7

CONVECTION

Course Contents
7.1 Introduction to Convection
7.2 Newton-Rikhman Law
7.3 Free and Forced Convection
7.4 Dimensional Analysis
7.5 Dimensionless Numbers &
Their Physical Significance
7.6 Dimensional Analysis Applied
to Forced Convection
7.7 Dimensional Analysis Applied
to Free Convection
7.8 Empirical Co-relations for Free
& Forced Convection
7.9 Thermal and Hydrodynamic
Boundary Layer
7.10 Derivation of Differential
Convection Equations
A. Continuity Equation
B. Momentum Equation
C. Energy Equation
7.11 Von-Karman Integral
Momentum Equation
7.12 Solution for Velocity Boundary
Layer
7.13 Solved Numerical
7.14 References

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 7.1
7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

7.1 Introduction to Convection

 Thermal convection occurs when a temperature difference exists between a solid
surface and a fluid flowing past it.

𝒖∞ Free Stream
𝑻∞
𝒖 𝒒
𝑻𝒘

Heated Wall

Fig. 7.1 Convection Phenomena

 It is well known that a hot plate of metal will cool faster when placed in front of a fan
than when exposed to still air.

 For example,

We know that the velocity at which the air blows over the hot plate obviously
influences the heat transfer rate. But does it influence the cooling in a linear way?
i.e. if the velocity is doubled, will the heat transfer rate doubled?

Relation with conduction:

 As shown in Fig. 7.1 the velocity of fluid layer at the wall will be zero, the heat must
be transferred by conduction at that point.

 Thus we might compute the heat transfer using Fourier’s equation of conduction i.e.
𝜕𝑡
𝑞 = −𝐾𝐴 𝜕𝑥 with the thermal conductivity of fluid and the fluid temperature
gradient at wall.

 Why then, if the heat flows by conduction in this layer, do we speak of “Convection”
heat transfer and need to consider the velocity of the fluid?

 The answer is that the temperature gradient is dependent on the rate at which the
fluid carries the heat away; a high velocity produces a large temperature gradient,
and so on.

 It must be remembered that the physical mechanism of heat transfer at the wall is a
conduction process.

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Heat Transfer (3151909) 7. Convection

7.2 Newton-Rikhman Law OR Newton’s Law of Cooling OR

Convection Rate Equation
 The appropriate convection rate equation for the convective heat transfer between
a surface and an adjacent fluid is given by Newton’s law of cooling:
𝑄 = ℎ𝐴(𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡∞ ) − − − − − − − −(7.1)
Where,
𝑄 = Convective heat flow rate
𝐴 = Surface area exposed to heat transfer
𝑡𝑠 = Surface temperature of solid and
𝑡∞ = Temperature of the fluid (Stagnant or Undisturbed)
ℎ = The Convective heat transfer co-efficient or The film co-efficient or The surface
conductance
 The heat transfer co-efficient is sometimes called the film conductance or surface
conductance because of its relation to the conduction process in the thin stationary
layer of fluid at the wall surface.

 Unit of Convective heat transfer co-efficient: 𝑊⁄𝑚2 𝐾 or 𝐶𝑎𝑙⁄𝑚2 ℎ𝑟𝐾 or 𝑊⁄𝑚2 °𝐶

 The value of film co-efficient is dependent upon:

1. Surface conditions: Roughness & Cleanliness
2. Geometry and orientation of surface: Plate, Tube and Cylinder placed
horizontally or vertically.
3. Thermo-physical properties of the fluid: Density, Viscosity, Specific heat, Co-
efficient of expansion and thermal conductivity.
4. Nature of fluid flow: Laminar or Turbulent
5. Boundary layer configuration
6. Existing thermal conditions.

The film co-efficient (𝒉) depends on viscosity of fluid because………

The viscosity influences the velocity profile and correspondingly the energy
transfer rate in the region near the wall.

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7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

7.3 Free and Forced Convection

 With respect to the cause of fluid flow, two types of convection are distinguished:
1. Free Convection or Natural Convection and
2. Forced Convection.
1. Free Convection or Natural Convection
 When a surface is maintained in still fluid at a temperature higher or lower than that
of the fluid, a layer of fluid adjacent to the hot or cold surface gets heated or cooled
by conduction.
 A density difference is created between this adjacent layer and the still fluid
surrounding it.
 The density difference introduces a buoyant force causing flow of fluid near the
surface.
 Heat transfer under such conditions is known as Free or Natural Convection.
 Thus, “Free or Natural convection is the process of heat transfer which occurs due
to movement of the fluid particles by density changes associated with temperature
differential in a fluid.”
 This mode of heat transfer occurs very commonly, some of the examples are:
I. House heating system
II. The cooling of transmission lines, electric transformers and rectifiers.
2. Forced Convection
 Flow of fluid is caused by a pump, a fan or by the atmospheric winds.
 These mechanical devices speeds up the heat transfer rate.
 In free convection flow velocities encountered are lower compared to flow velocities
in forced convection, consequently the value of convection co-efficient is lower, and
for a given rate of heat transfer larger area could be required.
 Examples of forced convection are: cooling of I.C. Engines, Air conditioner, Heat
exchangers, etc.
 The rate of heat transfer is calculated using the equation 7.1.
Table 7.1 Typical values of convective co-efficient
Sr. No. Free Convection Forced convection
Air & Super-heated steam – 30 to
1 Air – 3 to 7 W/m2K
300 W/m2K
2 Gases – 2 to 20 W/m2K Oil – 60 to 3000 W/m2K
3 Liquids – 30 to 300 W/m2K Water – 3000 to 10000 W/m2K

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Heat Transfer (3151909) 7. Convection

7.4 Dimensional Analysis

 “Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique which makes use of the study of
the dimensions for solving several engineering problems.”
 Dimensional analysis has become an important tool for analyzing fluid flow
problems. It is especially useful in presenting experimental results in a concise form.
 There are two methods are used in dimensional analysis: 1) Rayleigh’s Method and
2) Buckingham’s 𝜋-Theorem.
Buckingham’s 𝝅-Theorem
“If there are 𝑛 variables (independent and dependent variables) in a physical
phenomenon and if these variables contain 𝑚 fundamental dimensions, then the
variables are arranged into (𝑛 − 𝑚) dimensionless terms; each terms are called 𝜋-
terms.”

System of Dimensions:
 In the area of heat transfer, two more dimensions namely the temperature
difference (𝜃) and the heat (𝐻) are also taken as fundamental quantities.
 Here heat (𝐻) can be expressed in terms of MLT. So the fundamental quantities are
mass, length, time and temperature; designated by the M,L,T,θ respectively.
 Temperature is specially used in compressible flow and heat transfer phenomena.

Table 7.2 Quantities used in fluid mechanics and heat transfer & their dimensions

Sr. Dimensions Dimensions

Quantity Symbol Units (SI)
No. (MLTθ System) (MLTθH System)
A Fundamental
1 Mass M Kg M1L0T0θ0 M1L0T0θ0H0
2 Length L m M0L1T0θ0 M0L1T0θ0H0
3 Time T Sec M0L0T1θ0 M0L0T1θ0H0
4 Temperature θ K M0L0T0θ1 M0L0T0θ1H0
5 Heat Q, H Joule M1L2T-2 M0L0T0θ0H1
B Geometric
1 Area A m2 L2 L2
2 Volume V m3 L3 L3
C Kinematic
1 Linear Velocity u, v m/s L1T-1 L1T-1

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7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

2 Angular Velocity ω rad/s T-1 T-1

3 Acceleration a m/s2 L1T-2 L1T-2
4 Angular α rad/s2 T-2 T-2
Acceleration
5 Discharge Q m3/sec L3T-1 L3T-1
6 Kinematic Viscosity ν m2/sec L2T-1 L2T-1
D Dynamic
1 Force / Resistance F/R N (kg-m/s2) M1L1T-2 M1L1T-2
2 Density ρ Kg/ m3 M1L-3 M1L-3
3 Specific Weight w N/ m3 M1L-2T-2 M1L-2T-2
4 Dynamic Viscosity μ Kg/m-sec M1L-1T-1 M1L-1T-1
5 Work, Energy W, E N-m (Joule) M1L2T-2 H1
6 Power P Watt (J/sec) M1L2T-3 T-1H1
E Thermodynamic
1 Thermal K W/m-K M1L1T-3θ-1 L-1T-1θ-1H1
Conductivity
2 Specific Heat Cp, Cv kJ/kg-K L2T-2θ-1 M-1θ-1H1
3 Heat Transfer Co- h W/m2-K M1T-3θ-1 L-2T-1θ-1H1
efficient
4 Gas Constant R J/kg-K L2T-2θ-1 M-1θ-1H1
5 Thermal Diffusivity α m2/sec L2T-1 L2T-1

7.5 Dimensionless Numbers & Their Physical Significance

1. Reynolds Number (Re)
 It is defined as a ratio of inertia force to viscous force.
𝑣 𝑣
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝜌𝑉 × = 𝜌𝐴𝐿 × = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2
𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑢
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝜏𝐴 = 𝜇 𝐴 = 𝜇𝑣𝐿
𝑑𝑦
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2 𝜌𝑣𝐿 𝑣𝐿
𝑅𝑒 = = = = − − − − − − − −(7.2)
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝜇𝑣𝐿 𝜇 𝜈
 It indicates the relative importance of the inertial and viscous effects in a fluid
motion.

