or reducing chemicals.
2.3. Pulping (6)
Pulping is the process of production of pulp using non wood material which is lingo cellulose
fibrous material .It is prepared by chemically or mechanically separating cellulose fibers from
non wood, fibers crops or waste paper.

2.3.1. Types of pulping

1. Chemical pulping:
Chemical pulp is produced by combining wood chips and chemicals in large vessels known as
digesters where heat and the chemicals break down the lignin, which binds the cellulose fibers
together, without seriously degrading the cellulose fibers. Chemical pulp is used for materials
that need to be stronger or combined with mechanical pulps to give product different
characteristics.
It is achieved by degrading the lignin and hemi cellulose into small, water soluble molecules
which can be washed away from the cellulose fibers without depolymerizing the cellulose fibers.
A. Pulping By Kraft Process
The polymer to portion into smaller water/alkali-soluble fragments.There are several Generally
chemical pulping is done by cooking the Banana Stem in a digester (like 5 liters pressure cooker)
at high temperature and pressure which dissolve the lignin and leave behind the cellulose. Each
pulping trial was carried out on 20 gram of banana stem. In a conventional Kraft cook, an
aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide/sodium sulfide/water, also known as white liquor, is
reacted with the raw materials in a pressure vessel called a digester.
The white liquor and the banana stem chips are heated to a cooking at approximately 90°C, this
Cooking temperature and time are usually for softwood fibers. During this treatment, the
hydroxide and hydrosulfide anions react with the lignin, causing variations in cooking process
both for the batch and continuous digester. Under high temperature and pressure lignin and
Cellulose degrade to give fragments that are soluble in the strongly basic liquid. The chemical
transformation that takes place in the recovery boiler is not just due to Combustion, but also
involves the reduction of sodium sulfate to sodium sulfide. Since sodium sulfate does not help in
the cooking process, it is important to obtain maximum reduction of sulfate into sulfide within

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the recovery boiler. A measure of the quality of this reduction (in the smelt or green liquor) is
called reduction efficiency. Poor or low reduction efficiency results in extra energy consumption
in the digester and recausticizing areas.
Modern recovery boilers firing high dry solids content black liquor typically have very high
reduction efficiencies, up to 99% - 100% when measured from the smelt. Reduction efficiency
measured from the green liquor is typically somewhat lower, since some Na2S gets oxidized by
the oxygen in air. The 'green liquor' (a solution of the Na2CO3and Na2S - the non-volatile
combustion components) is then causticised as the first step to Na2CO3removal.
Reactions of sulfide process in the digester
NaOH + Na2S +Banana stem →Na−organic + S−
Organic + NaHS
NaOH →Na+ OH
The main operations performed in the Kraft pulping process are:
 Digestion of non wood to form pulp.
 Pulp processing to recover spent cooking chemicals and to remove impurities and
uncooked wood chips (deknotting, pulp washing, pulp screening).
 Concentration of used pulping liquor for chemical recovery.
The Kraft process has several advantages:
 It can be used with virtually all non wood species.
 It can easily handle the extractives in most coniferous wood.
 The pulp has very good strength.
 The recovery process for the chemicals is well established.
However, there are also disadvantages:
 The pulp yield is quite low at about 45 - 50%.
 The equipment used for the chemical recovery is extensive and costly to install.
 Sulphurous compounds, which are odorous in the parts per billion ranges, are formed in
the process.
B. Soda pulping process
This pulping process is entirely similar to Kraft’s process. The only difference exists is the
cooking chemicals used. In soda pulping process only NaOH or combination of NaOH and
Na2CO3 are used.

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The quality of pulp obtained in soda pulping is low and used manufacturing Low grade paper.
The amount of bleaching agent required is large as the lignin content is not effectively removed.
2. Mechanical Pulping
Mechanical pulping is physically tearing the cellulose fibers one from another. Much of the
lignin remains adhering to the fibers. Strength is impaired because the fiber may be cut. There
are a number of related hybrid pulping methods that use the combination of chemical & thermal
treatment to begin an abbreviated chemical pulping processes, followed by mechanical treatment
to separate the fibers. It is used for products that require less strength, such as newsprint and
paper board.
3. Thermo Mechanical Pulping
Thermo mechanical pulping is pulp produced by processing non wood chips using heat and a
mechanical refining movement. It is a two stage processes where the logs are stripped of their
bark and converted into small chips.
2.4. Manufacturing Processes (2)
Steps 1 –Non Wood Preparation
The bark is removed from in-coming logs, and these are then chipped. Sometimes, the wood
arrives at the plant already chipped, meaning that this step is unnecessary.
Step 2 - Cooking
The wood chips are heated in a solution of NaOH and Na2S in a pressure cooker, during which
time a lot of the lignin (the reinforcing substance that make tree cells wood hard and 'woody'
rather than soft like those of other plants) is removed from the wood. The pressure is then
released suddenly, causing the chips to fly apart into fibers.
Step 3 - Pulp Washing
The pulp is washed with water to wash out the cooking chemicals and lignin from the fiber so
that they will not interfere with later process steps.
Step 4 - Pulp Screening
A sieve is used to remove knots and clumped-together uncooked fibers from the pulp.
Step 5 - Bleaching
This is done in two stages. Firstly the pulp is treated with NaOH in the presence of O2. The
NaOH removes hydrogen ions from the lignin and then the O2breaks down the polymer. Then,

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the pulp is treated with ClO2then a mixture of NaOH, O2and peroxide and finally with
ClO2again to remove the remaining lignin.
Step 6 - Paper Making
The fibers are mechanically treated to make them bond better to each other (strengthening the
paper), chemicals added to provide special properties such as color or water resistance, and then
the water is squeezed out and the pulp is rolled smooth and dried. Various ancillary processes
result in the recovery of CaO, NaOH and Na2S, the major chemicals used in the process.
2.5. Pulp Properties (6)
2.5.1. Basic Pulp Properties
Pulp Consistency: is the term used to describe solid content of pulp during pulp processing. For
pulp and paper maker this is the most important process parameters. All equipments are designed
to handle pulp at and up to certain consistency. Pulp consistency is roughly divided in to three
ranges .
 Low Consistency: <5%
 Medium Consistency: 5 - 15%
 High Consistency: >15%
Moisture Content of Market Pulp: is important from storage, transportation and handling point
of view. Most of the market pulp are sold, stored, transported and used as air dry. The useable
part of pulp is dry fiber only, so the tendency is to minimize the moisture content of pulp.
Viscosity of Pulp: Solution viscosity of a pulp gives an estimation of the average degree of
polymerization of the cellulose fiber. So the viscosity indicates the relative degradation of
cellulose fiber during pulping /bleaching process.
Bursting strength: Is a property of pulp or paper that measures its resistance to rupturing,
defined as the hydrostatic pressure needed to burst a pulp sample when it is applied uniformly
across its side. Bursting strength is a function of various processes performed in the pulp making
process. The increased use of longer fibers and surface sizing increases a pulp's bursting strength.
It is measured using a Burst tester.
Tensile Strength of Pulp: Is the maximum strength of randomly oriented pulp fiber when
formed in a sheet. This tensile strength gives an indication of the maximum possible strength of
pulp beaten under ideal condition. This again an indication of what level of tensile strength can
be achieved in real paper making environment.

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2.5.2. Properties of Paper (7)

Papers are some physical properties involved it properties has been depend upon raw material
and processes. The paper sheet can be dried until 65% of relative humidity and it dry for 2 hr by
setting temperature then test various physical strength properties of paper hand sheets. The
physical strength properties of hand sheet paper such as tensile strength, bursting strength,
double fold, tear index, blister and oil permeability.
Physical strength properties of bleached paper made from banana at different angle of freeness
and it set by experiment. The banana pulp shows good grease proof properties at 180min.the
physical properties of hand sheet paper contains good oil resistance properties for fatty food
wrapping, oil and other application to be the better types of papers called grease proof paper. The
grease proof paper requires good physical strength properties. This grease proof paper contains
some properties by it selves. It is non absorbent paper that is impermeable of oil or grease
generally the ability to resists is very high. So, grease proof paper used to wrap food for storage
and suitable for freezer as well as micro wave oven. The distinguishes of the types of pulp and
making paper for wrapping Kraft, soda, and sulfite mills all use chemicals in their pulping
processes. These processes differ primarily in the chemicals used for digesting non-wood chips.
Mechanical pulping involves shredding or grinding wood chips without the use of chemicals and
semi-chemical pulping combine’s chemical and mechanical methods. Non-wood (banana pseudo
stem) fiber mills can use mechanical and chemical pulping processes. Although Kraft or sulfate
is the preferred pulping procedure for wood, nonfoods are generally cooked by soda and sulfite
as well as sulfate processes.
In washing, since black liquor is highly viscous, larger washing equipment is required for non-
wood fiber. Moreover, due to its high viscosity, to achieve a fair amount of washing, a lot of
water is required, thus, reducing the solid content of the black liquor and increasing the load on
the evaporators.
The paper physical properties are depend on the porosity, barrier property, water absorbance,
grease resistance and also include the other properties.
Porosity: - A low porosity of the base paper is one of the most important requirements to obtain
good barrier properties with dispersion coatings. The porosity of the base paper affects properties
such as coating holdout and sorption behavior. These properties are important when greaseproof
is coated with an aqueous coating.

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Physical Properties
 High tensile strength.
 In high purity of cellulose in the fiber.
 Low content of lignin.

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Chapter Three
3. Methodology (Raw Material & Methods)
3.1. Banana Fiber Collection Process
In banana plantations, after the fruit the fruit are harvested the stems will be discarded. These
waste provided obtainable source of fibers, which leads to the reduction of other natural and
synthetic fibers production that requires extra energy, fertilizer and chemical.

3.1.1. Parts of Banana Trees

Banana trees have three parts.
Those are:-
 Leaves
 Stem
 Roots

Figure3.1:- Banana Trees

In our case from among three parts of banana trees leave and roots are cut out at has not use for
preparation of pulping paper because stem parts contain highest percentages of cellulose.

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Table3.1:- Chemical Composition of Banana Stem

3.1.2. Banana Fibers

Banana fiber is the best natural fiber. It has its own physical and chemical characteristics and
many other properties that make it a fine quality fiber.
• Appearance of banana fiber is similar to that of bamboo fiber and ramie fiber, but its
fineness and spin ability is better than the two.
• The chemical composition of banana fiber is cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin.
• It is highly strong fiber.
• It has smaller elongation.
• It has somewhat shiny appearance depending upon the extraction & spinning process.
• It is light weight.
• It has strong moisture absorption quality. It absorbs as well as releases moisture very
fast.
• It is bio- degradable and has no negative effect on environment and thus can be
categorized as eco-friendly fiber.
• Its average fineness is 2400Nm.
• It can be spun through almost all the methods of spinning including ring spinning, open-
end spinning, best fiber spinning, and semi-worsted spinning among

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Compositions of Banana Fibers

Lignin
The main component of non wood that needs to be removed to turn it into paper is a compound
Known as lignin. Lignin is the reinforcing compound that is deposited on tree cell walls to make
the non wood strong enough to carry the weight of the banana tree crown. However, it is also the
compound that makes non wood pulp brown, so it is removed from all non wood pulp except that
used to make wrapping paper.
Cellulose: - The cellulose present in non wood is mostly in the form of fibers. The cellulose
fibers are obtained as pulp after pulping process.
Table 3.2:- Banana Fibre Properties

3.2. Raw Materials

The basic raw materials for wrapping paper are:-
 Banana fiber
 NaoH
 Na2S
 Na2CO3
From the raw material (banana stem) remove all unnecessary part properly like leave and roots
then the pure banana stem will be used into the pulp production. The banana stem fiber is
extracted, not on a commercial worthwhile scale anywhere in the country. There are two ways to
extract banana fiber i.e. either manually by hand or by mechanically through Raspador machine.
Therefore, two qualities viz. hand-extracted and machine-extracted banana fiber are available in
the market. Machine-extracted fiber is the low-grade fiber and cheaper in cost while the hand-
extracted fiber is good in quality with higher price. Hand-extracted fiber has been found suitable
for making high-grade paper due to its high purity while due to the presence of adherent pith; the

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machine-extracted fiber produces inferior quality of the product. The extracted fibers are sun-
dried which whitens the fiber. The raw material selection is depending up on the content of
cellulose as well as availability of the product relative to energy consumption within cost. So
banana stem fiber is one of important material than wood fibers. To compare the chemical
composition of banana stem fiber to the wood fibers.
Based on the raw material non wood fiber is better as the production of pulp and to achieve the
final products. This raw material has been low cost and energy consumed as well as
environmental friendly better than wood. Banana stem fiber could not be used to animal feed
more and also other purposes used so that the farmer thrown away after harvested the banana
fruit then to collect the byproduct of banana as raw material of paper production. So, if we used
this raw material more effective than wood fiber to the production of wrapping paper. Wood is
more costly because wood has used in many purposes in every place of country like pole of
electricity, building of construction and also used as source of energy. Straw is also non wood,
the term that can cover most solid plant residues from crops .The chemical composition of
banana fiber is cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin. Therefore banana stem is one of non wood
raw materials it has cellulose and other chemical composition content.
Banana stem waste will be treated in biological pretreatment before proceeding to chemical
pulping process. The lignin, cellulose and glucose composition have to been determined before
and after biological pretreatment and also after chemical pulping process. Waste Banana stem is
a very good source of cellulose. It contains 39.12 % cellulose and 11.34% lignin. Cellulose can
be easily separated from lignin without using toxic chemical during process.

3.3. Equipments Used

 cleaner Cutter  Dryer
 Stove/plate  Filter
 Washer  Electronic weight
 Beaker  continuous
 Sieve/screen  Stirrer
 Boiler
Cutter is used to cut banana stem in proper level into the feed. When cut banana stem to change
in small pieces by using knife/axis at the required stage as well as in cut paper at final level.

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Boiler is to boil the raw material within appropriate solution of chemicals to form black liquor.
This happen due to chemical reaction of material with chemicals it process inside of the reactor
(beaker as a reactor) used this can be get by using experimental in small scale demonstration of
laboratory levels.
Beaker is a container used for stirring, mixing and heating liquids commonly used in laboratory.
Screen is removes the remaining oversized particles (fiber bundlesand contaminants) from
washed pulp. The pulp is diluted to low percent solids, and then passed through a perforated
screen, and rejects are continuously removed from the screen.