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Heat Transfer (3151909) 7. Convection

 At low Reynolds number, the viscous effect dominates and the fluid motion is
laminar.
 At high Reynolds number, the inertial effects lead to turbulent flow.
 Reynolds number constitutes an important criterion of kinematic and dynamic
similarity in forced convection heat transfer.

2. Prandtl Number (Pr)

“It is the ratio of kinematic viscosity to thermal diffusivity of the fluid”.
𝜇𝐶𝑝 𝜌𝜈𝐶𝑝 𝜈
𝑃𝑟 = = =
𝐾 𝐾 (𝐾⁄𝜌𝐶 )
𝑝

𝜈 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑃𝑟 = = − − − − − − − −(7.3)
𝛼 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
 The kinematic viscosity represents the momentum transport by molecular friction
and thermal diffusivity represents the heat energy transport through conduction.
 Pr provides a measure of the relative effectiveness of momentum and energy
transport by diffusion.
 For highly viscous oils, Pr is quite large (100 to 10000) and that indicates rapid
diffusion of momentum by viscous action compared to the diffusion of energy.
 For gases, Pr is about 1, which indicates that both momentum and heat dissipate
through the field at about the same rate.
 The liquid metals (liquid sodium or liquid potassium) have Pr = 0.003 to 0.01 and
that indicates more rapid diffusion of energy compared to the momentum diffusion
rate.
 The Prandtl number is connecting link between the velocity field and the
temperature field, and its value strongly influences relative growth of velocity and
thermal boundary layers.
 Mathematically,
𝛿
≅ (𝑃𝑟)𝑛 − − − − − − − −(7.4)
𝛿𝑡
Where,
𝛿 = Thickness of velocity boundary layer
𝛿𝑡 = Thickness of thermal boundary layer
For,
Oil − 𝛿𝑡 << 𝛿 Gases − 𝛿𝑡 ≅ 𝛿 Liquid Metals − 𝛿𝑡 >> 𝛿

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7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

3. Nusselt Number (Nu)

 Nu established the relation between convective film co-efficient (ℎ), thermal
conductivity of the fluid (𝐾) and a significant length parameter (𝑙) of the physical
system.
ℎ𝑙
𝑁𝑢 = − − − − − − − −(7.5)
𝐾
 To understand the physical significance of the Nu, consider a fluid layer of thickness 𝑙
and temperature difference ∆𝑇 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 as shown in Fig. 7.2.

𝑻𝟐

Fluid 𝒒̇ ∆𝑻 = 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏
Layer 𝒍

𝑻𝟏
Fig. 7.2 Heat transfer through the fluid layer
 Heat transfer through the fluid layer is by convection when the fluid involves some
motion and by conduction when the fluid layer is motionless.
 Heat flux (The rate of heat transfer per unit surface area) in either case is,
∆𝑇
𝑞̇ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ∆𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞̇ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝐾
𝑙
Taking their ratios,
𝑞̇ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 ℎ∆𝑇 ℎ𝑙
= = = 𝑁𝑢
𝑞̇ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐾 ∆𝑇 𝐾
𝑙

 The Nusselt number is a convenient measure of the convective heat transfer co-
efficient.
 The larger the Nusselt number, the more effective the convection.
 The 𝑁𝑢 = 1 for a fluid layer represents heat transfer across the layer by pure
conduction.
 For a given Nu, h is directly proportional to thermal conductivity of the fluid and
inversely proportional to the significant length parameter.

4. Grashoff Number (Gr)

 It indicates the relative strength of the buoyant to viscous forces.
𝛽𝑔∆𝑇𝜌2 𝑙 3
𝐺𝑟 = − − − − − − − −(7.6)
𝜇2

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Heat Transfer (3151909) 7. Convection

𝜌
∴ 𝐺𝑟 = (𝜌𝑙 3 𝛽𝑔∆𝑇) ×
𝜇2
𝜌𝑣 2 𝑙 2
∴ 𝐺𝑟 = (𝜌𝑙 3 𝛽𝑔∆𝑇) ×
(𝜇𝑣𝑙)2
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
∴ 𝐺𝑟 = 𝐵𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ×
(𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)2
 Obviously the Grashoff number represents the ratio of Buoyant force and Inertia
force to the square of the Viscous force.
 Grashoff number has a role in free convection.
 Free convection is usually suppressed at sufficiently small Gr, begins at some
critical value of Gr and then becomes more and more effective as Gr increases.

5. Stanton Number (St)

 “It is the ratio of heat transfer co-efficient to the flow of heat per unit temperature
rise due to the velocity of fluid”.
ℎ
𝑆𝑡 =
𝜌𝑣𝐶𝑝
ℎ𝑙
(𝐾 )
= 𝜌𝑣𝑙 𝜇𝐶𝑝
( )( )
𝜇 𝐾

𝑁𝑢
∴ 𝑆𝑡 = − − − − − − − −(7.7)
𝑅𝑒 × 𝑃𝑟
 It should be noted that Stanton number can be used only in co-relating forced
convection data (since the expression contains velocity, 𝑣).

6. Peclet Number (Pe)

 “It is the ratio of mass heat flow rate by convection to the flow rate by conduction
under an unit temperature gradient and through a thickness 𝑙”.
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 (𝜌𝐴𝑣)𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 𝜌𝐶𝑝
𝑃𝑒 = = = × 𝑙𝑣
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐾𝐴∆𝑇⁄ 𝐾
𝑙
𝑙𝑣
∴ 𝑃𝑒 = − − − − − − − −(7.8)
𝛼
𝑶𝑹
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝜌𝑣𝑙 𝜇𝐶𝑝
𝑃𝑒 = × 𝑙𝑣 = ×
𝐾 𝜇 𝐾
∴ 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒 × 𝑃𝑟 − − − − − − − −(7.9)
 The Peclet number is a function of Reynolds number and Prandtl number.

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7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

7. Graetz Number (G)

 “It is the ratio of heat capacity of fluid flowing through the pipe per unit length to the
conductivity of pipe material.”
𝑚𝐶𝑝
⁄
𝐺= 𝑙 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝
𝐾 𝐾𝑙
(𝜌𝐴𝑣)𝐶𝑝
∴𝐺=
𝐾𝑙
𝜋
(𝜌 4 𝑑 2 𝑣) 𝐶𝑝
∴𝐺=
𝐾𝑙
𝜋 𝜌𝑣𝑑 𝜇𝐶𝑝 𝑑
∴𝐺= × × ×
4 𝜇 𝐾 𝑙
𝜋 𝑑
∴𝐺= × (𝑅𝑒 × 𝑃𝑟) × − − − − − − − −(7.10)
4 𝑙
Where,
𝑑 and 𝑙 are the diameter and length of pipe respectively.
𝑶𝑹
𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝜌𝐴𝑣)𝐶𝑝 𝐴𝑣 𝜋 2 𝑣
𝐺= = = = 𝑑
𝐾𝑙 𝐾𝑙 𝛼𝑙 4 𝛼𝑙
𝑣𝑑 𝜋𝑑
∴𝐺= ( )
𝛼 4𝑙
𝜋𝑑
∴ 𝐺 = 𝑃𝑒 × ( ) − − − − − − − −(7.11)
4𝑙
 Graetz number is merely a product of a constant and the Peclet number.

7.6 Dimensional Analysis Applied to Forced Convection

 Let us now consider the case of a fluid flowing across a horizontal heated tube.
 The heat transfer co-efficient is a function of the following variables:
ℎ = 𝑓(𝐷, 𝑣, 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝐶𝑝 , 𝐾) − − − − − − − −(7.12)

∴ 𝑓1 (ℎ, 𝐷, 𝑣, 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝐶𝑝 , 𝐾) = 0 − − − − − − − −(7.13)
𝑊
ℎ = Heat transfer co-efficient = 𝑚2 𝐾 = 𝑀1 𝑇 −3 𝜃 −1

𝐷 = Tube diameter = 𝑚 = 𝐿1
𝑚
𝑣 = Fluid velocity = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝐿1 𝑇 −1
𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = Fluid density = 𝑚3 = 𝑀1 𝐿−3

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Heat Transfer (3151909) 7. Convection

𝑁−𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜇 = Fluid viscosity = = 𝑀1 𝐿−1 𝑇 −1
𝑚2
𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = Specific heat = 𝑘𝑔−𝐾 = 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝜃 −1
𝑊
𝐾 = Thermal conductivity = 𝑚−𝐾 = 𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −3 𝜃 −1

 Total number of variables, 𝑛 = 7

Number of fundamental dimensions, 𝑚 = 4 (i.e. M, L, T, θ)
Total number of 𝜋 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑛 − 𝑚 = 7 − 4 = 𝟑
 Hence equation 2.13 may be written as,
𝑓1 (𝜋1 , 𝜋2 , 𝜋3 ) = 0 − − − − − − − −(7.14)
 Selecting 𝑫, 𝝆, 𝝁, 𝑲 as a repeating variables.
∴ 𝜋1 = 𝐷𝑎1 𝜌𝑏1 𝜇 𝑐1 𝐾 𝑑1 𝑣
∴ 𝜋2 = 𝐷𝑎2 𝜌𝑏2 𝜇 𝑐2 𝐾 𝑑2 𝐶𝑝