3.4. Chemicals
There are three main chemical used to mix with banana fibers to prepared wrapping paper.
Those are:-
1) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
2) Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
3) Sodium sulphide (Na2S)
Sodium Hydroxide (Naoh)
Sodium hydroxide, also known as lye or caustic soda, has the molecular formula NaOH and is
highly caustic metallic base.
The Physical properties are:-
 Odor
 Density
 Melting point
 Boiling point.
Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3)
Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 is a sodium salt of carbonic acid. It most commonly occurs as a
crystalline heptahydrate, which readily effloresces to form a white powder, the monohydrate.
Sodium carbonate is domestically well known for its everyday use as a water softener. It can be
extracted from the ashes of many plants.
Sodium sulphide (Na2S)
Sodium sulphide is the chemical compound with the formula Na2S, or more commonly its
hydrate Na2S·9H2O. Both are colorless water-soluble salts that give strongly alkaline solutions.

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When exposed to moist air, Na2S and its hydrates emit hydrogen sulphide, which smells like
rotten eggs. Some commercial samples are specified as Na2S·xH2O, where a weight percentage
of Na2S is specified.
Commonly available grades have around 60% Na2S by weight, which means that x is around 3.
Such technical grades of sodium sulphide have a yellow appearance owing to the presence of
polysulphides. These grades of sodium sulphide are marketed as 'sodium sulphide flakes'.
Although the solid is yellow, solutions of it are colorless.
The methodology involved in preparing and characterizing pulping to the wrapping paper
production. There are some methods as existed before achieved wrapping paper production. It
means in to preparation of pulp. Therefore, pulp is one of important material as the production of
paper and wrapping paper to available. The preparation of pulps are by cutting (chipping) the
banana stem in to the production of pulp. Especially used only the heart of banana stem and spa
banana stem are useful to making pulp. Most pulping processes require that the banana pseudo
stem be chipped and screened to provide uniform sized chips.

3.4. Experimental Procedure for Lab Scale Production of Pulp

Preparation of Raw Material:
1. Initially Banana Pseudo stem is taken and washed several times with water to remove dust and
soil particles present on it.
2. Later it is cut into 10 cm long piece.

Figure 3.2:-Banana Stem

3. They are crushed in a sugar cane crusher to remove water content and later dried at 80ºC for
about 30 minutes to further reduce the water content.

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Figure 3.3:- Crushed and Dried Banana Stem Pieces

Pulping By Kraft Processes
Preparation of Cooking Liquor
For cooking liquor to be prepared chemicals must be taken in right proportions so that effective
cooking would happen. Kraft pulping consists of following chemicals-NaOH, Na2S, and Na2CO3.
These three chemicals must combine to give total of 12.5% by weight solution.
In this 12.5% of solution, according to Kraft’s pulping solids analysis says.
 58.6% is NaOH
 27.1% is Na2S and
 14.3% is Na2CO3
If we take basis as 1000 ml solution of cooking liquor, then 12.5% by weight gives 125gr which
is the total weight of all three chemicals required. Compositions of solids are given by wt%. If
we calculate the individual weight of chemicals required, they would give the following.
NaOH weight=.586*125=73.25gr.
Na2Sweight=.271*125=33.875gr.
Na2CO3 weight=.143*125=17.875gr.
Digesting
Once the cooking liquor is prepared 400ml of it is taken separately in a 100ml beaker to which 5
grams of raw material (dried banana stem) is added and the level is marked. The reason for
marking the level is described below

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Figure3.4:-Cooking Liquor and Raw Material

Figure 3.5:- Cooking

The reason for marking the level is described below:-
Industrially, steam is used for heating purpose. There are two reasons for selecting steam as
heating source:
1. Firstly, it would serve as the heating medium for the digester.
2. Secondly, once the steam exchanges heat with the cooking liquor and the raw material the
water present in the cooking liquor evaporates due to increase in temperature difference.
Then the initial concentration of the cooking liquor is not maintained which would result in weak
cooking. So, if steam is used, it condenses into the cooking liquor after exchanging heat, there by
maintaining the concentration of the cooking liquor. Here, we do not use steam as heating source.

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If heat is continuously supplied the water present in the cooking liquor evaporates there by initial
concentration of the cooking liquor is varied.
To bring back the concentration to initial we add water up to the marked level in the beaker. This
is taken care of throughout the process of digesting. The heat is supplied by means of hot plate
for about 4hr 30min at a temperature of 90ºC. At the same time stirring is done continuously
throughout the process.
Filtration and Washing of Pulp:
After digesting, brown stock and black liquor are formed. Brown stock contains pulp (cellulose
and hemi-cellulose) and small amounts of lignin (reason for brown color).

Figure 3.6:- Brown Stock and Black Liquor

And the black liquor contains the dissolved lignin and cooking chemicals that are unconverted
and can be recovered. The mixture filtered using cloth to obtain black liquor as waste that
contains cooking chemicals that can be recovered. One time filtration doesn’t remove the lignin
traces completely. So, once the filtration is done it is again washed with water to let lignin and
chemicals associated with the brown stock to dissolve in it. And, this mixture is again filtered
with the cloth and this process is repeated.

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Figure 3.7:- Washed Pulp

It is washed several times with 1000ml of water to reduce the lignin content (about 5 times

Figure3.8:- Finally, the obtained product from the filtration must be in such a way that lignin
traces must be less in amounts.
Bleaching
Once filtration and washing is completed the washed pulp is dissolved in 200ml of water to
which 5gr bleaching powder is added to completely remove the brown color to obtain white
paper grade pulp.

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Figure 3.9:-Bleaching
Drying
Drying is done to find the yield in both the processes. To find the yield entire water in the
bleached pulp must be removed. To remove entire water content in the bleached pulp, it is dried
at a temperature of 100ºC for one hour in hot air oven.
Mixing or Blending
Mix or blend to separate fibers in solution (13g pulp at water 600ml used)
Molding Machine
pour pulp mixture into mold and deckle vats .using your finger to distributed in mold and deckle
out touching the mesh.
Pressing Machine
Remove mold and prepare for pressing into removed excess water
Paper Drying
Pressing papers was pressing papers by using atmospheric air.

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Chapter Four
4. Result and Discussion
4.1. Soda Process
Yield=

= 0.475

Moisture content (M.C) =

Where X1=Amount of product obtained before drying

X2= Amount of product obtained After drying it in oven

M.C= =60.42%

Consistency=

Consistency = =39.583%

4.2. Kraft Process

Yield=

= 0.575

Moisture Content (M.C) =

M.C= =52.94%

Where X1=Amount of product obtained before drying

X2= Amount of product obtained after drying it in oven

Consistency=

Consistency = =45.1%

Experiment One: Soda and Kraft Pulping

Firstly, describing about the heat required for digesting, Kraft process required only 4hr and
30min at 90oCfor breaking lignin molecules. But soda process required more heat for digestion
and yet could not obtain effective digestion as banana stem material was still present as it was in
the beginning on the water cooking liquor surface. Secondly, Kraft’s process consists of strong

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cooking liquor which can break the lignin more effectively. Whereas soda process consist of
weak cooking liquor. Because of this reason we can find the traces lignin was more in Soda
process than Kraft process. Product obtained after washing with water was compared in both the
processes. The pulp obtained in Kraft process was less dark in colour than pulp obtained in soda
process. The reason for this was, pulp obtained in Kraft process contain less lignin content in it
due to strong basic nature of the solution which break the lignin effectively. Soda process
involves weak basic cooking liquor that acts weak in breaking lignin bonds. The pulp obtained
after bleaching was observed and found that Kraft pulp was whiter in colour compared to soda
process, as bleaching agent required breaking the traces of lignin was more in soda process than
Kraft process. Finally the following parameters were compared i.e. moisture content, consistency
and the yield obtained.
Experiment Two: Comparison with Concentration (%) And Cooking Time (Hr)
The result of all the 9 experiments is shown below in table within 900C cooking temperature and
20 gram of sample mass.
Table4.1:-Laboratory Experimental Results.
Concentration (%) Cooking time(hr) Dry pulp mass Pulp yield= pulp mass
(gram) /sample mass *100%

1 12.5 5 10.5 52.5

2 13.5 5 11.5 57.5
3 14.5 5 11.7 58.5
4 12.5 4:45 13.3 66.5
5 13.5 4:45 12.5 62.5
6 14.5 4:45 12 60
7 12.5 4:30 13.34 66.7
8 13.5 4:30 14.5 72.25
9 14.5 4:30 14.24 71.12

The optimum production of pulp is 72.25% at 13.5% white liquor concentration for the cooking
time of 4:45 hours, but the maximum mass of pulp is 72.25% at the cooking time of 4:30 minutes
with 13.5% white liquor concentration and the minimum mass was obtained 52.5% at minimum

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concentration (12.5%) and minimum time (5 hour). From those results, to determine material
balance and energy balance as well as to design and size equipments the optimum pulp yield was
selected because from all the 9 results more lignin is removed from the optimum pulp yield.
Maximum Pulp Production
The maximum pulp production is gained at 13.5% concentration and 4:30 hours cooking time.
That means at 13.5% sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and sodium sulfide mixture and 4:30
hours cooking time more lignin is removed which is the first experiment of laboratory work.
Minimum Pulp Production
The minimum pulp production is gained at 12.5% concentration and 5 hour cooking time. That
means at 12.5% sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and sodium sulphide mixture and 5 hour
cooking time small amount of lignin is removed which is the ninth experiment of laboratory
work.
Table 4.2.Summary of Results In Each Unit Operations
Unit operations Amount (gm)
Drying 18.8985
Digester 418.8985
Filter 17.6
Washing 17.2
Bleaching 16.34
Drying 12.7
Pulp production experiment from dried banana stem was conduct in nine runs to see the effect of
concentration and time on pulp yield using Kraft process. The first experiment was conducted by
varying concentration, which is 12.5% (3% Na2S & 20% NaOH), 13.5 % (20% Na2S & 10%
NaOH), 14.5%(12% Na2S & 8% NaOH) to 87.5%, 86.5% and 85.5% water concentration
respectively for 5 hour residence time, the second experiment was conducted at the same
concentration but residence time is 4:45 minute and the third experiment also similar as the
above concentration for 4:30 hour of residence time. The laboratory result was analysed by
plotting the graph, time vs. mass of pulp at specified concentration and concentration vs. mass of
pulp at specified time as shown below.

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Effect Of Cooking Time On Mass Of Pulp

Mass of pulp is affected by cooking time, temperature, concentration, dried banana stem size
and other components in the dried banana stem. Concentration of white liquor (sodium
hydroxide sodium carbonate and sodium sulphide) plays a great role on the mass yield of pulp
using Kraft production process. The production rate is fast at the beginning of the production but
gets slow gradually. The reason is that when the dried banana stem is cooked to the digester at
longer time more lignin is removed beside this, as the cooking time become lower and lower
small amount of lignin is removed and at this time a very high concentration of white liquor
mixture is required.
16
14
pulp mass (gram)

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0:00 1:12 2:24 3:36 4:48 6:00
time(hr)

Figure 4.1:- Effect of Time On Mass Of Pulp At 12.5% Concentration

16
14
pulp mass (gram)

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0:00 1:12 2:24 3:36 4:48 6:00
time(hr)

Figure 4.2:- Effect of Time on Mass of Pulp At 13.5% Concentration

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16
14

pulp mass (gram)

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0:00 1:12 2:24 3:36 4:48 6:00
time(hr)

Figure 4.3:-Effect of Time on Mass of Pulp at 14.5.5% Concentration

Effect of Concentration on Mass of Pulp
Concentration of white liquor (sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and sodium sulphide) plays
a great role on the mass yield of pulp using Kraft production process. As the concentration
increase more lignin is removed whereas, when the concentration becomes decreased small
amount of lignin is removed and at this time longer cooking time is required to remove lignin.

0.146
0.144
0.142
0.14
mass of pulp

0.138
0.136
y
0.134
0.132
0.13
0.128
0 5 10 15 20
concentration

Figure 4.4:- Effect of Concentration on Mass of Pulp at 5 Hours

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y
0.15

0.145
mass of pulp
0.14

0.135
y
0.13

0.125
0 5 10 15 20
concentration

Figure 4.5:-Effect of Concentration on Mass of Pulp at 4:45 Hours

0.146
0.144
0.142
0.14
mass of pulp

0.138
0.136
0.134
0.132
0.13
0.128
0 5 10 15 20
concentration

Figure 4.6.:-Effect of Concentration on Mass of Pulp at 4:30 Hours

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Chapter Five
5. Material and Energy Balance
5.1. Material Balance
Basic Assumptions:
 Steady state for all calculations i.e. Input=output
 Production capacity of the plant is =3tone/day
 Plant working time is=320day/year
According to laboratory Experiment two trials two from 20 gm of raw material we have
produced 12.5gm of pulp. Therefore amount of raw material required to produce 3tonne
is

Amount of raw material = = 4.8tone/day

Chemicals used in Kraft pulping are NaOH, Na2SO4, Na2CO3.

For 20 gm of raw material we use so that 400ml of cooking liquor for 4.8tone
Amount of cooking liquor required= = 96m3

 If we calculate the individual weight of chemicals required, they would give the
following.
NaOH weight = = 7.1tonne/day

Water weight = =96tonne/day

Na2Sweight = = 3.26tonne/day

Na2CO3 weight= =1.72 tonne/day

1. Chopping
 Banana pseudo stem after washing several times with water to remove dust and soil
particles present on it is sent to a Chopper to remove some of the water content and
reduce its size.
Assumption
Though there is a little loss in the Chopper, we neglect it

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CHOPPING
M1 M2
Where M1= M2=4.8 tone of banana stem
2. Drying
 Banana pseudo stem after washing with water and Chopping is sent into drier.
M2

M1 DRYING M3

Where M1=4.8 tone of Crushed banana stem dried at 80ºCfor 30min

M2=M1-M3=4.8-4.55 =0.25m3of water removed
M3 =4.55tone of dried banana stem (Refer table 4.2: where the ratio is taken from)
3. Digesting
 4.8tone of dried Banana stem is taken is sent into a digester along with 96m3 of cooking
liquor and boiled for 4hr and 30min at 90°C. Later brown stock and black liquor is
formed.

M1 DIGESTION M3
M2

Where M1=96 m3of cooking liquor

M2=4.55tone of dried banana stem
M3=M1+M2=96+4.55=100.55tonne
4. Filtration
 Filtration is done in order to remove the lignin traces completely and to separate the
brown stock from the black liquor.