∴ 𝜋3 = 𝐷𝑎3 𝜌𝑏3 𝜇 𝑐3 𝐾 𝑑3 ℎ
𝝅𝟏 − 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎:
𝜋1 = 𝐷𝑎1 𝜌𝑏1 𝜇 𝑐1 𝐾 𝑑1 𝑣
∴ 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 𝜃 0 = (𝐿1 )𝑎1 (𝑀1 𝐿−3 )𝑏1 (𝑀1 𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 )𝑐1 (𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −3 𝜃 −1 )𝑑1 (𝐿1 𝑇 −1 )
𝑴: − 0 = 𝑏1 + 𝑐1 + 𝑑1
𝑳: − 0 = 𝑎1 − 3𝑏1 − 𝑐1 + 𝑑1 + 1
𝑻: − 0 = −𝑐1 − 3𝑑1 − 1
𝜽: − 0 = −𝑑1
By solving above equations, we get,
𝒂𝟏 = 𝟏; 𝒃𝟏 = 𝟏; 𝒄𝟏 = −𝟏; 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎
∴ 𝜋1 = 𝐷1 𝜌1 𝜇 −1 𝐾 0 𝑣
𝝆𝒗𝑫
∴ 𝝅𝟏 = = 𝑹𝒆 (𝑹𝒆𝒚𝒏𝒐𝒍𝒅𝒔 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓) − − − − − − − −(𝟕. 𝟏𝟓)
𝝁
𝝅𝟐 − 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎:
𝜋2 = 𝐷 𝑎2 𝜌𝑏2 𝜇 𝑐2 𝐾 𝑑2 𝐶𝑝

∴ 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 𝜃 0 = (𝐿1 )𝑎2 (𝑀1 𝐿−3 )𝑏2 (𝑀1 𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 )𝑐2 (𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −3 𝜃 −1 )𝑑2 (𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝜃 −1 )
𝑴: − 0 = 𝑏2 + 𝑐2 + 𝑑2
𝑳: − 0 = 𝑎2 − 3𝑏2 − 𝑐2 + 𝑑2 + 2
𝑻: − 0 = −𝑐2 − 3𝑑2 − 2

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7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

𝜽: − 0 = −𝑑2 − 1
By solving above equations, we get,
𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎; 𝒃𝟐 = 𝟎; 𝒄𝟐 = 𝟏; 𝒅𝟐 = −𝟏
∴ 𝜋2 = 𝐷0 𝜌0 𝜇1 𝐾 −1 𝐶𝑝
𝝁𝑪𝒑
∴ 𝝅𝟐 = = 𝑷𝒓 (𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒕𝒍 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓) − − − − − − − −(𝟕. 𝟏𝟔)
𝑲
𝝅𝟑 − 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎:
∴ 𝜋3 = 𝐷𝑎3 𝜌𝑏3 𝜇 𝑐3 𝐾 𝑑3 ℎ
∴ 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 𝜃 0 = (𝐿1 )𝑎3 (𝑀1 𝐿−3 )𝑏3 (𝑀1 𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 )𝑐3 (𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −3 𝜃 −1 )𝑑3 (𝑀1 𝑇 −3 𝜃 −1 )
𝑴: − 0 = 𝑏3 + 𝑐3 + 𝑑3 + 1
𝑳: − 0 = 𝑎3 − 3𝑏3 − 𝑐3 + 𝑑3
𝑻: − 0 = −𝑐3 − 3𝑑3 − 3
𝜽: − 0 = −𝑑3 − 1
By solving above equations, we get,
𝒂𝟑 = 𝟏; 𝒃𝟑 = 𝟎; 𝒄𝟑 = 𝟎; 𝒅𝟑 = −𝟏
∴ 𝜋3 = 𝐷1 𝜌0 𝜇 0 𝐾 −1 ℎ
𝒉𝑫
∴ 𝝅𝟑 = = 𝑵𝒖 (𝑵𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒕 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓) − − − − − − − −(𝟕. 𝟏𝟕)
𝑲
Put the values of π1 , π2 and π3 in equation 2.14, we get,
𝑓1 (𝜋1 , 𝜋2 , 𝜋3 ) = 0
𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝜇𝐶𝑝 ℎ𝐷
∴ 𝑓1 ( , , )=0
𝜇 𝐾 𝐾
ℎ𝐷 𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝜇𝐶𝑝
∴ = 𝜑( , )
𝐾 𝜇 𝐾
∴ 𝑵𝒖 = 𝝋(𝑹𝒆, 𝑷𝒓) − − − − − − − −(𝟕. 𝟏𝟖)
 Hence Nusselt number is a function of Reynolds number and Prandtl number for
forced convection.

7.7 Dimensional Analysis Applied to Free Convection

 Let us now consider the case of natural convection from a horizontal heated tube to
an adjacent fluid.
 The free convection heat transfer co-efficient (ℎ) depends upon the variables;
𝑣, 𝜌, 𝐾, 𝜇, 𝐶𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐷.

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Heat Transfer (3151909) 7. Convection

 Since the fluid circulation in free convection is due to the difference in density
between the various fluid layers due to temperature gradient and not by external
agency. Therefore, velocity (𝒗) is no longer an independent variable but depends
upon the following factors:
(i) 𝛽 (The co-efficient of thermal expansion of the fluid)
(ii) 𝑔 (Acceleration due to gravity)
(iii) ∆𝑡 (The difference of temperature between the heated surface and the
undisturbed fluid)
 Thus, heat transfer co-efficient (ℎ) can be expressed as follows:
ℎ = 𝑓(𝐷, 𝛽𝑔∆𝑡, 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝐶𝑝 , 𝐾, ) − − − − − − − −(7.19)

𝑓1 (ℎ, 𝐷, 𝛽𝑔∆𝑡, 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝐶𝑝 , 𝐾, ) = 0 − − − − − − − −(7.20)

𝑊
ℎ = Heat transfer co-efficient = 𝑚2 𝐾 = 𝑀1 𝑇 −3 𝜃 −1

𝐷 = Pipe Diameter = 𝑚 = 𝐿1
𝑚
𝛽𝑔∆𝑡 = Buoyant force = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 = 𝐿1 𝑇 −2
𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = Fluid density = 𝑚3 = 𝑀1 𝐿−3
𝑁−𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜇 = Fluid viscosity = = 𝑀1 𝐿−1 𝑇 −1
𝑚2
𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = Specific heat = 𝑘𝑔−𝐾 = 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝜃 −1
𝑊
𝐾 = Thermal conductivity = 𝑚−𝐾 = 𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −3 𝜃 −1

 Total number of variables, 𝑛 = 7

Number of fundamental dimensions, 𝑚 = 4 (i.e. M, L, T, θ)
Total number of 𝜋 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑛 − 𝑚 = 7 − 4 = 𝟑
 Hence equation 2.20 may be written as,
𝑓1 (𝜋1 , 𝜋2 , 𝜋3 ) = 0 − − − − − − − −(7.21)
 Selecting 𝑫, 𝝆, 𝝁, 𝑲 as a repeating variables.
∴ 𝜋1 = 𝐷𝑎1 𝜌𝑏1 𝜇 𝑐1 𝐾 𝑑1 𝛽𝑔∆𝑡
∴ 𝜋2 = 𝐷𝑎2 𝜌𝑏2 𝜇 𝑐2 𝐾 𝑑2 𝐶𝑝

∴ 𝜋3 = 𝐷𝑎3 𝜌𝑏3 𝜇 𝑐3 𝐾 𝑑3 ℎ
𝝅𝟏 − 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎:
𝜋1 = 𝐷 𝑎1 𝜌𝑏1 𝜇 𝑐1 𝐾 𝑑1 𝛽𝑔∆𝑡
∴ 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 𝜃 0 = (𝐿1 )𝑎1 (𝑀1 𝐿−3 )𝑏1 (𝑀1 𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 )𝑐1 (𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −3 𝜃 −1 )𝑑1 (𝐿1 𝑇 −2 )

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7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

𝑴: − 0 = 𝑏1 + 𝑐1 + 𝑑1
𝑳: − 0 = 𝑎1 − 3𝑏1 − 𝑐1 + 𝑑1 + 1
𝑻: − 0 = −𝑐1 − 3𝑑1 − 2
𝜽: − 0 = −𝑑1
By solving above equations, we get,
𝒂𝟏 = 𝟑; 𝒃𝟏 = 𝟐; 𝒄𝟏 = −𝟐; 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎
∴ 𝜋1 = 𝐷3 𝜌2 𝜇 −2 𝐾 0 𝛽𝑔∆𝑡
(𝜷𝒈∆𝒕)𝝆𝟐 𝑫𝟑
∴ 𝝅𝟏 = = 𝑮𝒓 (𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒇𝒇 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓) − − − − − − − −(𝟕. 𝟐𝟐)
𝝁𝟐
𝝅𝟐 − 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎:
𝜋2 = 𝐷 𝑎2 𝜌𝑏2 𝜇 𝑐2 𝐾 𝑑2 𝐶𝑝