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M1 FILTERATON

M3

M2
Where M1=105.1tonne tonne mixture of Brown stock and Black liquor
M2= M1-M3=100.55-4.224 = 96.36tonne of Black liquor
M3=4.224 tonne of Brown stock
 Once filtration is finished the brown stock will be washed that the obtained product from
the filtration must be in such a way that lignin traces must be less in amounts.
5. Washing:
 Once filtration is finished the brown stock will be washed that the obtained product from
the filtration must be in such a way that lignin traces must be less in amounts.

WASHING M3
M1 M4

M2 M5
Where M2=4.224 tonneof Brown stock
M2 = 12.08 m3water
M3 =4.128 tonneof washed Brown stock
M4=12.08 m3of water removed
M4= (M1+M2)-(M3+M4) =4.224 +12.08 -4.128-12.08 =0.096tonne of lignin and some
black liquor removed.
6. Bleaching:
 Bleaching decreases the mass of pulp produced by about 5%
I.e. 4.128 tonnex5%=0.21tonne
Pulp produced=4.128-0.21=3.918tonne
7. Drying:

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 Drying removes the water content in the bleached pulp; it is dried at a temperature of
100ºC for one hour. M2

DRYING
M1 M3

Where M1=3.918 tone of Bleached pulp

M2= M1-M3=3.918tonne-3.048=0.87m3 of water removed
M3 =3.048tonneof dried pulp

5.2. Energy Balance

Energy Balance on Digester

DIGESTION
White liquor dried banana stem

Pulp slurry

 Assume that the condition is steady state condition that is there is no heat generation,
consumption and accumulation during the process. So that, the amount of energy required
to heat the digester would be as follows:
E in + E generation + E consumption = E out + E accumulation
E in = E out
Q = ṁ Cp T= ṁ Cp (T-T ref)
Tin= Temperature in=25oC
Tout=Temperature out=90oC
Q = [(ṁ dried banana stem * Cp dried banana stem) + (ṁ white liquor*Cp white liquor)] * T
CpH2O = 4.18KJ/Kg K
Cp NaOH = 28.23J/mol K= 0.70575KJ/Kg K
CpNa2S= 0.102 + 0.003869 T (K) but the room temperature is 20 or 293.15K
So that; CpNa2S= [0.102+0.00386]KJ/Kg K = 1.2362KJ/Kg K

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 Hence specific heat capacity of white liquor is the average heat capacity of water, sodium
sulphide and sodium hydroxide.
Cpwhite liquor =CpH2O + CpNaOH + CpNa2S/3
= 4.18KJ/Kg K + 0.70575KJ/Kg K + 1.2362KJ/Kg K/3
= 2.04065KJ/Kg K
Cp dbs=Specific heat capacity of the dried banana stem=0.477 KJ/Kg K
Given that: - reference temperature is at 200C
 Then the amount of heat required for the digester will be:
Q= [(4.8tons/day * 0.477KJ/Kg K) + (105.55tons/day * 2.04065KJ/Kg K)] * (363.15 -
293.15) K
=[(4.8tons/day*1000kg/tons*1day/86,400sec*0.477KJ/KgK)+(105.55tonne/day*1000Kg/to
ns* 1day/86,400sec*2.04065KJ/Kg K)] * 70 K
= (26.5J/sec + 2492.95J/sec) * 70 K
= 176.36KW=0.17636W
Energy Balance on Drier
Washed pulp

Inlet air DRYING outlet air

Dried pulp
 Assume that during drying process there is no heat generation, consumption and
accumulation. So that, the energy balance becomes:
E in + E generation + E consumption = E out + E accumulation
E in = E out
Q= ṁ Cp T= ṁCp (T-Tref)
Q= [(ṁ dried banana stem*Cp dried banana stem) + (ṁ white liquor * Cpwhite liquor)] *∆ T
moisture content of washed pulp(m.c)= wet solid-dry solid/wet solid= 0.456
Inlet temperature of washed pulp= 200C = 293.15 K and Reference temperature= 00C

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Moisture content of dried pulp= 10%

Mass flow rate of washed pulp= 4.224 tonne/day
Mass flow rate of dry air= 24.52536kg/day= 0.000284Kg/sec
Inlet temperature of air= 1500C = 373.15 K
Outlet temperature of air= 300C = 303.15 K
Specific heat capacity of water= 4.18KJ/Kg K
Specific heat capacity of dry air= 1.005KJ/Kg K
Specific heat capacity of dry pulp =0.507 KJ/Kg K
 For the wet solid or interring to the dryer, the mass flow rate of water can be calculated
as:
ṁ water =MC * ṁ washed pulp
= 0.456* 4.224tons/day * 1000Kg/tons * 1day/86,400sec
= 0.022Kg/sec
 Energy balance on inlet air (hot air stream)
Q= ṁ Cp ∆T
= heat contained by incoming dry hot air + heat contained by water vapour with dry
air.
Q= [(ṁ dry air * Cp dry air) + (ṁ water vapour in dry air * Cp water vapour)] *∆ T
 Assume that the mass of water vapour in dry air is negligible. So that, the amount of heat
required becomes:
Q= (ṁ dry air * Cp dry air) * ∆T
= 0.000284Kg/sec * 1.005KJ/Kg K * (423.15-273.15) K
= 0.0422KW
 Energy balance on wet solid (washed pulp)
Q= ṁ Cp T
Q= [(ṁ water * Cp water) + (ṁ dry pulp * Cp dry pulp)] * ∆T ,but
ṁ dry pulp=(0.049-0.022) Kg/sec =0.027 Kg/sec
= [(0.022Kg/sec * 4.18KJ/Kg K) + (0.027Kg/sec *0.507 KJ/Kg K)] * (293.15-273.15) K
=2.113KW
 Amount of heat required for the drying will be:-
QT=Q dry air + Q washed pulp = 0.0422KW +2.113 KW = 2.155KW

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Chapter Six
6. Main Equipment Design and Equipment Sizing
6.1. Equipment Design

6.1.1 Mixer
 Design consideration of mixer
 Mixing refers to any operation used to change a non-uniform system in to a uniform
one (that is random distribution of two or more initially separated phases such as Na2S,
NaOH and water); digestion implies forcing a fluid by mechanical means to flow in a
circulatory or other pattern inside a vessel.
 Mixing by agitation of liquids normally involves the transfer of momentum from
impellers to the liquid. An impeller, which is mounted on a shaft driven by an electrical
motor, is divided in two operation categories;
1. Where momentum is transferred by shearing stresses, in which the transfer is
perpendicular to the direction of flow, which includes, the rotating disc and cone
agitators.
2. The momentum is transferred by normal stresses, in which the transfer is parallel to
the direction of flow, which includes the paddle, propeller and turbo mixer agitators
(6).
 The mixer is a storage or pressure vessel that is

Figure 6.1 Standard Tank Configurations

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 The top of the vessel is seated and the vessel bottom is not flat.
 The densities of these materials are given below at room (20oC) temperature. That is
ρH2O = 1000kg/m3
ρNa2CO3 = 2540kg/m3
ρNa2S = 1860kg/m3
ρ NaOH = 2130kg/m3
N.B: The mixers will these raw materials per day are 8hr. that is mixing these materials
have 3 Shift.
 From the laboratory result 50 gram of dried banana stem was used for 500 gram of white
liquor hence, 50 gram = 500 gram white liquor
4.8tone= X
X = 4.8tons/day*500 gram white liquor/50 gram dried banana stem
= 48tons/day of white liquor is required.
 The volume of these raw materials can be calculated as:
Volume (V) = Mass (m)/Density (ρ)
VH2O = ṁH2O/ρ H2O from material balance ṁH2O =96 tons/day

VH2O =

= 96 m3per day
ṁ
VNa2CO3 = ρ

= 0.677m3 per day

V NaOH = ρ

= 3.33m3 per day

VNa2S =ρ

= 1.7527m3 per day

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 The total volume to be stirred will be the sum of the volume of H2O, NaOH ,Na2S and
Na2CO3. So that,
V = VH2O + V NaOH + VNa2CO3+VNa2S
V=96 +0.677+3.33+1.7527=101.7597m3per day
V =101.7597, so that will mix or stirred these materials per day is 24hrs or 3 shifts.
Then, the volume to be stirred or mixed becomes;
V = 101.7597m3/day * 1day/3s =33.92m3
 For the manufacturing conditions it needs a safety factor of 10% so that, the total volume
becomes.
V = 33.92m3+ 0.1*33.92m3
= 37.312m3
 The volume to be mix will be in a cylindrical section. That is:-
V cylindrical section = A * h but, A = * D2/4
= * D2/ 4 * h
 For cylindrical section H/D = 1 to 2 beside this, to select the size range basic factors must
be considered such as earth quick, wind and etc. however, in Arba Minch there is no such
factors. So that, optimum H/D ratio is selected which is:-
H/D = 1.5
H = 1.5 * D
V = 1.5 * D3/4
 The diameter of cylindrical section will be:
D=
D =3.1644 m
 The height of cylindrical section is:
H = 1.5 * D = 1.5*3.1644=4.746 m
 The surface area of cylindrical section becomes:
A surface = A top + A bottom
= *D2/4 + *D2/4 = 2* *D2/4
= *D2/2
= *3.16442/2 =15.72m2
 The lateral area of cylindrical section can be calculated as:

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A lateral = A left+ A right

= *r*h+ *r*h =2* *r*h
= * D * h = *3.1644*4.746=47.157m2
 The total area required to be mix becomes:
A total = A surface+ A lateral
= 15.72+47.157= 62.877m2
 Power required for agitation
Estimating of the power consumption for any agitator is essential for design. The power
consumption of an agitator is depending on its dimension and the physical properties of the
material to be mixed which is viscosity and density
First calculate the agitation system, such system are determined from a given standard.
 The agitator diameter can be determined as:-
D agitator/D tank = 1/3
DA = DT/3
DA= 3.1644/3 = 1.0548m
 The height of agitator from the bottom of the tank can be determined as:-
H agitator/D agitator = 1
hA = DA = 1.0548m
 The width of the agitator blade can be determined:
W agitator/D agitator = 1/5
WA = DA/5
= 1.0548m/5 = 0.211m
 The baffle width can be calculated as:
W baffle/D tank = 1/12
WB = DT/12
= 3.1644m/12 = 0.2637m
 The agitator blade length can be determined as:
L agitator/D agitator = 1/4
LA = DA/4
= 1.0548m/4 = 0.2637m

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The number of impeller blades varies between 6 and 8. So that, from this standard the
optimum number of impeller was taken that is 8 number of impeller which used for
complete mixing of white liquor.
 Therefore the power required for agitation can be calculated as:
P = Np * ρ *N3 * DA5
But the density of white liquor can be calculated as by taking the average density of water,
Na2S and NaOH since;
ρ white liquor =( ρ water + ρ NaOH +ρ Na2S+ ρNaCO3)/4
= (1000+2310+1860+2540)/4 =1927.5kg/m3
 The power number can be calculated as:
Np = P/ ρ *N3 * DA5
The power number NP can be calculated, but that can be read from Np Vs Re of the given
graph.
 To determine this first calculate Reynolds number:-
Re = ρ *N * DA2/μ
Where: - N = rotational speed
μ = viscosity of the fluid which can be determined from Penny, W.R. “grid to trouble
free mixers,” chem. Eng., 77 (12), 171, 1970.
 The vessel volume is 37.312m3 or 1.02*104 gallon. So that, the rotational speed of the
fluid is 420 rpm (7 rps). The viscosity of white liquor can be obtained by interpolating.
That is:
V (gallon) μ
1 *104 1.5
1.02*104 X X = 1.4955Kg/m s
5 *104 0.6
Re = 1927.5Kg/m3 * 7rps * (1.0548m)2/1.4955Kg/m s
= 10,037.978which is turbulent flow of white liquor, since the viscosity of white
liquor is less than 10 Ns/m2 or 10Kg/m s that is greater than 4,000. So, it is not viscous
fluid.
From the graph of Np Vs Re read Reynolds number at 10,037.978 and the corresponding
power number is 0.25. hence,

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P = 0.25 * 1927.5Kg/m3 * (7rps)3 * (1.0548m)5

= 883.13076Kw = 1184.62hp because 1hp = 0.7455Kw
 Mechanical design of mixer
 Design pressure
ΡFluid = (ρ*g*h)fluid
= (1927.5kg/m3 * 9.81m/s2 * 4.746m)
= 43.2KPa
 For safe operation a safety factor of 10% is added in order to avoid minor constraints.
Pi safety operation= 43.2KPa + 0.10 *43.2KPa
= 47.52KPa=47,520Pa
 The atmospheric pressure does not consider, because the gauge pressure is above the
atmospheric pressure which indicates there is no effect on the internal pressure.
 Design temperature
The temperature of white liquor is at room temperature that is at 20 temperatures.
 Material selection
The mixer is constructed from carbon steel, because carbon steel can survive the
temperature up to 400 and low cost.
 Design stress
The design stress is determined from Coulson and Richardson volume 6, table 13.2 page 809
at 20oC so that, the design pressure is 135N/mm2

 Welded joint efficiency

The strength of welded joint will depend on the type of joint and the quality of the welding.
So that, use allowable joint factor in design, through saving cost of radiography which
results in a thicker and heavier; as a result, the type of joint is single weld but joint with
bonding strips and degree of radiography is spot that is, 0.8 from Coulson and Richardson
volume 6, table 13.3 page 810.

 Minimum wall thickness determination

 The minimum wall thickness of the cylindrical section can be determined as
e = Pi Di/(2Jf – Pi)
Given that; Pi = 47,520N/m2 1pas = 1N/m2

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f = 135N/mm2

Di = 1.0548m J = 0.8
t = 47,520N/m2 * 1.0548m/ (2*0.8*135N/10-6 m2– 47,520N/m2)
= 0.232mm
 The minimum thickness with corrosion allowance becomes:-
t = 0.232 + 4 = 4.232
= 5mm

6.1.2 Digester design

Digester is the process used to cook the wood chips. A digester is heated by steam,
“cooks” the wood chips in white liquor until done. The cooking process dissolves most
of the lignin and only some of the hemi cellulose, leaving mostly cellulose to hold the
fibers together (6).
 Selection criteria of digester
The digester system in batch process
 Easy to construct.
 Used for small scale plant.
 The cost is low as compared to continuous digester process.
 Easy to clean.

Figure 6.2.Batch digester.

 The volume of digester can be calculated as:
V Digester= V white liquor + V dried banana stem

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But, from material balance the volume of the white liquor is equal to 96m3
 The volume of can be calculated as;

Vdried banana stem =

But m dbs = 4.8tons per day and ρ dbs = 150kg/m3

ρ

V dbs =

V dbs = 3.2m3 per day

 The total volume of the digester becomes
V Digester = V white liquor + V dried banana stem
= 96m3 + 3.2m3per day
= 100m3/day
But, the volume of the digester three batch per day digester. So that the volume of the
digester will be;
V Digester = 100* 1day/3 = 33.33m3
 The volume of the digester needs a safety factor of 10% for the well separation or
condition to be operated.
V Digester = V Design + V Design * 0.10
= 33.33m3+ 33.33m3 * 0.10
V Digester = 36.66m3
 The digester portion that contains cylindrical section, and a conical bottom section. The
cylindrical portion of the digester is often designed for a length to diameter ratio of 3.4 to
4.5. So that, to be taken the length to diameter ratio factors to be considered such as earth
quake, wind etc. then there is no such factor n Arba Minch city. So that, we take a
optimum value of length to diameter ratio. That is
L1/D1 = 3.5
L1 = 3.5D1
L1 = h1
 The volume of the digester is the sum of the volume of cylindrical section and conical
bottom section. That is
V Digester= V Cylindrical section + V Conical bottom section
 The volume of the cylindrical section can be calculated as;

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Cylindrical section = A1 * h1
But, A1 = π/4*D12
V cylindrical section = D12 * h1
 For batch digester that have a standard range of diameter of 7ft. So that, take an optimum
value of diameter of 7ft. That is
1ft = 0.3048m
7ft = X
X = 7ft * 0.3048m/1ft = 2.1336m is the diameter of the cylindrical section.
 The height of cylindrical section becomes
h1 = 3.5D1
= 3.5 * 2.1336m
= 7.47m
 The volume the cylindrical section becomes
V Cylindrical section = D12 * h1/4
= π (2.1336m)2 * 7.47m/4
= 26.7m3
So that, the volume of the conical section becomes
V Digester= V cylindrical section + V Conical bottom section
V conical section = V Digester – V cylindrical section
= 36.66m3 – 26.7m3
= 9.96m3
 But, from the pressure vessel relation the height of the cylindrical section (h1)is two
times of the height of the conical bottom section. That is;
h1 / h3 = 2
h3 = h1/2 = 7.47m/2
h3 = 3.735m
 The total height of the digester (h2) can be calculated as:
h2 = h3 + h1
h2 = 7.47m + 3.735m
= 11.21m
 The diameter of the conical bottom section can be calculated as:

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V conical section = π /12 * h3 *(D12 + D1D2 + D22)

9.96m2 = π /12 * 3.735m * ((2.1336m)2 + 2.1336D2 + D22)
10.2m2 = 4.55m2 + 2.1336D2 + D22
D22+2.1336D2 –5.65 = 0----------------------------------------- (1.2)
 By using quadratic principle to solve the diameter of the conical bottom section,
Given a = 1
b = 2.1336
c = -5.65

D2 =

D2 = -2.1336+5.12/2 OR (-2.1336-5.12/2) excluded because there is no negative diameter

D2 = 0.472m = 47.2cm or
D2 = 472mm
 The surface area of the cylindrical section can be calculated as;
A surface = A bottom +A Top
= π/4D12+ π/4D12 =π /2D12
= π/2 *(2.1336m)2
= 7.15m2
 The lateral surface of the cylindrical section can be calculated as
A lateral = A left side+ A right side
A latera l= πr1h1 + πr1h1
A lateral = 2π r1h1, but D1 = 2r1
A lateral =π D1h1
A lateral = π* 2.1336m * 7.37m
= 49.4m2
 The total area of the cylindrical section can be calculated as
A Total = A surface + A lateral
= 7.15m2 +49.4m2 =56.55 m2
 The total area of the conical bottom section can be calculated as
A conical section = A1+ A2
=π /4(D12 + D1D2 + D22)
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=π /4 * ((2.1336m)2+ (2.1336m*0.472m) + (0.472m)2)

A conical section = 4.54m2
 The diameter of the top conical section is calculated as
D1 = B1 + D2 + B2, but B1 = B2
D1 = B1 + D2 + B1
D1 = 2B1 + D2
B1= D1- D2/2 = 2.1336m – 0.472m
B1 = 1.662m = B2
 The angle of the conical bottom section can be calculated as

 Using hypotheneous rule theorem, to determine the hypotheneous

C2 = B22+ h32B2 = c.cosθ2 andh3=c.sinθ2
C2 = (1.662m) 2 + (3.735m) 2 h3/B2 =c. cosθ2/c.sinθ2 =tanθ
C= 4m = tan-1 (h3/B2) = tan-1 (3.735m/1.662m)= 660
 Therefore the total area of the batch digester is the sum of the area of cylindrical and
conical section.
A= A cylindrical section+ A conical section
A = 56.55 m2+ 4.54m2
A = 61.1 m2
 Design consideration
 Design pressure
 It must be designed to with stand the maximum pressure to which it is likely to be
subjected in operation. For under internal pressure is normally taken as the pressure at
which the relief device is set. So that the internal design pressure is 1.5bar during the
cooking operation at temperature of 900C

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 For the same operation of pressure, it needs a safety factor of 10% above the normal
working pressure in order to avoid spurious operation during minor process inputs. So
that
P operation = P Design + 10% of P Design
= 1.5 bar + 0.1 * 1.5bar = 1.65bar
So that, the total internal pressure of the batch digester will be
P = 1.5bar + (ρ*g*h) fluid But, the hydrostatic pressure of the batch digester will be
Pgauge = (ρ*g*h) fluid
 But, ρ fluid is the average density of the fluid such as the white liquor
and . So that
ρ Fluid= ρ white liquor +ρ dried banana stem
h2 =11.21mm
ρ White liquor =ρH2O+ ρ NaOH +ρNa2S+ ρNa2Co3/4 g = 9.81m/s2
= 1000kg/m3 + 2,130kg/m3 + 1,800kg/m3 +2540kg/m3
= 1,867.5kg/m3
ρ dried banana stem = 150kg/m3
Hence, ρFluid = 1,867.5kg/m3 +150kg/m3
= 2017.5kg/m3
 The hydrostatic pressure of the fluid becomes:
Ρ Fluid = (ρ*g*h2) fluid
= (2017.5kg/m3 * 9.81m/s2 * 11.21m)
= 221,864.68pas
Ρ Fluid = 2.2186468bar=2.2 bar
 The total internal pressure of the batch digester becomes
Pi = 1.5bar + 2.2bar = 3.7bar
 For the safe operation a safety factor of 10% in order to avoid minor constraints.
Pi safety operation= 3.7bar + 0.10 * 3.7bar
= 4.07bar
 The atmospheric pressure does not considered, because the internal pressure of the
digester is above of the atmospheric pressure that is there is no effect on the internal
pressure

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 Design temperature
The design temperature at the design stress is evaluated taken as the maximum working
temperature of the material, with due allowable for any uncertainty conditions. So that,
the batch digester operates at a design temperature of 600C. Therefore, the operating
temperature of the digester becomes;
Ti = 900C + 0.10 * 900C =990C ≈1000C
 Material selection
The digester is constructed from carbon steels, low and high alloy steels, other alloys,
clad plate and reinforced plastics. The TRS (total reduced sulphur) compounds which
produced from digester process and the remnant alkali so corrosive to carbon steel, the
material from the digester will be constructed a material stainless steel of 321, Titanium
stabilized, 18Cromium or 8Nickel.
 Design stress
The design stress is determined by applying a suitable “design stress factor” to the
maximum stress that the material could be expected to with stand without fail stress will
be determined by interpolating between the temperature of 500C and 1000C at the
operating temperature of 900C from the Coulson and Richardson volume 6 table 13.2
page 809
T (0C) f (N/mm2)
50 165
90 X x=153 N/mm2
100 150
 Welded joint efficiency
The strength of welded joint will depend on the type of joint and the quality of the
welding. The value of the joint factor used in the design will depend on type of joint and
the amount of radiography. So that, the maximum allowable joint efficiency will be
determined as, type of joint is single weld but joint (0.9) with bonding strips and degree
of radiography is 100%. Because the incondensable gasses are not completely vent out, to
resist the corrosion from Coulson and Richardson volume 6, table 13.3 page 810
 Minimum wall thickness determination
 The minimum wall thickness of the cylindrical section can be determined as

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e = Pi Di/2Jf - Pi , Given that; Pi = 1.65bar 1pas = 1N/m2 f =153 N/mm2

Di = 2.1336m = D1 J = 0.9
e = 1.65*105 pas (N/m2 ) * 2.1336m/2*0.9*153N/10-6m2– 1.65*105 pas (N/m2 )
e = 3.52*105N/m/2.754*108N/m2 – 1.65*105N/m2
e = 1.343mm
 The corrosion allowance is 0.35 inch, because it is highly corrosive, so that,
1inch = 25.4mm
0.35inch = X
X = 0.35inch *25.4mm/1inch
= 8.89mm So that, the minimum wall thickness of cylindrical section becomes
e = 1.343mm + corrosion allowance
e = 1.343mm + 8.89mm e = 10.233mm, so that it is acceptable.
 The minimum wall thickness of the conical section can be calculated as
e = Pi Di/2Jf - Pi * 1/cosα, whereα is the half of cone apex angle
θ1+α = 900
6 60+α =900
α =240 θ1

Given, Dc = D2 = 0.472m J = 0.9 Pi = 4.07bar

f = 153N/mm2
e = 4.07 * 105N/m2 * 0.472m/2*0.9*1.53*108N/m2 -4.07 * 105N/m2 *1/cos240
e = 1.92*105N/m/2.754*108N/m2 -4.07*105N/m2
e = 0.7mm
 The corrosion allowance is 0.35inch, because it is highly corrosive. So that,
e = 0.7mm + 8.89mm
e = 9.6mm
 The minimum thickness of the flat ends closures can be calculated as
e = Cp De√pi/f,
Though the flat ends or heads closures the fabrication cost is low, easy to construct and
used for low internal pressure

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 But, the values of the design constant and nominal diameter can be determined as with a
plates welded to the end of the shell with a fillet weld, angle of fillet 450 and depth equal
to the plate thickness. So that, take Cp as 0.55 and De = Di = D1.
 The minimum thickness of the flat end closure becomes
e = 0.55*2.1336m*√1.65*105 N/m2 /153N/10-6m2
e = 38.54mm
 The corrosion allowance is 0.35inch (8.89mm), because it is highly corrosive. So that,
e = 38.54mm + 8.89mm
e = 47.43mm
Therefore, the batch digester will operate 3 shift or 8hrs per day. There volume of those
digesters is equal corresponding to there from the design of pressure up to the minimum
wall thickness of the vessel

Batch
digester

Figure 6.3:-Conical Batch Digester.

6.1.3 Dryer
 Design consideration of dryer
Dryer is a process that used to remove moisture content from the substance on thiscase the
washed pulp. It is accomplished by thermal techniques and involves the application of heat, most
commonly by convection from existing of air. It is also a diffusional process in which transfer of
moisture to the surrounding medium that takes place by evaporation of surface moisture, more
moisture is transferred from the solid interior to the surface. In most factories dryer is the last
unit operation (7) .
 Selection criteria of dryer
Operability of the dryer equipment.
 Basis of capital and operation cost.
 Production rate of dried product that is:-
Batch dryer: ≤200Kg/hr
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Continuous dryer: ≥1 or 2 tons/hr

Operational, reliability, safety and economy.
Environmental pollution.
 Energy consumption which must be consumes minimum energy.
 Operational and maintenance cost that should not be excessive as much as possible.
 Based on the above criteria continuous dryer is selected since on this study the production
Rate is greater than 1 ton, it minimize energy consumption as well as operate in a safe and
reliable way. There are several continuous dryer like rotary dryer, drum dryer, flash dryer,
fluidized
Bed dryer and screen conveyer dryer. Due to its high drying rate, good product quality control
achievement, high thermal efficiency and its low steam consumption to heat the drying gas
(1.5Kg/Kg of water evaporated) screen dryer or direct heat continuous type dryer is chosen.
The pulps to be dried are feed to an endless and perforated conveyer belt through hot air forcing.
The belt is housed in a long rectangular drying chamber. The chamber is divided in to a series of
separated sections each with its own fan and air heater. Air may be recalculate through the dryer
and vent from each section separately or pass from one to another section counter current to the
pulp movement. The pulp is carried through the chamber and discharged at the opposite end (7).