∴ 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 𝜃 0 = (𝐿1 )𝑎2 (𝑀1 𝐿−3 )𝑏2 (𝑀1 𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 )𝑐2 (𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −3 𝜃 −1 )𝑑2 (𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝜃 −1 )
𝑴: − 0 = 𝑏2 + 𝑐2 + 𝑑2
𝑳: − 0 = 𝑎2 − 3𝑏2 − 𝑐2 + 𝑑2 + 2
𝑻: − 0 = −𝑐2 − 3𝑑2 − 2
𝜽: − 0 = −𝑑2 − 1
By solving above equations, we get,
𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎; 𝒃𝟐 = 𝟎; 𝒄𝟐 = 𝟏; 𝒅𝟐 = −𝟏
∴ 𝜋2 = 𝐷0 𝜌0 𝜇1 𝐾 −1 𝐶𝑝
𝝁𝑪𝒑
∴ 𝝅𝟐 = = 𝑷𝒓 (𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒕𝒍 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓) − − − − − − − −(𝟕. 𝟐𝟑)
𝑲
𝝅𝟑 − 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎:
∴ 𝜋3 = 𝐷𝑎3 𝜌𝑏3 𝜇 𝑐3 𝐾 𝑑3 ℎ
∴ 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 𝜃 0 = (𝐿1 )𝑎3 (𝑀1 𝐿−3 )𝑏3 (𝑀1 𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 )𝑐3 (𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −3 𝜃 −1 )𝑑3 (𝑀1 𝑇 −3 𝜃 −1 )
𝑴: − 0 = 𝑏3 + 𝑐3 + 𝑑3 + 1
𝑳: − 0 = 𝑎3 − 3𝑏3 − 𝑐3 + 𝑑3
𝑻: − 0 = −𝑐3 − 3𝑑3 − 3
𝜽: − 0 = −𝑑3 − 1
By solving above equations, we get,
𝒂𝟑 = 𝟏; 𝒃𝟑 = 𝟎; 𝒄𝟑 = 𝟎; 𝒅𝟑 = −𝟏
∴ 𝜋3 = 𝐷1 𝜌0 𝜇 0 𝐾 −1 ℎ

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Heat Transfer (3151909) 7. Convection

𝒉𝑫
∴ 𝝅𝟑 = = 𝑵𝒖 (𝑵𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒕 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓) − − − − − − − −(𝟕. 𝟐𝟒)
𝑲
Put the values of π1 , π2 and π3 in equation 7.21, we get,
𝑓1 (𝜋1 , 𝜋2 , 𝜋3 ) = 0
(𝛽𝑔∆𝑡)𝜌2 𝐷3 𝜇𝐶𝑝 ℎ𝐷
∴ 𝑓1 ( , , )=0
𝜇2 𝐾 𝐾
ℎ𝐷 (𝛽𝑔∆𝑡)𝜌2 𝐷3 𝜇𝐶𝑝
∴ = 𝜑( , )
𝐾 𝜇2 𝐾
∴ 𝑵𝒖 = 𝝋(𝑮𝒓, 𝑷𝒓) − − − − − − − −(𝟕. 𝟐𝟓)
 Hence Nusselt number is a function of Grashoff number and Prandtl number for
natural or free convection.

Key Notes:

 In natural or free convection, the flow is produced by buoyant effects

resulting from temperature difference. These effects are included in the
Grashoff number.
 Reynolds number is important in the case of forced convection and
similarly the Grashoff number is important in the case of free
convection.

7.8 Empirical Co-relations for Free & Forced Convection

 Mathematical analysis of convective heat problems is complicated due to the large
number of variables involved.
 Majority of the convective problems are, therefore, analysed through the technique
of dimensional analysis supported by experimental investigations. The dimensional
analysis helps to develop certain correlations for the convective coefficient.
 The constants and exponents appearing in these correlations for a particular
situation are worked out through experiments.
 Use “Heat & Mass Transfer by Dr. D. S. Kumar” to see different empirical co-relations
for free and forced convection for different cases. (Equations should be given in
examination so no need to remember)
 Some of the important terminology associated with this topic is explained below:

Bulk Temperature & Mean Film Temperature

 The physical properties (µ, ρ, Cp, k) of a fluid are temperature dependent.

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7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

 The accuracy of the results obtained by using theoretical relations and the
dimensionless empirical co-relations would depend upon the temperature chosen
for the evaluation of these properties.
 No uniform procedure has been attained in the selection of this reference
temperature.
 However, it is customary to evaluate the fluid properties either on the basis of bulk
temperature or the mean film temperature.
Mean Bulk Temperature:
 The mean bulk temperature (tb) denotes the equilibrium temperature that would
result if the fluid at a cross section was thoroughly mixed in an adiabatic container.
 For internal flow (Heat exchangers), the fluid flowing through the tubes may be
heated or cooled during its flow passage. The bulk temperature is then taken to be
the arithmetic mean of the temperatures at inlet to and at exit from the heat
exchanger tube; i.e.
𝑡𝑖 + 𝑡𝑜
𝑡𝑏 = − − − − − − − −(7.26)
2
Mean Film Temperature:
 It is the arithmetic mean of the surface temperature (𝑡𝑠 ) of a solid and the
undisturbed temperature (𝑡∞ ) of the fluid which flows over the surface. i.e.
𝑡𝑠 + 𝑡∞
𝑡𝑓 = − − − − − − − −(7.27)
2
Characteristic Length OR Equivalent Diameter
 Characteristic length (𝐿) or Diameter (𝐷) has appeared in the dimensionless
numbers discussed in the Art. 7.5.
 The pipe and the flat plate are the simplest geometries for the occurrence of a flow.
However in many instances some complicated geometries are also used and hence
all the calculations of convective heat transfer become much more complicated and
difficult.
 In order to avoid such difficulties, the concept of an equivalent circular tube is used.
This is a tube which would present the same resistance against the flow or would
secure the same heat transfer as the duct usually used under comparable conditions.
 The diameter of an equivalent tube is known as equivalent diameter (𝐷𝑒 ) or
characteristic length (𝐿𝑒 ). The equivalent diameter is usually defined as;
4𝐴𝑐
𝐷𝑒 = − − − − − − − −(7.28)
𝑃
Where,

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Heat Transfer (3151909) 7. Convection

𝐴𝑐 = Cross-sectional area and

𝑃 = Perimeter
 The equivalent diameter or characteristic length of few geometries are given below:

For Rectangular Duct:

4𝐴𝑐
𝐷𝑒 =
𝑃 𝒃
4𝑙𝑏
∴ 𝐷𝑒 =
2(𝑙 + 𝑏)
2𝑙𝑏
∴ 𝐷𝑒 = 𝒍
𝑙+𝑏
For Rectangular Annulus:
4𝐴𝑐
𝐷𝑒 =
𝑃
4 × (𝑙1 𝑏1 − 𝑙2 𝑏2 )
∴ 𝐷𝑒 =
2[(𝑙1 + 𝑏1 ) + (𝑙2 + 𝑏2 )] 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟏
2 × (𝑙1 𝑏1 − 𝑙2 𝑏2 )
∴ 𝐷𝑒 =
[(𝑙1 + 𝑏1 ) + (𝑙2 + 𝑏2 )]
𝒍𝟐
When, 𝑙1 = 𝑏1 and 𝑙2 = 𝑏2 ,
2 × (𝑙12 − 𝑙22 ) 𝒍𝟏
∴ 𝐷𝑒 =
2𝑙1 + 2𝑙2
For Annulus: (Refer Fig.) 𝒅
4𝐴𝑐
𝐷𝑒 =
𝑃
𝜋
4 (𝑙𝑏 − 4 𝑑 2 ) 𝒃
∴ 𝐷𝑒 =
[2(𝑙 + 𝑏) + 𝜋𝑑]

𝒍
For Annulus: (Refer Fig.) 𝒅
4𝐴𝑐
𝐷𝑒 =
𝑃
𝜋
4 × 4 (𝐷2 − 𝑑2 )
∴ 𝐷𝑒 =
𝜋(𝐷 + 𝑑)
∴ 𝐷𝑒 = 𝐷 − 𝑑

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7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

7.9 Thermal and Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer

 The concept of boundary layer was first introduced by L. Prandtl in 1904 and since
then it has been applied to several fluid flow problems.

A. Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer: Flat Plate

 “When a fluid flows around an object, their exist a thin layer of fluid close to the
solid surface within which shear stresses significantly influence the velocity
distribution. The fluid velocity varies from zero at the solid surface to the velocity of
free stream flow at a certain distance away from the solid surface. This thin layer of
changing velocity has been called the hydrodynamic boundary layer.”
 Consider the parallel flow of a fluid over a flat plate as shown in Fig. 7.3.

𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝒖∞
𝑹𝒆 = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓
𝑹𝒆 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓
𝒖∞

Fig. 7.3 Development of a boundary layer on a flat plate

 The edge facing the direction of flow is called leading edge. The rear edge is called
the trailing edge.
 The 𝑥 − coordinate is measured along the plate surface from the leading edge of the
plate in the direction of flow, and 𝑦 is measured from the surface in the normal
direction.
 The fluid approaches the plate in the 𝑥 − direction with a uniform velocity 𝑢∞ , which
is practically identical to the free stream velocity of the fluid.
 The velocity of the fluid particles in the first fluid layer adjacent to the plate becomes
zero because of the no – slip condition.
 This motionless layer slows down the particles of the neighboring fluid layer as a
result of friction between the particles of these two adjoining fluid layers at different
velocities.
 This fluid layer then slows down the molecules of the next layer and so on.

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Heat Transfer (3151909) 7. Convection

 Thus the presence of the plate is felt up to some normal distance 𝛿 (thickness of
velocity boundary layer) from the plate beyond which the free stream velocity
remains unchanged.
 As a result, the 𝑥 − component of the fluid velocity 𝑢 varies from 0 at 𝑦 = 0 to
nearly 𝑢∞ at 𝑦 = 𝛿.
 The region of the flow above the plate bounded by 𝛿 in which the effects of the
viscous shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity are felt is called the velocity or
hydrodynamic boundary layer.
 The thickness of boundary layer (𝛿) increases with distance from the leading edge;
as more and more fluid is slowed down by the viscous effects, becomes unstable and
breaks into turbulent boundary layer.
 In turbulent boundary layer, a very thin layer near the smooth surface remains
laminar, called laminar sub-layer.
 For the flow over a flat surface, if Reynolds No. is less than 5 X 10 5, the flow is
laminar and velocity distribution is parabolic.
 The boundary layer thickness (𝜹):
“It is arbitrarily defined as that distance from the plate surface in which the velocity
reaches 99% of the velocity of the free stream (𝑢 = 0.99𝑢∞ )”
The hypothetical line of 𝑢 = 0.99𝑢∞ divides the flow over a plate into two regions:
(a) The boundary layer region, in which the viscous effects and the velocity changes
are significant and (b) The irrotational flow region, in which the frictional effects are
negligible and the velocity remains essentially constant.

B. Thermal Boundary Layer

 Whenever a flow of fluid takes place over a heated or cold surface, a temperature
field is set-up in the field next to the surface. The zone or thin layer wherein the
temperature field exists is called the thermal boundary layer.
 The temperature gradient results due to heat exchange between the plate and the
fluid.
Cold fluid flowing over a hot plate:
 Consider the flow of a fluid at a uniform temperature of 𝑡∞ over a hot flat plate at
temperature 𝑡𝑠 as shown in Fig. 7.4.
 The fluid particles in the layer adjacent to the surface will reach thermal equilibrium
with the plate and assume the surface temperature t s . These fluid particles will then
exchange energy with the particles in the adjoining fluid layer and so on.

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7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

 As a result, a temperature profile will develop in the flow field that ranges from t s at
the surface to t ∞ sufficiently far from the surface.

𝒖 ∞ , 𝒕∞

Fig. 7.4 Thermal boundary layer during flow of cold fluid over a warm plate
 The flow region over the surface in which the temperature variation in the direction
normal to the surface is significant is the thermal boundary layer.
 The thickness of the thermal boundary layer 𝜹𝒕 at any location along the surface is
defined as the distance from the surface at which the temperature difference
(𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡) equals 0.99(𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡∞ ).
 The thickness of the thermal boundary layer increases in the flow direction, since the
effects of heat transfer are felt at greater distances from the surface further
downstream.
Hot fluid flowing over a cold plate:
 If the approaching free stream temperature 𝑡∞ is above the plate surface
temperature 𝑡𝑠 , the thermal boundary layer will have the shape as depicted in Fig.
2.5.

Fig. 7.5 Temperature profile in T.B.L. when warm fluid flows over a cold plate
 The temperature of the fluid changes from a minimum at the plate surface to the
temperature of the main stream at a certain distance from the surface.
 At point A, the temperature of the fluid is the same as the surface temperature 𝑡𝑠 .

Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

Page 7.20 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Heat Transfer (3151909) 7. Convection

 The fluid temperature increases gradually until it acquires the free stream
temperature 𝑡∞ .
 The distance 𝛿𝑡ℎ measured perpendicularly to the plate surface, denotes the
thickness of thermal boundary layer at a distance 𝑥 from the leading edge of the
plate.

Relation between Thermal & Velocity Boundary Layer

 The velocity profile of the velocity boundary layer is
dependent primarily upon the viscosity of the fluid.
 The temperature profile of the thermal boundary layer is
depends upon the flow velocity, specific heat, viscosity and
thermal conductivity of the fluid.
 The thermo-physical properties of the fluid affect the relative
magnitude of 𝛿 and 𝛿𝑡 , and the non-dimensional Prandtl
𝜇𝐶𝑝
number (𝑃𝑟 = ) constitutes the governing parameter:
𝐾

(i) When 𝑃𝑟 = 1 𝛿𝑡 = 𝛿
(ii) When 𝑃𝑟 > 1 𝛿𝑡 < 𝛿
(iii) When 𝑃𝑟 < 1 𝛿𝑡 > 𝛿

Fig. 7.6 Relation between thermal and hydrodynamic boundary

layer for different Prandtl number

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 7.21
7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

7.10 Derivation of Differential Convection Equations

 Consider an infinitesimal two dimensional control volume (𝑑𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦 × 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ).
 Assume that:
1. Flow is steady and fluid is incompressible.
2. Fluid viscosity is constant.
3. Shear in y-direction is negligible.
4. No pressure variations in the flow field.
5. Fluid is continuous both in space (i.e. no voids occur in the fluid) and time
(i.e. mass is neither created nor destroyed).

A. Conservation of Mass – The Continuity Equation

𝑻∞
𝒖∞
Velocity
𝒚 Boundary
Layer
𝒅𝒚
𝒅𝒙
𝒙

𝑫 𝑪

𝑨 𝑩

Fig. 7.7 Differential control volume for mass balance – Continuity equation
 Let 𝑢 represents the velocity of fluid flow at the face AD and hence velocity of fluid
𝜕𝑢
motion at surface BC will be {𝑢 + 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥}.

Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

Page 7.22 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Heat Transfer (3151909) 7. Convection

 Similarly the fluid velocity at the bottom face AB and at the top face CD are 𝑣 and
𝜕𝑣
{𝑣 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦} respectively.

 According to conservation of mass principle,

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
= 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
− − − − − − − − (7.29)
 The mass flow entering the face AD of the control volume during time interval 𝑑𝑡,
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × (𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎) × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
∴ 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 𝜌(𝑢 × 𝑑𝑦)𝑑𝑡 − − − − − − − −(7.30)
 During the same time interval, mass of fluid flowing out from face BC,
𝜕𝑢
∴ 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 𝜌 (𝑢 + 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑦 × 𝑑𝑡 − − − − − − − −(7.31)
𝜕𝑥
 Similarly the mass flow entering the bottom face AB is 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑡 and the mass leaving
𝜕𝑣
the top face Dc is 𝜌 (𝑣 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 × 𝑑𝑡.

 From equation 7.29

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑡 + 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑡 = 𝜌 (𝑢 + 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑦 × 𝑑𝑡 + 𝜌 (𝑣 + 𝑑𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 × 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Simplification gives,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ = 0 − − − − − − − −(7.32)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 Equation 7.32 is the mass continuity equation for 2-D, Steady flow of an
incompressible fluid.

B. Force or Momentum Equation

‒ For a 2-D infinitesimal control volume (𝑑𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦 × 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ) within the
boundary layer region, the viscous forces acting along with the momentum of fluid
entering and leaving the elementary volume have been indicated in Fig. 7.8.
‒ Newton’s second law of motion is applied to the control volume. The statement
resulting from the application is,
Sum of applied forces in 𝑥 - direction = rate of change of 𝑥 - directional momentum
 In boundary layer analysis we are interested in the 𝑥 - directional forces. The
resulting equation is known as momentum equation (for 𝑥 - direction).

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 7.23
7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

𝝏𝒖 𝝏 𝝏𝒖
𝝁 𝒅𝒙 + (𝝁 𝒅𝒙) 𝒅𝒚 𝝏
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝆𝒖𝒗𝒅𝒙 + (𝝆𝒖𝒗𝒅𝒙)𝒅𝒚
𝝏𝒚
𝑫 𝑪
𝝏
𝒑𝒅𝒚 𝒑𝒅𝒚 + (𝒑𝒅𝒚)𝒅𝒙
𝝏𝒙
𝒅𝒚
Control
Volume
𝝏
𝒎̇𝒙 𝒖 𝝆𝒖𝟐 𝒅𝒚 + (𝝆𝒖𝟐 𝒅𝒚)𝒅𝒙
𝝏𝒙
= 𝝆𝒖𝒅𝒚. 𝒖
𝑨 𝑩
𝒎̇𝒚 𝒖
𝝏𝒖
= 𝝆𝒗𝒅𝒙. 𝒖 𝝁 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒙 𝝏𝒚

Fig.7.8 Force and momentum balance for control volume

‒ The momentum flux in the x direction is product of mass flow rate through a
particular side of control volume and 𝑥 - directional velocity component at that
point.
‒ The rate of momentum entering the face AD of control volume,
= (𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦) × 𝑢
= 𝜌𝑢2 𝑑𝑦
‒ The rate of momentum leaving the face BC of control volume,
𝜕(𝑢2 )
= 𝜌𝑢2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= 𝜌𝑢2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 [𝑢 +𝑢 ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
‒ The rate of momentum in 𝑥 - direction associated with mass enters the bottom face
AB of control volume,
= (𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑥) × 𝑢
‒ The rate of momentum in 𝑥 - direction leaves the top face CD of control volume,
𝜕(𝑢𝑣)
= 𝜌𝑢𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝜌𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
= 𝜌𝑢𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 [𝑢 +𝑣 ]
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
‒ The net or resultant momentum transfer in 𝑥 - direction,

Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

Page 7.24 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Heat Transfer (3151909) 7. Convection