Figure 6.5 Screen Conveyor Dryer

 The area of the screen belt dryer can be calculated as;
Q = U *A * t = U *A*LMTD

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But, the logarithmic mean temperature difference can be calculated as follows

100 0C = Air inflow T1

T2 Air out flow = 300C
300C= dried pulp t2
t1 wet pulp = 200C

 The air in flow and the wet pulp flow are in counter current flow direction in order to dry
the pulp efficiently.[2] So that, the LMTD can be calculated as:
T = LMTD = T1 - T2/ln ( T1/ T2)
= (100 - 30) - (30 - 20) / ln (100- 30) / (30 - 20)=304K
 The overall heat transfer coefficient will be determined as; a standard velocity of screen
conveyor dryer of 0.4m/sec to 6.5m/sec. so that, at a velocity of 0.5m/sec the overall heat
transfer coefficient of the air in flow is 10W/m2 K. since the area or heat transfer area of
the dryer will be:-
Q = U *A* LMTD
Where Q is amount of energy required to dry the pulp that gained or obtained from
energy balance of dryer.
A = Q/U * LMTD
= 2.14KW/ (10W/m2 K*304K)
= 0.7m2
 The length of the screen conveyor dryer can be calculated as:
A=L*h
L = A/h but, the length to height ratio of screen conveyor dryer is:
L: h; 1.3 to 1.8 that is, L/h = 1.3 to 1.8
L/h = 1.8
L = 1.8* h
 Heat transfer surface area become:-
A=L*h
= h * 1.8h = 1.8h2

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0.7m2 = 1.8h2
h = 0.624m is the height of screen conveyor dryer
 The length of the screen conveyor dryer becomes:-
L = 1.8h = 1.8 * 0.624m
= 1.233m
 Mechanical design of dryer
 The minimum thickness of screen belt conveyor dryer can be calculated as:
t = V/A, but volume of pulp will be determined as:
V = m/ρ
Given: - m =4.128 tonne/day
ρ pulp = ρ water + ρ dried banana stem/2
= 1000Kg/m3 + 150Kg/m3 /2
= 575Kg/m3
V =4.128 tons/day * 1000Kg/tons * 1day/86,400sec * 1sec /575Kg/m3by taking 1sec as a
basis. = 0.0000831m3
 The minimum thickness of the screen conveyor dryer with corrosion allowance is:
t = V/A = (0.0000831m3 /0.7m2) + 8.89mm = 9.01mm
 Determination of power required by the fan.
P = 2.72 * 10-5 * Q * Ƥ Where: Ƥ = fan operating pressure = 20cm water column
 Volumetric of the inlet air can be calculated as:
Q = (ṁ air * 22.4 * T/Mair * 298) m2 /hr hence air in let températures = 250C
= 3.88tonne/day * 22.4 * 293.15 * 1000Kg/24hr* 1day/tons/29 * 298.15 K
= 122.77m3 /hr
P = 2.72 * * 10-5 * Q * Ƥ
= 2.72 * 10-5 * 122.77m3 /hr * 20cm
= 0.0668KW
 Determine the power required by the exhaust fan:
P = 2.72 * 10-5 * Q * Ƥ
 Volumetric of the inlet air can be calculated as:
Q = (ṁ air * 22.4 * T/Mair * 298) m3 /hr hence air inlet temperature = 200C
= 3.88tons/day * 22.4 * 303.15 * 1000Kg/24hr * 1day/tons/29 * 293.15 K

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= 129.133m3 /hr
P = 2.72 * 10-5 * Q * Ƥ
= 2.72 * 10-5 * 129.133m3 /hr * 20cm
= 0.071KW
 Determination of diameter of the air inlet and outlet pip

Figure 6.6:- Inlet and Outlet Air Pipe Of Dryer.

 Inlet air pipe
Inlet temperature of air = 1000C = 373.15 K
 Volumetric of the outlet air can be calculated as:
Q = (ṁ air * 22.4 * T/M air * 298)
= 3.88tons/day * 22.4 * 373.15 * 1000Kg/tons * 1day/24hr/29 * 298
= 156.285m3/hr =0.044 m3/sec
 For the screen conveyor dryer there is a standard range of air flow velocity that is from
0.4m/sec up to 6.5m/sec while, assume that a velocity of air entering with 0.5m/sec
 The cross sectional area of the inlet air pipe will be:
Q= v *A
A = Q/v where v = velocity
= 0.044m3 /sec/0.5m/sec
= 0.086m2
 The diameter of inlet air pipe becomes:-
A = πD2 /4
D = √4*A/π π=0.331m
Out let air pipe Outlet temperature of air = 30 = 303.15 K
 Volumetric of the outlet air can be calculated as:
Q = (ṁ air * 22.4 * T/M air * 298)
= 3.88tons/day * 22.4 * 303.15 * 1000Kg/tons * 1day/86,400hr/29 * 298

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= 0.0353m3/sec
 The cross sectional area of the outlet air pipe will be:
Q= v *A
A = Q/v where v = velocity
= 0.0353m3 /sec/0.5m/sec
= 0.071m2
 The diameter of outlet air pipe becomes:-
A = πD2/4
D= √4*A/ π= π=0.3m.

6.1.4 Boiler system

 Boiler is a closed vessel in which for any purpose, steam is generated under pressure
greater than atmospheric pressure. Includes any economizer used to heat water fed to the
boiler, any super heater used for heating steam, and any pipes and fitting connected to the
equipment. The boiler system comprises of a feed water system, steam system and fuel
system. The feed water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically
to meet the steam demand. The steam system collects and controls the steam produced in
the boiler.
 Steam is directed through a piping system to the point of use. Steam pressure is regulated
using valves and checked with steam pressure gauges.
 The fuel system includes all equipment used to provide fuel to generate the necessary
heat. Nay plant cannot run without boiler because steam is the easiest way to supply heat
energy even it is difficult to produce.
There are several different chemical approaches used to treat boilers and their Selection
and performance Feed water characteristics.
 Some of these include
 Feed water characteristics.
 The type and reliability of external treatment.
 Boiler type.
 Boiler pressure and heat flux.
 Steam load and variations in load.

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 Water side condition of the boiler and current and long-term goals of
the program such as cleaning up scale or maintaining present
conditions.
 Steam purity requirements.
 Regulatory restrictions such as FDA requirements,
 other health and safety concerns, or process restrictions.
 Feed, testing, and control needs or restrictions.
 Economic considerations.
 Boiler room layout and number of boilers (8)
Types of Boiler
Boilers can be classified by several criteria such as:-
1. Utilization - is utilized to produce steam for electrical power generation. Normally have
large capacity, high steam parameters, and high boiler efficiency. There are two types of
boilers:
 Marine Boiler.
 Industrial Boiler.
2. Steam / Water Circulation.
 Natural Circulation Boiler
 Forced Multiple Circulation Boilers
 Once Though Boiler
 Combined Circulation Boiler
3. Pressure.
 Low to medium pressure (< 10 Bar)
 High pressure (10 – 14 Bar)
 Super high pressure boilers ( > 17 Bar)
 Supercritical pressure boilers (> 22.1 Bar)
4. Heat Source.
 Solid Fuel Fired Boiler
 Fuel Oil Fired Boiler
 Gas Fired Boiler
 Waste Heat Boiler

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5. Tube Layout.
 Fired Tube Boiler
 Water Tube Boiler
6. Boiler Layout.
 Type A
 Type B
 Type O
Advantage
 Cheaper than fuel heated boiler.
 Environmentally friendly
 Reduce installation cost.
 It is not more dangerous than would become unusable. Traditionally fire
heated boiler.
 Fit smaller areas because of their construction Way Requires low
maintenance cost.
Disadvantage
 Electric city price is expensive since
 Currently electric cost is rise.
 When the power is brown out the boiler would become unusable.
Electric Steam Boiler
It is a type of boiler where the steam is generated by using electricity rather than through a
combination of fuel source. They are more expensive to run than gas or oil fired boilers. Due to
their simplicity and easy to use they are popular which are run from three phase electric supply.
Electrical steam boiler convert electrical energy in to thermal energy with almost 100%
efficiency but the overall thermal efficiency is varying depending on the efficiency of electricity
generating (9) . Electric boiler generate steam by Joules heating principle that is when current
flow a resisting material creates resistance to the flow current and this resistance also convert
current flow in to heat and this heat boils the water. There are two types of electric steam boilers:
a) Electrode boiler.
b) Filament boiler

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a) Electrode boiler: - the resistor is the water itself. Two electrodes are installed in to water when
current flows from one electrode to another crossing the water, water resists the current flow
creating heat and this heat converts the water in to steam.
b) Filament boiler: - the coil of resistor is immersed in to water when power is on the coil begins
to heat up the water is converting to steam (7).
Process diagram of boiler

O2 CO2

Surplus Deaerator Boiler

River water steam
tank

Energy from heat exchanger

Figure 6.7:- Process Diagram of Boiler

Process Description of Boiler System
Sulphur tank: - is used to store fresh water that supplied for 24 hour as much as possible before
it is sending to dearator
Dearator unit: - the fresh water dissolved O2, CO2 and other gases which cause corrosion
problem when they feed to boiler with fresh water because as temperature increase the reactivity
of O2 increased thus, fresh water must be dearated (removal of O2 and CO2) before being feed to
boiler.
Dearation process can be accompanied by
 Mechanically.
 By adding of chemicals that react to O2.
 By heating fresh water at saturation temperature (up to 100 )
Boiler: - is the main unit where dearated water is converted to steam by electrical energy

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Steam Economy
 To calculate the amount of steam produced per second it is important to know the energy
consumed. So, 176.36KJ/sec and 2.14KJ/sec of energy is consumed in digester and air
heater respectively in the form of steam that is:
176.36 + 2.155=178.515KW
Then ṁs CPs ΔTS+ LW= ṁC CPCΔTC +
But  =W = L= 0
But, from energy balance
ṁL CPL ΔTL = 176.36KW ṁaCPaΔTa = 2.14KW
Total = 178.5
ṁs CPs ΔTS = 178.515KW
Specific heat capacity at 1500Cis
90 4.208KJ/ Kg K
137 4.285KJ/Kg K by extrapolating at150 = 4.3063KJ/Kg K
150 X
ΔTS = 150 – 90 = 60
CP average = 4.208 + 4.3063/2 = 4.257KJ/Kg K
ṁs * 4.257KJ/Kg K * 60K = 178.515KJ/sec
255.429 ṁs KJ/Kg = 178.515KJ/sec
ṁs = 178.515KJ/sec/298.62KJ/Kg
= 0.7Kg/sec steam is required.
Boiler Design
 Assuming the vaporized water or steam as an ideal gas the volume it will occupy will be
calculated using ideal gas equation as:
PV = nRT
V = n R T/P but n = ṁ/M while ṁ is in Kg/sec the gas occupies larger volume
Give 2 sec residence safety factor to calculate V.
m = ṁ * 2sec
= 0.7Kg/sec * 2se
= 1.4Kg then
n = 1.4Kg/18Kg/K mol

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= 78mol
V = nRT/P = 78mol * 8.34 * 423.15K/375074.4
= 0.734m3 whereas the boiler is considered as pressure vessel.
 So to determine the volume equipment 25% safety factor is taken.
VB (volume of boiler) = 0.734m3 + 0.25 * 0.734m3
= 1m3volume of boiler.
 For pressure vessels the H to D ratio ranges from 2 to 5 since,
A= D 2/4 * H
 take H/D ratio= 4horizontal pressure vessel because in Arba Minch there is no any earth
quick and wind pressure is low.
H= 5DThus, H/D = 4
VB = D2π /4 * 4D
= 12.56/4 * D3
D= π = 0.7m
Then H= 4* D = 4 * 1m = 2.8m
 The improved volume of boiler will be:-
VB = D2 π /4 * H
= π * 0.72 /4 * 2.8m
= 1.1m3

Figure 6.8:- External Part of Shell And Tube Heat Exchanger

 The whole boiler has cylindrical section and two hemispherical section By taking only
the cylindrical section and stretching the cylinder

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Figure 6.9:- Rectangular Section of Stretched Cylinder.

 Calculating the minimum thickness for cylindrical wall.
t = pi Di /2f j-Pi but the operating pressure of boiler is both hydrostatic pressure and vapor
pressure.
PV = 0.3750744MPa
P hy= ρ g h, but density is taken average at 90 and 150
Ρ average = 974.7kg/m3 + 994.7kg/m3 /2 = 984.7kg/m3
Thus, P hy = 984.7kg/m3 * 9.81m/sec2 * 2.8m = 0.27MPa
PT = PV+ P hy
= 0.3750744MPa + 0.27MPa
= 0.65MPa by taking 25% safety factor.
Pi=0.65 + 0.25 * 0.65MPa = 0.81MPa From cousin and Richard son volume 6 material
property table 6.2 The proof stress for stainless steel at 150 is 115MPa
 Taking 100% radiography, and types of joint = single welded joint but joint with bonding
strips. Joint factor = 0.9
Then t = Pi Di/2f j –Pi
= 0.81MPa * 0.7m/2*115MPa *0.9 – 0.81MPa
= 2.74mm
 The minimum thickness for pressure vessel having a diameter of 5mm and the material of
construction is carbon steel 0.15 inch of corrosion allowance is taken so:
t = 5 + 0.15 * 25.4
=6.61mm
= 10mm
 Then the volume of solid cylinder section is:-
V cy = L*π*t*H L = H - D
T r = 10mm = 0.01m

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= 2.1m * π *1m *0.01m

= 0.066m3 is the volume of cylindrical section
 Calculating for volume and thickness of the two hemispherical section,
 Hemispherical Closure selection
 The boiler has two hemispherical closure in both ends when come together full sphere
will be found

Figure 6.10:- Hemispherical Section of Heat Exchanger

So V sph = surface area * hemisphere
Surface area of hemisphere = 2 π R2 but, there are 2 hemisphere multiply by 2
V sph = 4 π R2 * t min
t = Pi Di/4f j–Pi = 0.81MPa * 0.7m/ (4*115MPa) – (1.2 *0.81) MPa
= 1.235mm
 The minimum thickness for pressure vessel having a diameter of 5mm and the material of
construction is carbon steel 0.15 inch of corrosion allowance is taken so:
t = 5 + 0.15 * 25.4
=10mm = 10mm
 Then the volume of hemisphere section is:-
V sph = 2 * 2 π R2 * t min
= 4 * π(0.35m)2* 0.01m
= 0.015386m2
 Total volume of solid boiler wall is;
V Tb = V cyl + V sph
= 0.066m3 + 0.015386m3
= 0.081m3
From the literature the density of carbon steel is 7850kg/m3

ρ carbon steel = m carbon steel/V carbon steel

m carbon steel= ρ carbon steel * V carbon steel
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= 7850kg/m3 * 0.081m3
= 638.88kg mass of carbon steel boiler ody (wall) is constructed
 Assuming that the water and the boiler are heated up nearly in the same time, Thus
\ṁ sB = 0.7Kg/sec
 Calculating the energy dissipated on the boiler wall.
Q wall = ṁs CPs ΔT this is energy lost or dissipated to heat the wall.
CPs = 0.502KJ/kg k
Q wall = 0.7Kg/sec * 0.502KJ/kg k * (150 - 20)K
= 45.68KJ/sec energy is required to heat the boiler wall in one second
QT = Q water + Q wall
= (827.47 + 45.86) KJ/sec
= 873.1KW is required to produce 0.7kg/sec water
 The energy used in the boiler is an electrical energy so it is obligatory to convert in to
volt since the electrical energy is found in volt from ELPA.
Then QT= V/R carbon steel (Cs)
R Cs= ƿ Cs * (L/AC) where R Cs= resistance of carbon steel to current flow.
Cs = resistivity of carbon steel in m= 1.25*10-6m
L= length of the resistor.
AC= area of the resistor
Ah T= QT/UΔT
Where: - U is over all heat transfer coefficient from liquid water heating nichrome coiled
vessel Without steering U ranges 500-1000W/m2 K = 500 + 1000/2 = 750W/m2 K
ΔT= 150 - 20= 130K
Then AhT = 873.1KW/750KW/m2
= 1.164m2 heat transfer area
Thus L= Ah T/ DC
Hence DC = D vessel /30
= 0.7m/30 = 0.0233m
L = 1.164m2 / * 0.0233m
= 49.88m length of coil
A coil = π*DC2 /4

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=π * 0.0233m2 /4
= 0.000426m2
So R Cs= ƿ Cs * (L/AC) m)
= (1.25*10-6 m* (49.88m/4.26*10-4m2))
= 0.146
Then QT= V2 /R carbon steel
V 2 = QT * R Cs
V=
V= 
= 11.29KV/sec

6.2. Equipment Sizing

1. Sizing for mixer
Mixer tank is mix NaOH, Na2Co3 and Na2S with water.
Made from carbon steel with a power of 289.488hpor 215.8Kw
2. Sizing for digester
Digester contains a cylindrical section in which applicable for digest died banana stem in
pulp production industry.
The volume of digester is 87.67m3 means that the volume of died banana stem and white
liquor. So by taking safety factor 10% calculated as;
V Digester = 36.66m3+ 0.1 * 36.66m3
= 40.326m3
3. Sizing diffuser washer;
The diffuser washer is the process tank. That is, the volume of the diffuser washer is
determined as the sum of the flow rate of water and pulp slurry. The volume of the water
is determined as;
V water = ṁ water/ƿ water
= 96tonne/day * 1000kg/tone/(1000kg/m3 )
=96m3 /day and by taking a base of one hours.
V water = 96m3 /day*1day/24hr*1hr = 4m3
 Similarity, the volume of the pulp slurry settled is determined as;

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V pulp slurry settled = ṁ pulp slurry settled/ƿ pulp slurry settled

= ṁ pulp slurry settled/ (ƿ died banana stem + VH2O)/2
=4.224tonne/day*1000kg/tone/(150kg/m3+2540kg/m3+2130kg/m3+1860kg/m3)
= 2.53m3 /day and by taking a base of one hour
V pulp slurry settled = 2.53m3 /day*1day/24hr*1hr = 0.11m3
 The total volume of the diffuser washer becomes
V = V water + V pulp slurry settled
= 4m3 +0.11m3 = 4.11m3
4. Sizing of screen conveyer dryer
Screen conveyer dryer is also the main unit operation that used to remove out the
moisture content of water. So that, the heat transfers area of the screen conveyor dryer is
0.7m2.
5. Sizing of water storage tank
It is vertical cylindrical tank
Water need for the white liquor of mixer is 96m3 /day
Water need for the diffuser washer to remove the black liquor is 12.08m3 /day.
For safety operation of storage of water with a safety factor of 10% and stored for 2 days.
Mixer:
VH2O = (96m3/day+96m3 /day*0.1) * 2
= 211.2m3
Washer:
VH2O = (12.08m3 /day+12.08m3 /day*0.1) * 2 = 13.3m3
6. Sizing of surplus tank
 To determining the volume of storage tank 10% safety factor is given.
V surplus tank = 0.1 * V water + V water = 16 + 0.1 * 16
=17.6m3volume surplus tank.
 Since in Arba Minch there is no any earth quick or heavy wind H/D ratio is equal to 1.2
H/D = 1.2 while, H = 1.2D
But, V surplus tank = πD2 .H/4
= π * D2*1.5 * D/4
= 0.6 * π * D3 /2

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D3 = 16m3 /0.3 * π
D= = 2.56m
And H = 1.2D
= 2.56m * 1.2 = 3m
7. Sizing for dearator
The dearator gains the energy to be heated up from the digester condensate because since
the dearator is batch once its temperature is raised to 120 the heating system leaves with
much of its energy so this energy should not be wasted rather used to dearator the fresh
water.
The dearator to be used on this process is heat exchanger through which steam is passed
through tube side and the gas venting system is installed on it.
 In let out let data:
Thin = 1200C (steam)
TC exit = 400C (condensate)
TC in = 20 0C(freshwater)
Th exit = 900C (dearated)
Given: - specific heat capacity of water at different temperature.
CP water 900C = 4.208KJ/Kg K
CPwater1200C = 4.273KJ/Kg K
CPwater 400C = CPwater 20 = 4.18KJ/Kg K
CPaverage200C = 4.24KJ/Kg K
 To calculate mass flow rate of cold or fresh water
Q hot = Q cold = ṁ C * CPC * ∆T c= 178.515KJ/sec
ṁ C * 4.24KJ/Kg * (90 - 20) K = 178.515KJ/sec
ṁ C = 998KJ/sec/293.6KJ/Kg = 0.7Kg/sec of cold water enter in the dearator but the vent
gases are in small amount (ppm) so the vent gases are neglected.
 Calculating area of heat exchanger or sizing the heat exchanger since the steam coming
from the digester may contain hot water that consists TRS which are very corrosive if the
heat exchanger is constructed by carbon steel so it constructed by stainless steel. Hence
universal heat transfer coefficient of stainless steel (U) is 680W/m2 K.

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So Q = U * A * ∆Tm
But, Tm = LMTD = ∆T1 - ∆T2/ln (∆T1/ ∆T2)
= 30 -20 / ln30/20
= 24.66K
 since the area or heat transfer area of the heat exchanger will be:-
Q = U *A* LMTD
A = Q/U * LMTD
= 178.515KW/ (680W/m2 K* 24.66 K)
=10.65 m2
8. Sizing for boiler
The electrical boiler has a capacity of 42 Kg/min
9. Sizing of pumps
9.1.Sizing of pump of water to mixer
The type of pump is centrifugal pump; because of it is not viscous, low pressure drop and
low velocity. So that, the volumetric flow rate of water is 96m3 /day. The pump capacity
of the water becomes
Capacity of pump = 96m3 /day*1day/24hr*1hr/60min*1000L/m3 *1gal/3.785L
= 17.6gpm
For safe operation of pumping add safety factor of 10%.
The capacity of pumping is becomes= 17.6gpm+0.1*17.6gpm = 19.36gpm
9.2.Sizing of pump of water to the diffuser washer
The type of pump is similar to that of pump of water to the mixer. So that, the volumetric
flow rate of water is 12.08 m3 /day. The pump capacity of the water becomes;
Capacity of pump = 12.08m3 /day*1day/24hr*1hr/60min*1000L/m3 *1gal/3.785L
= 2.22gp
 For safety operation of pump to drive the water, with a safety factor of 10%. So that,
Capacity of pump = 2.22gpm+2.22gpm*0.1 = 2.44gpm
9.3.Sizing of pump of mixer to digester
The type of pump is similar to that of the pump of water. So that, the volumetric flow rate
of the white liquor is determined as;
V white liquor=VH2O +V NaOH +VNa2S+VNa2CO3

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= VH2O+ṁNaOH/ρNaOH+ṁNa2S/ƿNa2S + ṁNa2CO3/ρNa2CO3
= 96m3 /day+7.1tone/day*1000kg/tons/
2130kg/m3+3.26tons/day*1860kg/tons *1860kg/m3 +1.72tone/day*2540kg/tons
V white liquor = 105.1m3/day
 The capacity of pump becomes
Capacity of pump = 105.1m3 /day*1day/24hr*1hr/60min*1000L/m3 *1gal/3.785L
= 19.28gpm with a safety factor of 10%.
Capacity of pump = 47.66gpm+0.1*47.66gpm = 52.43gpm
9.4.Sizing pump of boiler
In the boiler station there are three centrifugal pumps that feed water.
9.4.1. Sizing of pump transported to Surplus tank pump:
The first one is for pumping fresh water from river to surplus thank. The surplus tank has
total volume of105.6m3and 96 m3 volume of water within 6 hour filling time which is
equal to 360 minutes.
ύ = 96m3 /360minutes= 0.267m3 /minutes then convert into gpm unit.
1gal = 3.785Liters
Q1 = 0.267m3 /minutes * (1000L/1m3) *(1 gal/3.785L)
= 70.54 gpm giving 5% safety factor.
QPUMP1 = 70.54 + 0.05 * 70.54=74.1 gpm of pump is needed.
9.4.2. Sizing of pump from surplus tank to Dearator
The second pumps are used to pump the water from surplus tank to dearator that has
0.7Kg/sec mass flow rate of water so converting the mass flow rate in to volume flow
rate.
ὐ = 0.7Kg/sec/1000Kg/m 3
= 0.0007 m3 /sec converting to gpm
Q2= 0.0007m3 /sec * (1000L/1m3) *(1 gal/3.785L) * (60sec/1minutes)
= 11.1gpm giving 5% safety factor.
QPUMP 2 = 11.1+ 0.05 * 11.1
= 11.655gpm of pump is needed from surplus to dearator and dearator to boiler
9.4.3. Sizing of pump from dearator to boiler pump: this pump has the same capacity with
surplus tank to dearator which is 11.665gpm.

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10. Sizing of belt conveyor

10.1. Sizing of belt conveyor that transported to the digester
The belt conveyor that transported the dried banana to the digester with a mass flow rate
of 4.8ton/day.
 The volume of a dried banana per day is:
V dried banana = Mass/Density
= 4.8 ton/day/150 Kg/m3 = 32m3/day, but we take a base of 1hr.
=32 m3 /day*1 day/24 hr*1 hr = 1.33 m3
 The volume of a rectangular plate chain of a belt conveyor will be;
V = A*W, but the area of the rectangular plate chain is;
A = L*H and the length to height ratio becomes;
L/H = 2.5/1.6
H = 1.6*L/2.5, similarly the length to width ratio becomes;
L/W = 2 to 3.3
W = L/2.6, by substituting to the area and volume becomes
A = L*(1.6*L/2.5) and V = L*(1.6*L/2.5)*L/2.65= 0.24*L3
1.33 m3 = 0.24*L3
L3 = 5.54 m3
L = 1.77 m
The width becomes, W= L/2.65 = 1.77/2.65= 0.67 m
The height becomes, H= 1.6*L/2.5 = 1.6*1.77 m/2.5= 1.13m
 The area of a belt conveyor becomes;
A= L*H= 1.77m*1.13m
A= 2m3
10.2. Sizing of belt conveyor from washer to dryer
The belt conveyor is rectangular plate chain. So that, the mass flow rate of washed pulp
is4.128tons/day.
 Then, the volume of the washed pulp becomes;
V washed pulp = ṁ/ƿ = 4.128tons/day *1000kg/tons/ (ρ dried banana stem +ρH2O)/2
= 4.128tons/day*1000 kg /1 tons / (150kg/m3 +1000kg/m3)/2
= 7.18m3 /day

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By a base of one hour, the volume of washed pulp becomes

V = 7.18m3 /day*1day/24hr
= 0.3m3
 The volume of a rectangular plate chain becomes
V = A*w, but A = L*h and also that
L/h = 2.5/1.6
L = 1.5625h
h = 1.6/2.5L and L/w = 2 to 3.3 hence L/w =2.65
w = L/2.65
 The area and volume of the rectangular plate chain becomes
A = L*h
= L*1.6L/2.5
= 1.6L2 /2.5
V = A*w
= 1.6L2/2.5*L/2.65
0.3m= 0.24L3
L= = 1.075m
The width, w = 0.41m
The area of a rectangular plate chain, h = 0.69m so, the area of rectangular plate chain
becomes;
A = L*h = 1.075m*0.69m = 0.74m2
10.3. Sizing of belt conveyor from dryer to store house
The mass flow rate of a dried pulp is 24.57536tonne/day.
 The volumetric flow rate of the dried pulp is;
V dried pulp = ṁ dried pulp/ρ dried pulp, but dried pulp contain 10% moisture content (H2O).
= 3.048tons/day*1000kg/tons/ (150kg/m3 +1000kg/m3 /2) by taking a base of
one hour
= 0.221m3
The volume of rectangular plate chain becomes;
V = A*W and W = L/2.65, h = 1.6L/2.5, but A = L*h
= L*h*W

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= L*1.6L/2.5*L/2.65
V = 0.221m3 = 0.242L3 L = 1m
W = L/2.65= 1m/2.65 = 0.377m
h = 1.6L/2.5 = 0.64m
The area of the rectangular plate chains becomes
A = h*L = 0.64m*1m = 0.64m2
Paper Moulding Machine =3.918/4=1/30=0.033m3
Packaging =3.048 /4=0.762/30=0.0254m3
Storage = 7m2
Table 6.1:- Size of Equipment
Number Equipment name Size of equipment
1 Mixer 1184.62hp
2 Digester 36.66m3
3 Diffuser washer 4.11 m3
4 Screen conveyor dryer 0.37 m2
5 Water storage tank for mixer 211.2m3
6 Water storage tank for diffuser washer 13.3 m3
7 Surplus tank 16 m3
8 Deaerator 10.65 m2
9 Boiler 42kg/min
10 Centrifugal pump water to mixer 19.36gpm
11 Centrifugal pump water to diffuser 2.44gpm
washer
12 Centrifugal pump from mixer to 52.43gpm
digester
13 Centrifugal pump transported to 74.1gpm
surplus tank
14 Centrifugal pump from surplus tank to 11.655gpm
deaerator
15 Centrifugal pump from deaerator to 11.655gm

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boiler
16 Belt conveyor transported to digester L=1.77m
W=0.67m
H=1.13
17 Belt conveyor from diffuser washer to L=1.075m
dryer W=0.41m
H=0.69m
18 Belt conveyor from dryer to store L=1m
house W=0.37m
H=0.64m
19 Paper Moulding Machine 0.033m3
20 Packaging 0.0254 m3
21 Storage 7 m3

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Chapter Seven
7. Cost Analysis and Economic Evaluation
7.1. Purchased Equipment Cost
1. Cost of mixer: from table 6.2 in the middle of 2004 Coulson and Richardson.
Type propeller
The mixer has 1184.62hp which is greater than the range of our data so, we need to use
maximum of our data range
Cost in 2004
Cost index----------1900
Index----------0.5
Then the purchased equipment cost (Ce) is calculated as;
Ce = C S n
Where C e = purchased equipment cost, ETB
S = characteristic size parameter; in the unit given in table6.2
C = cost constant from table6.2
n = index for that type of equipment. 1hp = 0.7455Kw
1184.62hp = X
X =1184.62hp*0.7455Kw/1hp
X = 883.1342Kw
Which is out of range due to this reason and need to use maximum range of the data =
75Kw Then purchased equipment cost (Ce) is calculated as
Ce = C Sn = 1900*750.5
= 16,454.48$ purchased cost in 2004G.C. But the purchased cost in 2016G.C
Cost in 2016 = cost in 2004 * index in 2017/index in 2004
Year cost index
2003---------------------------------------108
2004---------------------------------------112 by extrapolating index of 2016 =
160
2017---------------------------------------X
The cost in 2017 = 16,454.48$*160/112= 23,506.4$