= (Rate of momentum leaving the face BC & face CD) – (Rate of momentum entering
the face AD & face AB)
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
= 𝜌𝑢2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 [𝑢 + 𝑢 ] + 𝜌𝑢𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 [𝑢 + 𝑣 ] − 𝜌𝑢2 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
− 𝜌𝑢𝑣𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
= 𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 [𝑢 +𝑢 +𝑢 +𝑣 ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= 𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 [𝑢 { + }+𝑢 +𝑣 ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 (𝑢 + 𝑣 ) − − − − − − − −(2.34) (∵ + = 0)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
‒ The forces acting in x direction are viscous and pressure forces.
Pressure Forces:
‒ The pressure force on the face AD,
= 𝑝𝑑𝑦
‒ The pressure force on the face BC (in opposite direction),
𝜕𝑝
= −[𝑝𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦]
𝜕𝑥
Viscous Forces:
‒ The viscous force at the face AB (in negative 𝑥 - direction),
= −(𝜏 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎)
𝜕𝑢
= −𝜇 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦
‒ The viscous force at the face CD,
𝜕𝜏
= (𝜏 + 𝑑𝑦)𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑢 𝜕 {𝜕𝑦}
= (𝜇 +𝜇 𝑑𝑦) 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑢 𝜕 {𝜕𝑦}
=𝜇 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜇 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
‒ Net forces in x direction,
𝜕𝑝 𝜕 2𝑢
∑𝐹𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝜇 2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 − − − − − − − −(7.33)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 7.25
7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

From equations 2.34 and 2.35 get,

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 2𝑢
𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 (𝑢 +𝑣 )=− 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝜇 2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 2𝑢
𝜌 (𝑢 +𝑣 )=− + 𝜇 2 − − − − − − − −(7.34)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 The above equation is called momentum equation for the laminar boundary layer
with constant properties.
 If the pressure changes on two side of control volume is negligible then above
equation reduces to,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜇 𝜕 2 𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢
𝑢 +𝑣 = = 𝜈 − − − − − − − −(7.35)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜌 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2

C. Energy Equation for Thermal Boundary Layer

 Consider an element of dimensions (𝑑𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦 × 1) in the boundary layer.
 The rate of temperature change in the 𝑥 − direction is being presumed small and as
such conduction is to be considered only in the 𝑦 − direction.
 Further, the convective terms in the 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions have been written in terms of
mass, temperature and specific heat, which is assumed constant.

𝝏𝒕 𝝏 𝝏𝒕
𝑬𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝟐 = −𝑲𝒅𝒙 ( + ( ) 𝒅𝒚)
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚
𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒕
𝑬𝒚𝟐 = 𝝆𝒅𝒙𝑪 (𝒗 + 𝒅𝒚) (𝒕 + 𝒅𝒚)
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚
𝑫 𝑪

Control
𝑬𝒙𝟏 = 𝒎̇𝑪𝒕 Volume 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒕
𝑬𝒙𝟐 = 𝝆𝒅𝒚𝑪 (𝒖 + 𝒅𝒙) (𝒕 + 𝒅𝒙)
= (𝝆𝒖𝒅𝒚)𝑪𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙

𝒅𝒙
𝑨 𝑩

𝑬𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎̇𝑪𝒕 = (𝝆𝒗𝒅𝒙)𝑪𝒕

𝝏𝒕
𝑬𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝟏 = −𝑲𝒅𝒙
𝝏𝒚

Fig. 7.9 Differential control volume for conservation of energy

Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

Page 7.26 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Heat Transfer (3151909) 7. Convection

 According to principle of conservation of energy for the steady state condition, the
algebraic sum of total heat due to convection, conduction and viscous effects equals
to zero. Thus,
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑥 + 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑦 + 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑦 + 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0 − − − − − − − (7.36)

 The energy convected in 𝑥 − direction,

Energy influx,
𝐸𝑥1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 × 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐸𝑥1 = (𝜌 𝑢 𝑑𝑦) × 𝐶 × 𝑡
Energy efflux,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑡
𝐸𝑥2 = 𝜌 (𝑢 + 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑦 × 𝐶 × (𝑡 + 𝑑𝑥)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
By neglecting the product of small quantities, we get,
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑢
𝐸𝑥2 = 𝜌𝐶𝑑𝑦 [𝑢𝑡 + 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑡 𝑑𝑥]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Net energy convected in 𝒙 − direction,
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥1 − 𝐸𝑥2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑢
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑥 = −𝜌𝐶 [𝑢 + 𝑡 ] 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 − − − − − − − −(7.37)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
 Similarly the net energy convected in 𝒚 − direction,
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑦 = 𝐸𝑦1 − 𝐸𝑦2

𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑣
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑦 = (𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑥)𝐶𝑡 − 𝜌𝐶𝑑𝑥 [𝑣𝑡 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑡 𝑑𝑦]
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑣
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑦 = −𝜌𝐶 [𝑣 + 𝑡 ] 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 − − − − − − − −(7.38)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
 The heat conduction in 𝒚 − direction,
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 1 − 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 2

𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕 𝜕𝑡
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = −𝐾𝑑𝑥 − [−𝐾𝑑𝑥 { + ( ) 𝑑𝑦}]
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕 2𝑡
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝐾𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 − − − − − − − −(7.39)
𝜕𝑦 2
Viscous Heat Generation:
 Due to relative motion of fluid in the boundary layer (fluid on the top face of the
control volume moves faster than fluid on the bottom face), there will be viscous
effects which will cause heat generation.

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 7.27
7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑝𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠

𝜕𝑢
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝜇 (𝑑𝑥 × 1)
𝜕𝑦
 This force will act through a distance S which can be determined by the relative
velocity of fluid flow at the upper and lower faces of the element;
𝜕𝑢
𝑆= 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦
∴ 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑆
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
∴ 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜇 (𝑑𝑥 × 1) × 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 2
∴ 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜇 ( ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 − − − − − − − −(7.40)
𝜕𝑦
 From equation 7.36, we get,

𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 2𝑡 𝜕𝑢 2
−𝜌𝐶 [𝑢 + 𝑡 ] 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝜌𝐶 [𝑣 + 𝑡 ] 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝐾𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 2 + 𝜇 ( ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
=0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 2𝑡 𝜕𝑢 2
−𝜌𝐶 (𝑢 +𝑡 +𝑣 + 𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝐾𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 2 + 𝜇 ( ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 2𝑡 𝜕𝑢 2
−𝜌𝐶 [𝑢 +𝑣 + 𝑡 ( + )] + 𝐾 2 + 𝜇 ( ) = 0 − − − − − − − −(7.41)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
 From the continuity equation for 2-D flow, we have,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐾 𝜕 2𝑡 𝜇 𝜕𝑢 2
∴𝑢 +𝑣 = + ( ) − − − − − − − −(7.42)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜌𝐶 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜌𝐶 𝜕𝑦
 Equation 7.42 is the differential energy equation for flow past a flat plate.
 If viscous heat generation is neglected, the energy equation takes the form,
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐾 𝜕 2𝑡
𝑢 +𝑣 = − − − − − − − −(7.43)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜌𝐶 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕 2𝑡
𝑢 +𝑣 = 𝛼 2 − − − − − − − −(7.44)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
(Note: It may be noted that the energy equation (7.42) is similar to be momentum
equation (7.35) further the kinematic viscosity 𝜈 and the thermal diffusivity 𝛼 have
the same dimensions.)

Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

Page 7.28 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Heat Transfer (3151909) 7. Convection

Assumptions made to derive energy equation:

1. Steady incompressible flow
2. Negligible body forces, viscous heating and conduction in flow direction.
(𝑡∞ −𝑡𝑠 )
3. Constant fluid properties evaluated at the film temperature, 𝑡𝑓 = .
2

7.11 Von-Karman Integral Momentum Equation

 Approximate solution of momentum equation.
 Used to find out the frictional drag on smooth flat plate for both laminar and
turbulent boundary layer.
 Neglecting pressure and gravity forces.
 Fig. 7.10(a) shows a fluid flowing over a thin plate with a free stream velocity 𝑢∞ .
 Consider a small length 𝑑𝑥 of the plate at a distance 𝑥 from the leading edge as
shown in Fig. 7.10(a).
 The enlarged view of the small length 𝑑𝑥 of the plate is shown in Fig. 7.10(b).
 Consider unit width of plate perpendicular to the direction of flow.

𝒖∞ 𝑪
C
D 𝑫
Boundary
Layer 𝜹 𝒅𝒚 𝒖
y 𝝉𝝎
A B
𝑨 𝑩
x dx Thin Smooth 𝒅𝒙
Flat Plate
(𝒂) (𝒃)
Fig. 7.10 Momentum equation for boundary layer by Von Karman
 Let ABCD be a small element of a boundary layer where the edge DC represents the
outer edge of the boundary layer.
 Mass rate of fluid entering through face AD,
𝛿 𝛿

𝑚̇𝐴𝐷 = ∫ 𝜌𝑢(𝑑𝑦 × 1) = ∫ 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦

0 0

 Mass rate of fluid leaving through face BC,

𝜕(𝑚̇𝐴𝐷 )
𝑚̇𝐵𝐶 = 𝑚̇𝐴𝐷 + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 7.29
7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

𝛿 𝛿
𝜕
𝑚̇𝐵𝐶 = ∫ 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦 + [∫ 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦] 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
0 0

 No mass can enter the control volume ABCD through its solid wall AB.
 Therefore the continuity requirement then stipulates that the mass increment
𝜕 𝛿
[∫0 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦] 𝑑𝑥 must represent the mass flow rate that enters the control volume
𝜕𝑥
ABCD through face CD with free stream velocity 𝑢∞ .
 The corresponding 𝒙 − momentum fluxes are:
 Momentum rate of fluid entering the control volume in 𝑥 − direction through AD,
𝛿

= ∫ 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦 × 𝑢
0
𝛿

= ∫ 𝜌𝑢2 𝑑𝑦 − − − − − − − −(7.45)
0

 Momentum rate of fluid leaving the control volume in 𝑥 − direction through BC,
𝛿 𝛿
𝜕
= ∫ 𝜌𝑢2 𝑑𝑦 + [∫ 𝜌𝑢2 𝑑𝑦] 𝑑𝑥 − − − − − − − −(7.46)
𝜕𝑥
0 0

 Momentum rate of fluid entering the control volume in 𝑥 − direction through DC,
𝛿
𝜕
= [∫ 𝜌𝑢𝑢∞ 𝑑𝑦] 𝑑𝑥 − − − − − − − −(7.47)
𝜕𝑥
0

 In the absence of any pressure and gravity forces, the drag or shear force (𝜏𝜔 × 𝑑𝑥)
at the plate surface must be balanced by the net momentum change for the control
volume.
 Therefore, as per momentum principle the rate of change of momentum on the
control volume ABCD must be equal to the total force on the control volume in the
same direction.
∴ 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
= 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 (𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 7.45 + 7.47 − 7.46)
𝛿 𝛿
𝜕 𝜕
∴ 𝜏𝜔 × (𝑑𝑥 × 1) = [∫ 𝜌𝑢𝑢∞ 𝑑𝑦] 𝑑𝑥 − [∫ 𝜌𝑢2 𝑑𝑦] 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
0 0

Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

Page 7.30 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Heat Transfer (3151909) 7. Convection

𝛿
𝜕 𝑢∞
∴ 𝜏𝜔 = [∫ 𝜌𝑢(𝑢∞ − 𝑢)𝑑𝑦] ×
𝜕𝑥 𝑢∞
0

𝛿
2
𝜕 𝑢 𝑢
∴ 𝜏𝜔 = 𝜌𝑢∞ [∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑦] − − − − − − − −(7.48)
𝜕𝑥 𝑢∞ 𝑢∞
0

 Equation 7.48is the Von Karman momentum integral equation for the hydrodynamic
boundary layer.
 The integral equation expresses the wall shear stress 𝜏𝜔 as a function of the non
𝑢
dimensional velocity distribution 𝑢 .
∞

7.12 Solution for Velocity Boundary Layer

Method of solution for velocity boundary layer
1. Exact solution (Blasius solution)
2. Approximate solution (Von Karman solution)

1. Blasius Solution:-
 Thickness of velocity boundary layer,
𝛿 5
=
𝑥 √𝑅𝑒𝑥
Where,
𝑥𝑢∞
𝑅𝑒𝑥 =
𝜈
= 𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑛𝑜. 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
δ = Thickness of velocity boundary layer
 The local skin friction co-efficient,

𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝐶𝑓𝑥 =
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝜏𝑤
𝐶𝑓𝑥 = 1 2
𝜌𝑢∞
2

0.664
𝐶𝑓𝑥 =
√𝑅𝑒𝑥
 Average skin friction co-efficient,

1.328
̅̅̅
𝐶𝑓 =
√𝑅𝑒𝑙

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 7.31
7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

Where,
𝑙𝑢∞
𝑅𝑒𝑙 = = 𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑛𝑜. 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝜈

2. Von Karman Integral Momentum Equation Solution:-

 Thickness of velocity boundary layer,
𝛿 4.64
=
𝑥 √𝑅𝑒𝑥
Where,
𝑥𝑢∞
𝑅𝑒𝑥 =
𝜈
= 𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑛𝑜. 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
δ = Thickness of velocity boundary layer
 The local skin friction co-efficient,
𝜏𝑤
𝐶𝑓𝑥 = 1
𝜌𝑢∞2
2
0.646
𝐶𝑓𝑥 =
√𝑅𝑒𝑥
 Average skin friction co-efficient,
1.292
̅̅̅
𝐶𝑓 =
√𝑅𝑒𝑙
𝑙𝑢∞
Where, 𝑅𝑒𝑙 = = 𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑛𝑜. 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝜈

Important Notes:
[1] The average skin friction co-efficient is quite often referred to as the drag co-
efficient.
[2] For the flow over a flat surface, if Reynolds No. is less than 5 X 105, the flow is
laminar.
[3] When the plate is heated over the entire length, the hydrodynamic and thermal
boundary layer thicknesses are related to each other by the expression,
0.976𝛿
𝛿𝑡 = 1⁄
(𝑃𝑟) 3

[4] Pohlhausen has suggested the following relation for general case,
𝛿
𝛿𝑡 = 1⁄
(𝑃𝑟) 3

[5] The local Nusselt no. for laminar flow is given by,
ℎ𝑥 𝑥
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = = 0.332(𝑅𝑒𝑥 )0.5 (𝑃𝑟)0.33
𝑘

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Page 7.32 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Heat Transfer (3151909) 7. Convection

[6] The Average Nusselt no. for laminar flow is given by,
ℎ̅𝑙
̅̅̅̅ =
𝑁𝑢 = 0.664(𝑅𝑒𝑙 )0.5 (𝑃𝑟)0.33
𝑘
[7] The mass flow rate at any position in the boundary layer is given by,
𝛿 𝛿
3 𝑦 1 𝑦 3 5
𝑚𝑥 = ∫ 𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝜌 [𝑢∞ { ( ) − ( ) }] 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜌𝑢∞ 𝛿
2 𝛿 2 𝛿 8
0 0

𝑢 3 𝑦 1 𝑦 3
∵ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑒, = ( )− ( )
𝑢∞ 2 𝛿 2 𝛿
Therefore, mass entrainment through the boundary layer is given by,
5
𝜌𝑢 (𝛿 − 𝛿1 )
8 ∞ 2
7.13 Solved Numerical
Ex7.1. [GTU; Jan-2013; 7 Marks]
A hot plate of 400mm x 400mm at 100°C is exposed to air at 20°C. Calculate heat loss
from both the surfaces of the plate if (a) the plate is kept vertical (b) plate is kept
horizontal. Air properties at mean temperature are ρ = 1.06 kg/m 3, k = 0.028 W/m-k,
Cp = 1.008 KJ/kg-k, and ν = 18.97 x 10-6 m2/s.
Use following correlations:
𝑁𝑢 = 0.125(𝐺𝑟. 𝑃𝑟)0.33 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑁𝑢 = 0.72(𝐺𝑟. 𝑃𝑟)0.25 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑁𝑢 = 0.35(𝐺𝑟. 𝑃𝑟)0.25 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
Solution: Given Data: To be Calculated:
𝑡∞ = 20°𝐶 a) 𝑄 =? for vertical plate
𝑙 = 0.4 𝑚 b) 𝑄 =? for horizontal plate
𝑏 = 0.4 𝑚
𝑡𝑠 = 100°𝐶
𝑇𝑠 +𝑇∞
Properties of air @ 𝑇𝑚𝑓 = = 60℃
2
ρ = 1.06 kg/m3
k = 0.028 W/m-k
Cp = 1.008 KJ/kg-k
ν = 18.97 x 10-6 m2/s
 Coefficient of expansion,
1 1
𝛽= = = 0.003 𝐾 −1
𝑇𝑚𝑓 (60 + 273)
 Grashoff Number,
𝛽𝑔∆𝑇𝜌2 𝑙𝑐3 𝛽𝑔∆𝑇𝑙𝑐3 𝜇
𝐺𝑟 = = (∵ = 𝜈)
𝜇2 𝜈2 𝜌

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Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 7.33
7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

0.003 × 9.81 × (100 − 20) × 0.43

∴ 𝐺𝑟 =
(18.97 × 10−6 )2
∴ 𝐺𝑟 = 418721789.4
 Prandtl Number,
𝜇𝐶𝑝 𝜌𝜈𝐶𝑝
𝑃𝑟 = =
𝑘 𝑘
1.06 × 18.97 × 10−6 × 1.008 × 103
∴ 𝑃𝑟 =
0.028
∴ 𝑃𝑟 = 0.7239
 For Vertical Plate:
Nusselt Number,
𝑁𝑢 = 0.125(𝐺𝑟. 𝑃𝑟)0.33
∴ 𝑁𝑢 = 0.125 × (418721789.4 × 0.7239)0.33
∴ 𝑁𝑢 = 78.6754
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient,
ℎ𝑙𝑐
𝑁𝑢 =
𝑘
78.6754 × 0.028
∴ℎ=
0.4
∴ ℎ = 5.5072 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 𝐾
Heat Transfer,
𝑄 = ℎ𝐴𝑠 (𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡∞ )
∴ 𝑄 = 5.5072 × (2 × 0.4 × 0.4) × (100 − 20)
∴ 𝑸 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟒 𝑾
 For Horizontal Plate:
For Upper Surface
Nusselt Number,
𝑁𝑢𝑢 = 0.72(𝐺𝑟. 𝑃𝑟)0.25
∴ 𝑁𝑢𝑢 = 0.72 × (418721789.4 × 0.7239)0.25
∴ 𝑁𝑢𝑢 = 95.0021
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient,
ℎ𝑢 𝑙𝑐
𝑁𝑢𝑢 =
𝑘
95.0021 × 0.028
∴ ℎ𝑢 =
0.4
∴ ℎ𝑢 = 6.6501 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 𝐾
Heat Transfer,
𝑄𝑢 = ℎ𝑢 𝐴𝑠 (𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡∞ )
∴ 𝑄𝑢 = 6.6501 × (0.4 × 0.4) × (100 − 20)
∴ 𝑄𝑢 = 85.1218 𝑊
For Lower Surface
Nusselt Number,
𝑁𝑢𝑙 = 0.35(𝐺𝑟. 𝑃𝑟)0.25