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Convert to the ETB

1$ = 21.1612ETB
Mixer cost = 23,506.4$*23ETB = 540,647.2ETB
2. Cost of digester: from table 6.2 in the middle of 2004 G.C.
Type = constructed from
steel Size = 36.66m3
Purchased digester cost in 2004=2400$
But, the size range = 1-50 so, it need to use the maximum size from the range
Size index = 2400$
Index = 0.6
Ce = C*Sn
= 2400$*(36.66)0.6
= 20,831.79$
Purchased digester cost in 2004 20,831.79$. But the purchased cost in 2017 computed as;
The cost from processing engineering is:
Year cost index
2003---------------------------108
2004---------------------------112 by extrapolating index of 2016 = 160
2017--------------------------X
The cost in 2017 = cost in 2004*cost index 2017/cost index 2004
= 20,831.79$*160/112 = 29,759.7$
= 29,759.7$*23.ETB/1$
= 684,473.3ETB
3. Cost of diffuser washer:
Size of diffuser washer is 7.55m3 cost = 2400
Size range 1-50 index = 0.6
Purchased equipment cost in 2004G.C
Ce = C Sn
= 2400$*(4.11)0.6
Cost in 2004 = 5,604.23$ and cost in 2016 can be calculated as
Cost in 2016 = cost in 2004*cost index 2016/cost index 2004

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The cost index from processing Engineering:-

Year cost index
2003--------------------------------108
2014--------------------------------112 by extrapolating cost index in 2016 = 160
2016-------------------------------X
Cost in 2016 = 5,604.23$*160/112
=$
Convert into ETB
Cost in 2018 = 8006.1$*23ETB/1$
= 184,139.142ETB
3. Cost of screen conveyor dryer:
The area of the screen conveyor dryer is 0.37m2 or 4 ft2.
From the Appendix 1, Equipment Cost Estimates, the cost in 1987 G.C. can be
determined by extrapolating
Area (ft2) Purchased Cost ($)*1000
5,000 160
6,000 170 by extrapolating the cost in 1987= 110,431$
4 x
 To an early of 1987, to a Chemical Engineering, the index number is 320. N.B:
Neglecting the negative sign of index for ease of calculation and interpolation.
Year Index
1987 320
2004 112
2017 y
Y= 47.0588
The cost in 2017 becomes Cost in 2017= cost in 1987*Cost index in 2017/cost index in
1987
= 110,431$*47.0588/320
= 16,239.84$*23ETB/$
= 373,516.43ETB

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5. Cost of water storage tank: from table 6.2 in the middle of 2004G.C storage tank
floating roof.
Size =13.3m3 Cost = 4350$
Size range = 50-8000 Index = 0.55
Purchased equipment cost of water tank in 2004G.C is
Ce = C Sn
= 4350$*(13.3)0.55
= 18,055.422$
The purchased cost of water storage tank in 2017 is
Cost in 2017 = cost in 2004*cost index 2017/cost index 2004
= 18,055.422$*160/112
= 25,793.46$
=593,249.6ETB
6. Cost of surplus tank: - surplus tank is a vertical process tank constructed from carbon
steel at m3 capacity with a size range of 50-800m3.
Purchased equipment cost is calculated as: -
Ce = C Sn
Cost in 2004→4350$
Size index→0.55
C2004= 4350 * (16)0.55= 19,987.35$
Cost in 2017= cost in 2004*index in 2017/index in 2004
Year cost index
2003--------------108
2004--------------112 by extrapolating cost index of 2017= 60
2017--------------X
C2017 = 19,987.35$* 60/112 = 10,707.5$
Surplus tank cost =30,229.96$*23ETB/1$
= 246,272.7ETB
7. Cost of dearator:-the dearator is shell and tube type equipment in order to prevent
corrosion water is in the shell side. The heat transfer area of a dearator is 10.65m2

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(114.754ft2 ) From table 6.2 Coulson and Richardson in the middle of 2004 the purchased
equipment cost for this heat transfer area will be obtained by interpolation method.
Area (m2 ) purchased cost ($)
10.65-----------X by interpolating cost in 2002= 15,650$
50-----------55,000
60---------65,000
C2017= C2002*cost index in 2017/cost index in 2002
From Coulson and rechared son process engineering figure the index in 2002 is 106 and
in 2017 it is 151 (found by extrapolate)
Then C2017 = 15,650$* 112/106 =16,535$
Dearator cost = 16,535$*23ETB/1$
= 380,324ETB
8. Cost of boiler: - the capacity of electrical boiler is 2520kg/hr (5563ib/hr). From
Kostnads data process utrustning in 2002 the purchased equipment cost for this heat
transfer area will be obtained by extrapolation method.
Capacity (ib/hr) purchased cost ($)
50,000-----------200,000
5563------------------X by extrapolating cost in 2002= 88,907.5$
10,000------------100,000
C2017= C2002*cost index in 2017/cost index in 2002
From Coulson and rechared son process engineering figure the index in 2002 is 106 and
in 2017 it is 151(found by extrapolate)
Then C2017=88,907.5$* 151/106 =126,651.25$
Boiler cost= 126,651.25$*23ETB/1$
=2,912,978.75ETB
The total purchased equipment cost for the main unit operations will be the sum of the
purchased equipment cost of each unit operation. That is:-
 Total purchased equipment cost is:-
(540647.2ETB+1,368,946.6ETB+188,741.45ETB+373,516.43ETB+2,714,567.877ETB+
593,249.6ETB +695,289.18ETB+512,758.96ETB+2,912,978.75 ETB )
=9,900,696.05ETB

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Cost of pump: the type of pump is centrifugal pump; because of it is not viscous, low pressure
drop and low flow velocity
Pump-1: for the mixer to be pump or drive the water with a capacity of 19.36gpm.
The pump purchased cost from Kostnads data process utrustning in 2002 is;
Capacity (gpm) purchased cost ($)
10--------------------------------------3000
19.6---------------------------------------X by interpolating the cost in 2002 = 3,106.67$
100---------------------------------------4000
The cost in 2016 becomes Cost in 2016 = cost in 2002*cost index 2016/cost index 2002
=3,106.67$*151/106
= 4,425.55$
=101,787.567ETB
Pump-2: for the white liquor with a capacity of 2.44gpm.
The pump purchased cost from Kostnads data process utrustning in 2002 is
Capacity (gpm) purchased cost ($)
2.44---------------------------------------X by interpolating the cost in 2002 = 2,915.3$
10--------------------------------------3000
100---------------------------------------4000
From Coulson and Richardson, process engineering figure, the index in 2002 is 106 and
in 2017 it is 151 (found by interpolating)
Cost in 2017 = cost in 2002*cost index 2017/cost index 2002
= 2,915.3$*151/106
= 4,152.927$
=95,517.34ETB
Pump-3: to drive the water to the washer with a capacity of 18.4gpm.
The pump purchased cost from Kostnads data process utrustning in 2002 is;
Capacity (gpm) purchased cost ($)
10--------------------------------------3000
52.43---------------------------------------X by interpolating the cost in 2002 = 3,471.44$
100---------------------------------------4000
The cost in 2017 becomes

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Cost in 2017 = cost in 2002*cost index 2017/cost index 2002

= 3,471.44$*151/106
= 4,945.17$
=113,738.93ETB
Pump-4: to drive the digested wood chips with a capacity of 74.1gpm.
The pump purchased cost from Kostnads data process utrustning in 2002 is;
Capacity (gpm) purchased cost ($)
10--------------------------------------3000
74.1---------------------------------------X by interpolating the cost in 2002 = 4,287.77$
100---------------------------------------4000
The cost in 2017 becomes
Cost in 2017 = cost in 2002*cost index 2017/cost index 2002
= 4,287.77$*151/106
= 6,108.06*23$
=140,485.39ETB
Pump-5: to drive the pulp to the washer with a capacity of 11.655gpm.
The pump purchased cost from Kostnads data process utrustning in 2002 is;
Capacity (gpm) purchased cost ($)
10--------------------------------------3000
11.655-----------------------------------X by interpolating the cost in 2002 = 3,018.39$
100---------------------------------------400
The cost in 2017 becomes
Cost in 2017 = cost in 2002*cost index 2017/cost index 2002
= 3,018.39$*151/106
= 4,299.78*23$
=98,894.985ETB
Pump-6: - from dearator to boiler which has the same capacity with the second pump so that
cost in 2017 becomes 98,894.985ETB.
Notice: - All pumps are centrifugal pumps which constructed from carbon steel while,
each pumps were required one pump as a reserve.
Therefore, the total purchased cost for centrifugal pump is the sum of each pump. So that;

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(101,787.567ETB+95,517.34ETB+113,738.93ETB+140,485.39ETB+98,894.985ETB+9
8,894.985ETB)
=649,319.192ETB
10. Cost of belt conveyor
10.1. Cost of belt conveyor to digester:
The length of a belt conveyor is 1.77m and the width of a belt conveyor is 0.67m . From
table of 6.2, Coulson and Richardson, vol.6
Size= 1.77m
Size range= 2-40 Cost in $= 2900 Index= 0.75 but the size is out the range so
we take the lower range that is 2m
The purchased cost of a belt conveyor that transported to the digester process in mid-
2004 G.C.
Ce= C Sn= 2900$*20.75
=4,877.199 $
The cost in 2017 becomes
Cost in 2017= Cost in 2004*Cost index in 2017/Cost index in 2004
= 4,877.199 $*160/112
= 6,967.42 $*23 ETB/$
= 160,250.83 ETB.
10.2. Cost of belt conveyor from the washer to dryer:
The width of a belt conveyor is 0.75m and approximate to 1m wide. From the table 6.2.
Size =1.075m Cost = 2900$
Size range = 2-40 Index = 0.75
But the size is out of the range so we take the lower range that is 2m
Purchased equipment cost of water tank in 2004G.C is
Ce = CSn
= 2900$*(2)0.75
= 4,877.199$
The purchased cost of belt conveyor in 2016 is
Cost in 2017 = cost in 2004*cost index 2017/cost index 2004
= 5,325.86$*160/112

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= 6,967.42$
= 6,967.42*23ETB= 160,250.83ETB
10.3. Cost of belt conveyor from the dryer to store house:
The width of a belt conveyor is 0.67m and approximate to 1m wide. From the table 6.2.
Size =2m Cost = 2900$
Size range = 2-40 Index = 0.75
Purchased equipment cost of a belt conveyor in mid 2004G.C is
Ce = CSn
= 2900$*(2)0.75
= 4,877.2$
The purchased cost of belt conveyor in 2017 is
Cost in 2017 = cost in 2004*cost index 2017/cost index 2004
= 4,877.2$*160/112
= 6,967.43$
=160,250.83ETB
Notice: each belt conveyor was required one reserve belt conveyor.
Therefore, the total purchased cost of belt conveyor needs one reservoir conveyor so that
= 2[160,250.83 ETB+160,250.83ETB+160,250.83ETB]
= 961,504.98ETB
Hence, the total purchased equipment cost is the sum of purchased equipment cost of
each unit operation, each pump and each belt conveyor.
= 16,581,031.79+1,588,925.32+965,481.36
= 19,135,438.47ETB
Table 7.1:- Purchased Cost of Each Equipment
Equipment Number of equipment Purchased cost(ETB)
Water storage tank 2 1,886,499.2
Mixer 1 540,647.2
Digester 2 684,473.3
Diffuser 1 184,139.142
Dryer 1 373,516.43
Surplus Tank 1 695,289.18

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Deaerator 1 512,758.96
Boiler 1 2,912,978.75
Belt Conveyor 3 480,752.49
Pump 6 649,319.192
Paper Moulding Machine 1 505,647
Packaging 1 585,120
Storage 1 792,560
Total 10,434,786.72

7.2. Estimation of Total Capital Investment

Direct cost; material and labour involved in actual installation of complete facility (70-
85% of fixed capital investment) Purchased equipment cost = 15-40% of fixed capital
investment
PEC= FCI /40%
FCI = PEC /40%
=10,434,786.72/ 0.4
= 26,086,966.8ETB
Table 7.2:- Total Direct Cost
No Item Range Percentage (%) Cost in ETB
1 Purchased equipment cost 15-40 40 FCI 10,434,786.72
2 Installation cost 3-20 3 FCI 782,609
3 Instrumentation and control 2-8 2 FCI 521,739.336
cost
4 Piping 3-20 3 FCI 782,609
5 Electrical (installed) 2-10 2 FCI 521,739.336
6 Building(including service) 3-18 3 FCI 782,609
7 Yard 2-5 2FCI 521,739.336
8 Service facility 8-20 8 FCI 2,086,957.344
9 Land 1-2 1 FCI 260,869.668

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Total Direct Cost 16,695,658.74

Indirect cost: expense which are not directly involved with material and labour of actual
installation of complete facility (15-30% of fixed capital investment).
Table7.3:- Total Indirect Cost
No Item Range Percentage (%) Cost in ETB
1 Engineering and 4-21 5 FCI 1,514,640.54
supervision
2 construction expense 4-16 4FCI 1,211,712.431
3 Contractor fee 2-6 3FCI 908,784.3234
4 Contingency 5-15 7FCI 2,120,496.755
Total Indirect Cost 5,375,634.05
 Fixed cost is the sum of the total direct and indirect cost. That is,
FCI = DC+IC = (16,695,658.74+3,912,045.02) ETB
FCI= 20,607,703.76ETB is fixed capital investment
Total capital investment is the sum of the fixed capital investment and working capital
investment. That is;
TCI= FCI +WC………..equation (1)
But, working capital is 10% of the total capital investment. That is;
WC = 10%TCI
WC = 0.1TCI………equation (2) Substituting into equation (1)
TCI =FCI +0.1TCI
TCI-0.1TCI = FCI
0.9TCI = FCI
TCI= FCI/0.9 =20,607,703.76ETB/0.9
TCI =22,897,448.62ETB
Then, working capital is;
WC =0.1TCI = 0.1* 22,897,448.62ETB
WC =2,289,744.862ETB

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7.3. Estimation of Total Product Cost

Total Product Cost = Manufacturing Cost + General Expense
1. Manufacturing Cost
1.1. Fixed Charges (FC)
A. Depreciation: is 10% of fixed capital investment for machinery and equipment‟s and
2-3 % of building value of fixed capital investment.
DP = (10%FCI +2%FCI)
= (0.1*20,607,703.76+0.02*20,607,703.76) ETB
DP = 2,472,924.751ETB
Then, the value of salvage value calculated from DP = (V-VS)/n,
VS =V-DP*n, where n is the project life i.e. n=10 years
VS =22,897,448.62–2,472,924.751*10
VS = 1,831,798.892ETB
B. Local tax: (1-4% fixed capital investment)
=1% FCI was taken,
=0.01*20,607,703.76ETB
=206,077.0376ETB
C. Insurance: (0.4-1% of fixed capital investment)
= 0.5% FCI
= 0.005*20,607,703.76ETB= 103,038.52ETB
D. Rent (8-12% of the value of rented land and buildings)
= 8% rented land and buildings
= 0.08*1,043,478.668ETB = 83,478.29344ETB
Therefore, the fixed charges are the sum of the depreciation, local tax, insurance and rent.
FC =DP +LT+INSU + R
= (2,472,924.751+206,077.0376+103,038.52+83,478.29) ETB
FC= 2,865,518.6ETB
Therefore, the total product cost can be calculated from fixed charges Fixed Charges =
10-20% of
Total Product Cost FC = 10%*TPC
FC = 0.1*TPC

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TPC = FC/0.1 =2,865,518.6/0.1

TPC = 28,655,186ETB
a. Direct production costs (about 60% of total product cost)
i. Raw material cost (10-50% of Total Product Cost)
=10% of Total Product Cost
=0.1*28,655,186ETB=2,865,518.6ETB
ii. Operating labour (10-20% of Total Product Cost)
=10% of Total Product Cost is taken
=0.1*28,655,186ETB =2,865,518.6ETB
iii. Utilities (10-20% of Total Product Cost)
= 10% of Total Product Cost
= 0.1*28,655,186ETB= 2,865,518.6ETB
iv. Maintenance and Repairs (2-10% of Fixed Capital Investment)
=4% of FCI
= 0.04*2,865,518.6ETB = 114,620.744ETB
Direct production cost is the sum of the
DPC = RMC +OPC +UC+MRC
= (2,865,518.6+2,865,518.6+2,865,518.6+114,620.744) ETB
DPC = 8,711,176.544ETB
b. Plant Over Head Cost (50-70% of cost for operating labor, supervision and maintenance
or 5-15% of total product cost)
= 10% Total Product Cost
= 0.1* = 0.1*28,655,186ETB = 2,865,518.6ETB
 Therefore, the manufacturing cost is the sum of the direct production cost (DPC), fixed
charge (FC) and Plant Overhead Cost (POHC)
That is MC = DPC +FC +POHC
= (8,711,176.544+2,865,518.6+2,865,518.6) ETB = 14,442,215.74ETB
1.4. General Expenses
1.4.1. Administrative costs (about 15% of cost for operating labor, supervision and
maintenance or 2-6% of Total Product Cost)
= 2% of Total Product Cost

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= 0.02*TPC = 0.02*28,655,186ETB=573,103.72 ETB

1.4.2. Distribution and selling costs (2-20% of Total Product Cost)
= 4% of Total Product Cost
= 0.04*TPC
= 0.04*28,655,186ETB = 1,146,207.44ETB
1.4.3. Research and development cost (about 5% of Total Product Cost)
=5% of Total Product Cost
=0.05*TPC
=0.05*28,655,186ETB = 1,432,759.3ETB
 Therefore, the general expense is the sum of the administrative cost, distribution and
selling cost and research and development cost.
GE=AC + D&SC + R&DC
= (573,103.72+1,146,207.44+1,432,759.3) ETB = 3,152,070.46ETB
 Then, the Total Product Cost is the sum of the manufacturing cost and general expense.
TPC = MC+GE
= (14,442,215.74+3,152,070.46) ETB =17,594,286.2ETB
Table7.4:-Total Capital Investment and Total Product Cost.
Parameters Estimated cost (ETB)
Direct Cost 16,695,658.74
Indirect Cost 5,375,634.05
Fixed Cost 20,607,703.76
Working Capital 2,289,744.862
Total Capital Investment 22,897,448.62
Direct Product Cost 8,711,176.544
Plant Over Head Cost 2,865,518.6
Manufacturing Cost 14,442,215.74
General Expense 3,152,070.46
Total Product Cost 17,594,286.2

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7.4. Economic Analysis

Gross earning cost is calculated as;
GEC = Total Income - Total Product Cost
But, Total Income = capacity*selling price, but the working day per year is 320day
=3ton/day*320 day/year*900$/ton*23ETB/$
= 19,872,000ETB/year
By taking a base of 1 year, the total income become
Total Income =19,872,000ETB
Gross earning cost = (19,872,000–17,594,286.2) ETB
= 2,277,713.8ETB
The Net gross earning cost can be calculated as;
NGEC = GEC*(1-Income tax)
In most area of Ethiopia the income tax is taken as 0.35 to the official government. Then,
NGEC = 2,277,713.8ETB*(1-0.35)
=1,480,513.97 ETB
Payback period calculation
First, we calculate the payback reference in order to know the project is feasible or not
feasible. That is
Payback reference (PB ref):
PB ref = (Fixed Capital Investment/Total Capital Investment)/Interest rate + (Fixed
Capital Investment/Total Capital Investment/Life of the project)
PB ref = FCI/TCI/I + (FCI/TCI/n)
But, the life of the project is 10 years and the interest rate is taken as 15%.

=20,607,703.76ETB/2,289,744.86ETB/0.15+(20,607,703.76ETB/2,289,744.86ETB/10ye
ars)
PB ref = 0.899999999/0.15 + (0.899999999/9) = 7year
 So that, the payback period of the project will be;
= Fixed Capital Investment/Net Gross Earning Cost + Depreciation
= FCI/NGEC+DP
PBP = 20,607,703.76ETB/ (1,480,513.97+2,472,924.751) ETB/year

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= 5.2 year = 5year+2 mouth+12day

Therefore, the payback period of the project is less than the payback period of reference,
hence the project is feasible.
Breakeven point (volume)
 Breakeven point is the production volume at which there is no loss or profit. At this point,
any revenue obtained will be sufficient to cover only the fixed capital investment. It can
be calculated as follow as:
BEV (Q) = Total Product Cost/Selling price
= 28,655,186ETB/year/900 $/ton*23 ETB/$ = 732,299.2 ton/year
 Rate of Return calculation Rate of return (ROR) = Net Gross Earning Cost/Total Capital
Investment*100% = 1,480,513.97ETB/2,289,744.86ETB*100% = 64.66%
 Cash Flow calculation Cash Flow (CF) = Net Gross Earning Cost + Depreciation
=1,480,513.97ETB/year +2,472,924.751ETB/year
= 3,953,438.721ETB/year
 Net Present value calculation Net present worth = Annual Present worth – Total Capital
Investment
But, annual present worth (APW) = CF*[(1+i)n - 1]/i (1+i)n
Where, CF = cash flow per year
APW=annual present worth
n = service life of the project
i = interest (15%)
That, the APW = 3,953,438.721ETB/year*[(1+0.15)10 - 1]/0.15*(1+0.15)10
=19,837,760.66ETB/year
 The net present value becomes
NPV = APW-TCI
= (19,837,760.66–2,289,744.86) ETB/year = 17,548,015.8ETB/year
Profitability index calculation
PI = NPV/TCI
=17,548,015.8ETB/year/2,289,744.86ETB/year = 7.66
From this, the net present value is positive so that, it is feasible and acceptable.
 Determination of internal rate of return (IRR)

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= CF [(1+i1 )n -1]/i1 (1+i1 )n

Where, i1 = internal rate of return
= Total Capital Investment
CF [(1+i1 ) n -1]/i1 *(1+i1 ) n = TCI
3,953,438.72ETB/year [(1+i 1)10 -1]/i1 *(1+i1) 10 = 22,897,448.62ETB/year
 This formula used for determining an internal rate of return, but difficult to solve hence we
use the method of iterating the equation.
[(1+i ) 10-1]/i1 (1+i) 10 = 5.8
Iterate between a number of 0.05 and 0.12 that makes the NPV becomes zero.

i result
0.05 7.7217
0.06 7.360087
0.07 7.02358
0.08 6.71008
0.09 6.41765
0.1 6.14456
0.11 5.88923
0.115 5.76777
0.12 5.65022

Therefore, IRR = 11.5% so that, it is feasible and acceptable

.

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Table 7.5:- Man Power Requirement and Labor Cost

Sr.no Man power (profession) Required no Monthly Annual
salary(ETB) salary(ETB)
1 General manager 1 15,000 180,000
2 Administrative head 1 10,000 120,000
3 Finance head 1 10,000 120,000
4 Account 2 7,000 168,000

5 Secretary 3 4,000 144,000

6 Sales men 2 5,000 120,000
7 Purchasing 2 5,000 120,000
8 Production head 2 8,000 192,000
9 Supervision 2 8,000 192,000
10 Operators 5 5,000 300,000
11 Laboratory 5 5,000 300,000
12 Drivers 4 4,000 192,000
13 guards(company police) 2 4,000 96,000
Sub-total 32 90,000 2,244,000
Benefit (10%) - 9,000 224,400
Total 32 99,000 2,468,400

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Chapter Seven
7. Site Location and Environmental Concerns of Pulping
7.1 Site location
The location site for our plant is selected to be around Arbaminch because of the following
reasons
 Easily availability of raw material (banana tree waste) Since Arbaminch is one of the
first largest producers of banana.
 It is estimated that banana from Arba Minch has more than 80% of the market share in
Ethiopia and 40% of the market share in Addis Ababa.
 Consumers in Addis Ababa, Hawassa, Adama, Shashemene, Bahir Dar and other major
towns prefer bananas from ArbaMinch for its good taste. ArbaMinch is also an important
source of banana suckers for many other parts of the country.
 Relative to other regions of the country, there is high availability of ground water
resource
 Good infrastructure, high availability and low cost of labour force.
 Low land cost relative to other regions of the country.

7.2 Environmental Impacts

The major negative environmental impacts of the project include the black liquor from Digestion
process, unless it is treated (recover chemicals for reuse in the pulping process).During the
manufacturing activities of the pulp there is also a generation of wastewater. This will have an
adverse effect on the environment.
The principal air emissions in pulp production consist of process gases which vary by type of
pulping process and which may include sulphur compounds (with associated odour issues),
particulate matter, volatile organic compounds, chlorine, carbon dioxide, and methane.
The Positive impact of the project is since our raw material is banana tree waste, in banana
plantations, after the fruits are harvested, the trunks or stems will be wasted. Billion tons of stem
and leave wastes are thrown away annually. Banana trees fruit once in their live. After 47
harvesting, the banana stem is considered as a waste material. Improper disposal can pose a
problem for the environment.

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The waste causes emission of toxic gases including CO2 and also gives growth to the harmful
fungi which attacked remaining banana trees. Therefore, it makes sense to turn such waste into a
useful product like pulp by using the concept “from waste to wealth”.

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Chapter Eight
8. Conclusion and Recommendation
8.1 Conclusion
From this project, it can be concluded that banana fiber is a potential raw material for making
pulp. And comparing the two processes (i.e. Soda and kraft) though Soda processes require only
one chemical but in large amounts to effectively break the lignin bonds.
Kraft process requires fewer amounts of different chemicals and also helps in complete lignin
molecule breakage. From this we can conclude that Kraft process is more advantageous. In terms
of heat requirement Kraft process is more advantage, because the cooking liquor is able to break
and dissolve the lignin in it. Soda process is supplied with heat for one hour more and still the
cooking liquor could not effectively digest the lignin.
In General from this project we conclude that Banana stem which is currently wasted after
harvesting fruits is good cellulosic source and is a good raw material for Pulp and paper making
industry. This waste is also causes environmental pollution. Thus the utilization of waste banana
stem helps us to save our forest and decrease environmental issues.
When we compare the soda process and the Kraft process: Product obtained after washing with
water was compared in both the processes. The pulp obtained in Kraft process was less dark in
colour than pulp obtained in soda process. The pulp obtained after bleaching was observed and
found that Kraft pulp was whiter in colour compared to soda process, as bleaching agent required
breaking the traces of lignin was more in soda process than Kraft process. The soda process has
the yield of 0.475 and the moisture content is 60.42% with the consistency of 39.54%.The kraft
process has the yield of 0.575 and the moisture content is 52.94 % with the consistency of
45.1%. Kraft’s process consists of strong cooking liquor which can break the lignin more
effectively. Where, as soda process consist of weak cooking liquor. Because of this reason we
can find the traces lignin was more in Soda process than Kraft process. So we can conclude that
the Kraft process more advantageous than that of soda process. The optimum production of pulp
was 72.25% at 13.5% white liquor concentration for the cooking time of 4:30 hours, and also the
maximum mass of pulp was 72.25% at the cooking time of 4:30 minutes with 13.5% white liquor
concentration and the minimum mass was obtained 52.5% at minimum concentration (12.5%)
and minimum time (5 hour). From those results, to determine material balance and energy

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balance as well as to design and size equipments the optimum pulp production process is more
efficient than that of the other conditions.

8.2 Recommendation
 During this project we have faced a lot of challenges that affects our laboratory results
like there was insufficient laboratory equipment( like Chopper, flask, filter, Visco
meter…..),Chemical(Chlorine for bleaching), Using wood as raw material for the
manufacturing of pulp and paper production causes deforestation so using non wood
materials like banana tree waste is a good choice in terms of decreasing deforestation.
 The black liquor from the digestion process causes environmental problems so by
recovering Chemicals like NaOH from the process we can decrease the environmental
impacts.
 This project can be an initial idea to do further detailed researches. So by applying the
project on ground and establishing pulp producing factories in our country. We can Save
foreign currency and create Job opportunities.
 The Banana tree waste can be used as an alternative raw material for production of paper
in Ethiopian pulp and paper factory.
 The use of renewable agricultural by products for pulp production as non-wood cellulosic
fibres would be great advantage for countries with limited wood forests, and would
increase the profit of farmers in developing countries.

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Reference
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Appendix
Pictures for Experiment
Experiment 1: Soda and Kraft pulping

Appendix

banana stem mixing and digesting

Washing and Filtration

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Wet pulp Dried Pulp

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