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Page 7.34 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Heat Transfer (3151909) 7. Convection

∴ 𝑁𝑢𝑙 = 0.35 × (418721789.4 × 0.7239)0.25

∴ 𝑁𝑢𝑙 = 46.1816
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient,
ℎ𝑙 𝑙𝑐
𝑁𝑢𝑙 =
𝑘
46.1816 × 0.028
∴ ℎ𝑙 =
0.4
∴ ℎ𝑙 = 3.2327 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 𝐾
Heat Transfer,
𝑄𝑙 = ℎ𝑙 𝐴𝑠 (𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡∞ )
∴ 𝑄𝑙 = 3.2327 × (0.4 × 0.4) × (100 − 20)
∴ 𝑄𝑙 = 41.3787 𝑊
 Heat Transfer from Both Surfaces,
𝑄 = 𝑄𝑢 + 𝑄𝑙
∴ 𝑄 = 85.1218 + 41.3787
∴ 𝑸 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟓 𝑾

Ex7.2. [GTU; Dec-2011; 7 Marks]

A steam pipe 8 cm in diameter is covered with 3 cm thick layer of insulation which
has a surface emissivity of 0.9. The surface temperature of the insulation is 80 °C and
the pipe is placed in atmospheric air at 24 °C. Considering heat loss by both radiation
and natural convection calculate:
(a) The heat loss from the 7 m length of pipe.
(b) The overall heat transfer coefficient and the heat transfer coefficient due to
radiation alone.
The thermo physical properties of air at mean film temperature of 52°C are as
following:
ρ = 1.092 kg/m3, Cp = 1.007 KJ/kg-°C, μ = 19.57×10-6 kg/ms, k = 27.81×10-3W/m-°C
(where the notations have their usual meaning.)
Use empirical correlation for horizontal cylinders as,
𝑁𝑢 = 0.53(𝐺𝑟. 𝑃𝑟)0.25
Solution: Given Data: To be Calculated:
𝒕 = 𝟑𝒄𝒎 𝑑 = 8 𝑐𝑚 a) 𝑄 =?
𝑡 = 3 𝑐𝑚 b) ℎ =?
𝒅 = 𝟖𝒄𝒎
𝑡𝑠 = 80°𝐶 ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑 =?
𝒕 = 𝟑𝒄𝒎 𝑡∞ = 24°𝐶
𝑙 =7𝑚
𝜖 = 0.4
 Characteristic length for horizontal cylinder,
𝑙𝑐 = 𝐷 = 𝑑 + 2𝑡 = 0.08 + (2 × 0.03) = 0.14 𝑚
 Coefficient of expansion,

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 7.35
7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

1 1
𝛽= = = 3.077 × 10−3 𝐾 −1
𝑇𝑚𝑓 (52 + 273)
 Grashoff Number,
𝛽𝑔∆𝑇𝜌2 𝑙𝑐3
𝐺𝑟 =
𝜇2
3.077 × 10−3 × 9.81 × (80 − 24) × 1.0922 × 0.143
∴ 𝐺𝑟 =
(19.57 × 10−6 )2
∴ 𝐺𝑟 = 14442163.69
 Prandtl Number,
𝜇𝐶𝑝
𝑃𝑟 =
𝑘
19.57 × 10−6 × 1.007 × 103
∴ 𝑃𝑟 =
27.81 × 10−3
∴ 𝑃𝑟 = 0.7086
 Nusselt Number,
𝑁𝑢 = 0.53(𝐺𝑟. 𝑃𝑟)0.25
∴ 𝑁𝑢 = 0.53 × (14442163.69 × 0.7239)0.25
∴ 𝑁𝑢 = 30.1372
 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient,
ℎ𝑙𝑐
𝑁𝑢 =
𝑘
30.1372 × 0.14
∴ℎ=
27.81 × 10−3
∴ ℎ = 151.715 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 𝐾
 Heat Transfer by Convection,
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ𝐴𝑠 (𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡∞ )
∴ 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ(𝜋𝐷𝑙) × (𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡∞ )
∴ 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 151.715 × (𝜋 × 0.14 × 7) × (80 − 24)
∴ 𝑸𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 = 𝟐𝟔𝟏𝟓𝟕. 𝟐𝟕 𝑾
 Heat Transfer by Radiation,
𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜖𝜎𝐴𝑠 (𝑡𝑠4 − 𝑡∞4)

∴ 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 0.4 × 5.67 × 10−8 × (𝜋 × 0.14 × 7) × [(80 + 273)4 − (24 + 273)4 ]

∴ 𝑸𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝟓𝟒𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟒𝟔 𝑾
 Total Heat Transfer Rate:
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑
∴ 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 26157.27 + 540.9146
∴ 𝑸𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝟐𝟔𝟔𝟗𝟖. 𝟏𝟖𝟒𝟔 𝑾
 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient:
∴ 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑠 (𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡∞ )
26698.1846
∴ ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 =
(𝜋 × 0.14 × 7) × (80 − 24)
∴ 𝒉𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏𝟓𝟒. 𝟖𝟓𝟐𝟑 𝑾⁄𝒎𝟐 𝑲
 Heat Transfer Coefficient by Radiation:

Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

Page 7.36 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
Heat Transfer (3151909) 7. Convection

∴ 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝐴𝑠 (𝑡𝑠 − 𝑡∞ )

540.9146
∴ ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑 =
(𝜋 × 0.14 × 7) × (80 − 24)
∴ 𝒉𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟑 𝑾⁄𝒎𝟐 𝑲

Ex7.3. [GTU; May-2012; 7 Marks]

The air at atmospheric pressure and temperature of 30°C flows over one side of plate
of a velocity of 90 m/min. This plate is heated and maintained at 100°C over its entire
length. Find out the following at 0.3 and 0.6 m from its leading edge. (a) Thickness of
velocity boundary layer and thermal boundary layer. (b) Mass flow rate which enters
the boundary layer between 0.3 m and 0.6 m per metre depth of plate. Assume unit
width of plate. Properties of air at 30°C: ρ = 1.165 kg/m3, v = 16 × 10-6 m2/s, Pr =
0.701, Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg-K, k = 0.02675 W/m-K.
Solution: 𝑻∞ = 𝟑𝟎℃ Given Data:
𝒖∞ = 𝟗𝟎 𝒎⁄𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝑇∞ = 30°𝐶
𝑇𝑠 = 100°𝐶
𝑢∞ = 90 𝑚⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑥1 = 0.3 𝑚
𝑥2 = 0.6 𝑚
𝑻𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃ 𝑏 =1𝑚
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝒎 To be Calculated:
a) 𝛿1 , 𝛿2 , 𝛿𝑡ℎ1 , 𝛿𝑡ℎ2 =?
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔 𝒎 b) 𝑚̇ =?
 Prandtl Number,
𝜇𝐶𝑝 𝜌𝜈𝐶𝑝 1.165 × 16 × 10−6 × 1.005 × 103
𝑃𝑟 = = = = 0.7
𝐾 𝐾 0.02675
 Reynolds Number,
𝑥1 𝑢∞ 0.3 × 90⁄60
𝑅𝑒𝑥1 = = = 28125 < 5 × 105 ⇒ 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝜈 16 × 10−6
𝑥2 𝑢∞ 0.6 × 90⁄60
𝑅𝑒𝑥2 = = = 56250 < 5 × 105 ⇒ 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝜈 16 × 10−6
By Using Von-Karman Solution:-
 Thickness of Velocity Boundary Layer:
At distance 0.3 m,
4.64 × 𝑥1 4.64 × 0.3
𝛿1 = = = 𝟖. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎
√𝑅𝑒𝑥1 √28125
At distance 0.6 m,
4.64 × 𝑥2 4.64 × 0.6
𝛿2 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟑 𝒎
√𝑅𝑒𝑥2 √56250
 Thickness of Thermal Boundary Layer:
At distance 0.3 m,

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 7.37
7. Convection Heat Transfer (3151909)

0.976 × 𝛿1 0.976 × 8.3 × 10−3

𝛿𝑡ℎ1 = = = 𝟗. 𝟏𝟐𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎
(𝑃𝑟) 1/3 (0.7)1/3

At distance 0.6 m,
0.976 × 𝛿2 0.976 × 0.01173
𝛿𝑡ℎ2 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟖𝟗 𝒎
(𝑃𝑟)1/3 (0.7)1/3
 Mass Flow Rate:
5 5 90
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑢∞ (𝛿2 − 𝛿1 ) = × 1.165 × × (0.01173 − 0.0083)
8 8 60
𝒎̇ = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟒𝟔𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒌𝒈⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄

7.14 References
[1] Heat and Mass Transfer by D. S. Kumar, S K Kataria and Sons Publications.
[2] Heat and Mass Transfer by R. K. Rajput, S. Chand Publications.
[3] Heat and Mass Transfer by P.K. Nag, McGraw-Hill Publication.
[4] Heat and Mass Transfer by Mahesh M Rathore, McGraw-Hill Publication.
[5] Heat Transfer – A Practical Approach by Yunus Cengel & Boles, McGraw-Hill
Publication.
[6] National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL), A Joint Initiate by
IIT’s and IISc. (Web: http://nptel.ac.in/)

Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

Page 7.38 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot