Aeng 514 Final
Uploaded by
Paul GernahAeng 514 Final
Uploaded by
Paul GernahAIRCRAFT AVIONICS
(AENG 514)
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AIRCRAFT AVIONICS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL POWER
• Electricity 04 • Diaphragm 338
• Battery 07 • Bellows 340
• ATA 24 Electrical 26 • Vapor-Pressure Temp. Gauge 342
• Electronics 43 • Oil Pressure Gauge 344
Aircraft Communication 227 • Engine Gauge Unit 348
• VHF 266 • Pitot Static 356
• HF 277 • Pitot Tube 358
• Cabin Interphone 286 • Altimeter 368
• Passenger Address 299 • Airspeed 374
• Selective Calling 315 • Vertical Speed Indicator 377
Aircraft Instruments 330 • Attitude Indicator 379
• Introduction 331 • Heading Indicator 381
• Bourdon Tube 334 • Turn Coordinator 382
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
• Gyroscope 386 • TCAS 598
• Glass Cockpit 340 • ATC 622
• EFIS 402 • GPWS 647
• Primary Flight Display 408 • SATNAV 672
• Navigation Display 409 • GPS 696
• ECAM 412
• FMS 415
Aircraft Navigation 418
• VOR 420
• ADF 441
• DME 471
• ILS 488
• Radar Altimeter 533
• RADAR 548
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GENERAL
Electricity is a form of energy called electrical energy. It is sometimes called “unseen”
force because the energy itself cannot be seen, heard, touched or smelled.
However, the effects of electricity can be seen.. a lamp gives off light; a motor turns; a
cigarette lighter gets red hot; a buzzer makes noise.
The effects of electricity can also be heard, felt and smelled. A loud crack of lightning
is easily heard while a fuse “blowing” may sound like a soft “pop” or “snap.” With
electricity flowing through them, some insulated wires may feel “warm” and bare
wires may produce a “tingling”, or worse, a quite a “shock.” And, of course, the odor
of burned wire insulation is easily smelled.
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What are ELECTRONS?
- It is the negative electrical charge
What is VOLTAGE?
- It is the electrical pressure or force, it is sometimes referred to as Potential
What is CURRENT?
- It is the quantity of electrons passing a given point
What is RESISTANCE?
- Conductors are not perfect, they resist to some degree the flow of current
What is LOAD?
- The part of the circuit which performs work (e.g. a motor, a light bulb or
LED etc.) is called load
What is POWER?
- The work performed by an electrical current is called Power, unit of power
is Watt
What is Ohm’s Law?
- A set of rules that show the relationship among Current, Voltage, Power
and Resistance
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BATTERY
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Batteries
• a device that is composed of two or more cells, used to convert chemical
energy into electrical energy.
• When the two terminals of any battery joined by a conductor, electrons flow
• Batteries categorizes into main two types
1- primary cells-dry cells- (non rechargeable)
A- carbon zinc B- alkaline C– mercury
______________________________________
2- secondary cells (rechargeable):
A- lead acid batteries B-nickel cadmium batteries
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Chemical changes during discharge
When a conductor is connected between +ve & -ve terminals, electrons flow from
–ve to +ve plates.
As electrons leave –ve plates, +ve ions(+Pb) forms and attract sulfate(-SO4) ions
from sulfuric acid(H2SO4-electrolyte) , to form lead sulfate(PbSO4) on –ve plate.
Electrons that arrive at the +ve plate, will drive oxygen out from lead
peroxide(PbO2) into the electrolyte, this oxygen combines with hydrogen(H2) that
has lost sulfate(SO4) to become water(H2O).
The +ve lead ions that are left on the +ve plate (+Pb), attract sulfate(SO4) from
electrolyte and become lead sulfate(PbSO4)
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Chemical changes during charge
recharged using direct current of proper voltage.
When +ve plates are connected to +ve terminal of the source, electrons are drawn
from +ve plates and forced onto the -ve plates
Electrons arrive at the –ve plates drive the –ve sulfate ions(-SO4) out of the lead
sulfate(PbSO4) back into the electrolyte to combine with hydrogen to form sulfuric
acid(H2SO4) again.
When electrons leave the +ve plates, they left behind(+Pb), this(+Pb) will attract
oxygen from water to form lead peroxide(PbO2) again.
When the battery is fully charged, the electrolyte becomes a high concentration of
sulfuric acid(H2SO4)(30%)
During charging process, hydrogen gas is released from electrolyte and bubbles to
the surface
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Chemical changes during charge & discharge
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Lead acid battery condition of charge
• Since the concentration of acid in the electrolyte change as the battery is used,
specific gravity of electrolyte can give good indication of state of charge of battery.
• Specific gravity: is the ratio of the weight of a given volume of material to the same
volume of water
• Electrolyte is 30% acid, 70% water, this result in specific gravity between 1.275 to
1.300 at a temperature 80 degrees Fahrenheit for a fully charged battery.
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Battery testing
• Hydrometer is used to test specific gravity, it measures the depth a float sinks in a
sample of electrolyte.
• The more dense the liquid the higher the specific gravity, the lower the float sinks
• Temperature of electrolyte effect specific gravity, it is less dense as the temperature
increase.
• 80 degrees F is the reference, if temperature is other than 80, a correction must be
applied
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HYDROMETER
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Methods of battery charging
Batteries are charged by:
1- constant current charging
2- constant voltage charging
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Constant current charging
The most effective way to charge a battery.
The amount of ampere-hour used to charge the battery is 7% of the battery
ampere hour rating
Ex: if we are charging a 40 ampere hour battery then it should be charged by 2.8
ampere
(40 amp-hour*.07= 2.8 amps)
* As battery begins to charge, the no load voltage increases, therefore, the
voltage during constant current must be varied in order to maintain a constant
current through out the charge.
*Therefore a constant current charger requires more time to complete and
additional attention.
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2- constant-voltage charging
The generator in a/c charges the battery in constant voltage method.
The state of charge of the battery determines the amount of current that flows into
the battery.
Ex: the low voltage of a discharge battery allows a large amount of current to
flow when charge first begins
Charging the battery in shop by this method is often used, but when the charger is
first connected it well over heat the battery, so care must be taken
Constant voltage charging does not fully charge a battery
You can connect several batteries by constant voltage through connecting them in
parallel
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Charging precautions
1. always charge a battery in a well ventilated places isolated from sparks, due to
gaseous hydrogen and oxygen released by battery during charging.
2. Always turn off battery charger before connecting charging leads to prevent
sparks from battery.
3. When removing battery from a/c, disconnect –ve lead first to prevent sparks
from battery
4. When installing battery always connect the +ve lead first(-ve lead last)
5. Always wear eye and hand protection to prevent electrolyte from burning skin
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Servicing nickel-cadmium battery
Separate facilities for servicing nickel cadmium & lead acid batteries, since both
batteries can be contaminated by fumes from each other
Be careful when handling nickel cadmium electrolyte, because it can burn your
skin, or cause severe injury if gets into your eyes
Every nickel cadmium battery should have a service record, to record all work on
battery
If the electrolyte level is too high, or if the battery is charged too fast, white
powder will form
Battery cleaning: by scrubbing the top of the cells with a nylon or nonmetallic
bristle brush, then dry the battery thoroughly by compressed air.
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WHITE POWDER
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Testing battery for short cell
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Deep cycle
1- discharge it at a rate lower than that used for capacity test
2- when the cell voltage is 0.2 volt per cell, used straps(shorting straps) to
completely discharge them from 3 to 8 hours (equalization).
3- Charge the battery either using constant volt or current method (over charge
it to 140 percent of its amp-hour capacity)
4- Monitor the battery during charge, then measure individual cell volt, the
manufacturer specifies a max. differential between cells, if one of the cells
exceed the specifications, it must be removed.
Battery manufacturers specify max. number of cell that can be replaced before
the battery can be retired
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DEEP CYCLE
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BATTERY CHARGER
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Compare between lead acid & nickel cadmium battery
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GENERAL
There are two identical engine driven generators called DC bus 1 then supplies the DC BAT bus.
Integrated Drive Generators (IDGs). They are used as the
main power source to supply the A/C electrical network. The DC battery bus can charge the batteries or receive power
from the batteries as a backup supply, if no other power
The IDG basically contains, in a common housing, a sources are available.
generator and a Constant Speed Drive (CSD).
The CSD gives a constant input speed to the generator,
which is required for a constant output frequency. The electrical system also includes two ESSential (ESS) Buses.
One is the AC ESS bus fed by AC bus 1 and the other is the DC
Each generator supplies 115V 400Hz AC to its own bus: ESS bus fed by DC bus 1. These buses are used to supply the
most critical A/C systems.
- generator 1 supplies AC bus 1,
- generator 2 supplies AC bus 2.
The entire electrical network can also be supplied by the APU
This supply is known as split operation, which means that generator.
the AC power sources are never connected in parallel.
On the ground, the aircraft electrical network can be supplied
Each AC bus supplies a Transformer Rectifier (TR): by an external power source.
- AC bus 1 supplies TR 1, Any one of the power sources can supply the entire electrical
network. As no parallel connection is allowed on this A/C (split
- AC bus 2 supplies TR 2. operation), we have to give priorities to the different power
sources in supplying the bus bars.
The TRs convert 115V AC into 28V DC to supply their
associated DC buses, DC 1 and DC 2. AC 1 and AC 2 buses are supplied in priority by their own side
generator, then the external power, then the APU generator
and then by the opposite generator.
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NORMAL CONFIGURATION
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ABNORMAL CONFIGURATION
The electrical system has an ESS TR, which supplies
the DC ESS Bus in abnormal or emergency
configuration.
In abnormal configuration (loss of TR1 or TR2) the
ESS TR is supplied by the AC ESS Bus.
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ABNORMAL CONFIGURATION
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EMERGENCY CONFIGURATION
In the event of emergency operation, the
Emergency
Generator (EMER GEN) supplies the A/C with
electrical power.
The EMER GEN needs hydraulic power to operate.
This hydraulic power to drive the EMER GEN is
supplied by the Blue Hydraulic system via the Ram
Air Turbine (RAT).
The RAT is located in the belly fairing and extends
automatically when AC BUS 1 and 2 have no
voltage supply.
Then, the EMER GEN supplies the DC ESS BUS
directly through the ESS TR. In emergency
configuration (loss of AC BUS 1 and AC BUS 2) the
EMER GEN supplies the ESS TR.
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EMERGENCY CONFIGURATION
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BATTERY ONLY CONFIGURATION
In emergency configuration with emergency
generator not available, BAT 1 supplies the AC ESS
BUS via the static inverter and BAT 2 supplies the
DC ESS BUS.
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BATTERY ONLY CONFIGURATION
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CONTROL AND INDICATING/PANEL LOCATION
The ELEC panel is installed on the overhead panel.
For emergency cases, there is an EMER ELEC PWR
panel on the LH side of the overhead panel.
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CONTROL AND INDICATING/PANEL LOCATION
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MAIN PANEL/ECAM PAGE
The ECAM Electric System page shows all relevant When OFF, both bus tie contactors open to isolate
data with regard to the entire A/C Electrical Power one side of the network from the other (e.g.: smoke
Generation and Distribution systems. The System configuration).
page shown here is a normal configuration with
main generators supplying the network. In case of failure, the IDG P/B switches disconnect the
IDG from the engine gearbox.
The battery voltage can be monitored either on
the overhead panel or the ECAM page. Each The GALY & CAB P/B SW lets galleys and some sub-
battery is controlled by a P/B Switch (SW). buses be manually shed.
Their related P/B SW control both main generators The COMMERCIAL P/B SW is used for the shedding of
and the APU generator. all commercial loads including the GALY & CAB
related buses.
A P/B SW also controls the external power.
The AC ESS FEED P/B SW lets the pilots change the
supply to the AC ESS bus from AC bus 1 to AC bus
2.
When the BUS TIE P/B SW is in the AUTO position,
it lets the opening or closing of the bus tie
contactors in order to supply the AC 1 and AC 2
buses according to the power supply priorities.
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MAIN PANEL/ECAM PAGE
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EMERGENCY PANEL
The EMER GEN TEST P/B is used on ground to test
the EMERgency GENerator or the Static Inverter.
In avionics smoke condition, the GEN 1 LINE P/B
disconnects the generator 1 from the busbar but
the generator remains excited to supply some fuel
pumps.
When AC BUS 1 and 2 are no longer supplied, the
RAT will extend automatically to pressurize the
blue hydraulic system, which powers the EMER
GEN, if the A/C speed is sufficient.
WARNING: ACTIVATION OF THE RED GUARDED
MAN ON PUSHBUTTON ON THE GROUND OR IN
FLIGHT WILL EXTEND THE RAM AIR TURBINE (RAT),
EVEN ON COLD AIRCRAFT.
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EMERGENCY PANEL
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COMPONENT LOCATION
The AC generators supply a 115 VAC, 3-phase, 400
Hz AC supply.
The IDGs and the APU have a nominal 90 kVA
power whereas the EMER GEN has a 5 kVA output.
The static inverter converts the direct current from
battery 1 into an AC current if no other source is
available.
The Battery Charge Limiters (BCLs) control the
battery coupling and uncoupling to the DC
BATTERY BUS to ensure battery charging and
protection. Each battery is rated at 24 V with a
capacity of 23 Ah. All TRs are identical and
interchangeable.
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COMPONENT LOCATIONS
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COMPONENT LOCATIONS
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COMPONENT LOCATION (Continued)
In the Enhanced Electrical Power Generation
System (EPGS), the GAPCU controls the APU GEN
and the external power.
The Generator Control Units (GCUs) protect and
control the A/C network and generators. GCUs and
GAPCU supply AC electrical power parameters to
show them on the ECAM display.
The main C/B panels are located in the cockpit.
The ESS TR is identical to TR 1 and TR 2. It converts
115 VAC to 28 VDC at a rate of 200 A. The EMER
GCU connects the EMER GEN to the ESS network, if
all conditions are met.
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COMPONENT LOCATIONS
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COMPONENT LOCATIONS
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COMPONENT LOCATION (Continued)
The Ground Power Control Panel and the external
power receptacle are installed in front of the nose
landing gear. On this panel, 2 Lights indicate the
Ground Power Unit availability (AVAIL light) and
connection to the A/C network (NOT IN USE light).
The Ground Power Unit should supply 400 Hz 3
phase 115 VAC rated at 90 kVA minimum.
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COMPONENT LOCATIONS
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COMPONENT LOCATION (Continued)
The MAINTenance BUS SW, located on the forward
cabin Circuit Breaker (C/B) panel, lets the AC and
DC service buses be supplied without energizing
the whole A/C electrical network.
The aft cabin C/B panel contains only C/Bs.
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COMPONENT LOCATIONS
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COMPONENT LOCATION (Continued)
The GAPCU is the interface between the GCUs and
the Centralized Fault Display Interface Unit (CFDIU)
for test purposes and fault reporting on the
MCDUs. Both the BCLs and the EMER GCU
communicate with the CFDIU for the same
purposes.
The TRs are connected to the CFDIU so that they
can be reset via the MCDU.
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COMPONENT LOCATIONS
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SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
When you do any maintenance task on the Components can remain hot for one hour following
electrical system, make sure that no AC or DC engine shutdown. Be careful as hot parts and hot oil
power source is connected to the aircraft electrical can cause injury and burn your eyes and skin. Use
circuits. protective clothing, as oil products are poisonous.
Before De-energizing aircraft electrics or before Turn-off unused ground service equipment (GPU, Air
doing the Static Inverter test, tell all personnel on conditioning cart, etc...) if no work is being done or
the aircraft that the lights will go out. nobody is present on the aircraft.
Some components are heavy. You must make sure
that you can hold the component before its
removal/installation. If it falls, it can cause injury to
personnel and damage to the equipment.
Dangerous arcing can occur if external power (GPU
or Gate power) is energized when trying to
connect power to the aircraft. Make sure that
external power source is de-energized before
connecting.
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ELECTRONICS & AIRCRAFT
COMMUNICATION
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Electronic Fundamentals
Electronics underpins all avionics system, and semi conductor devices such as diodes,
transistor and integrated circuits are the building blocks of this system. This chapters
provides you with an introduction to the theory and operation of semiconductor and
their application in basic electronic circuit.
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HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS
In 1883, Thomas Alva Edison discovered that electrons will flow from one metal
conductor to another through a vacuum. This discovery of condition become known
as the Edison effect.
In 1904, John Fleming applied the Edison effect in inventing the two elements
electron tube called the diode, and Lee De Forest followed in 1906 with the 3
elements tube.
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The first application of electron tubes were in radio communications. Guglielmo
Marconi pioneered the development of the wireless telegraphy or radiotelephony.
Vacuum tubes strengthened weak audio signal and allowed these signals to be
superimposed on radio waves.
In 1918, Edwin Armstrong invented the “super – heterodyne receiver” that could
select among radio signals. Radio broadcasting grew astronomically in the 1920’s as a
direct result. Armstrong also invented wide-band frequency modulation (FM) in 1935,
only amplitude modulation (AM) has been used from 1920 – 1935.
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Communication technology was able to make huge advances before world war 2 as
more specialized were made for many applications. Radio as the primary form of
education and entertainment was soon challenged by television, which was invented
in 1920’s but didn’t become widely available until 1947.
Bell laboratories publicly unveiled the television in 1927. when electric was proved
superior. Bell laboratories engineers introduced the cathode ray picture tube and
colored TV. But Vladimir Zwarykin an engineer with Radio Corporation of America
(RCA) is considered the “Father of Television” because of his inventions, the picture
tube and iconoscope camera tube.
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After the war, electron tubes were used to develop the first computers but they were
impractical because of the sizes of the electronic components.
In 1947, the transition was invented by a team of engineers from Bell laboratories.
John Barden, Walter Brattain and William Schockley received a nobel prize for their
creation, but few could envision how quickly and dramatically the transistor would
change the world.
The transistor functions like the vacuum tube but it is tiny by comparison, weigh less,
consumes less power, is much more reliable, and is cheaper to manufacture with its
combination of metal contacts and semiconductor materials.
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DIFFERENT COMPONENTS IN ELECTRONICS
ACTIVE DEVICES
Are those components that can rectify, amplify and alter the wave shape of AC
signals fed to them.
Advantage of active devices is to oscillate, amplify, detect and change the state.
PASSIVE DEVICES
Are those components that does not change the wave shape of AC signal applied
to them.
Example: resistor, capacitor, inductor.
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AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATION
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Introduction
Communication System involves voice transmission and reception between aircrafts
or aircrafts and ground.
For obvious reasons pilots cannot use sound as a medium during the flight to interact
with other pilots!
So we need a specialized system which can play an efficient role of transmitting
important data (voice, signals) and simultaneously maintaining a good quality
transmission.
It can be said that safe aircraft operation is dependent to a large extent upon
satisfactory performance of communication system
Radios are employed for fulfilling the purpose.
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Basic Radio Principle
• The principle of radio communication can be illustrated by using a simple
transformer.
• Closing the switch in the primary circuits causes the lamp in the secondary
circuit to be illuminated.
• Opening the switch extinguishes the light.
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The basic concept of radio communication involves the transmission and reception of
electromagnetic (radio) energy waves through space. Alternating current passing
through a conductor creates electromagnetic fields around the conductor. Energy is
alternately stored in these fields and returned to the conductor. As the frequency of
the current alternation increases, less and less of the energy stored in these fields
return to conductor. Instead of returning, the energy is radiated into space in the form
of electromagnetic waves. A conductor radiating in this manner is called transmitting
antenna.
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For an antenna to radiate efficiently a transmitter must supply it with an alternating
current of the selected frequency. The frequency of the radio waves radiated will be
equal to the frequency of the applied current. When current flows through a
transmitting antenna, radio waves are radiated in all directions in much the same way
that waves travel on the surface of pond into the rock has been thrown. Radio waves
travel at a speed of approximately 186,000 miles per second (300,000,000 meters per
second).
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If a radiated electromagnetic field passes through a conductor, some of the energy in
the field will set electrons in motion in the conductor. This electron flow constitutes a
current that varies with changes in the electromagnetic field. Thus, a variation of the
current in a radiating antenna causes a similar varying current in a conductor
(receiving antenna) at a distant location. Any intelligence being produced as current in
a transmitting antenna will be reproduced as current in a receiving antenna.
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Frequency Bands
The Radio Frequencies are being used in various field, amongst them include :
• FM Radio Broadcast
• Television Broadcast
• Land Mobile Stations (Emergency, Business, and Military)
• Amateur Radio
• Marine Communications
• AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATIONS
• AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
• AIR NAVIGATION SYSTEMS (e.g. VOR/DME,NDB)
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The use of the various Radio Frequencies all over the World is allocated by ITU
(International Telecommunications Union). The radio frequency portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum extends from 30 kHz (kilohertz) to 30,000 MHz
(Megahertz). For the sake of convenience, this spectrum is divided into frequency
bands.
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The voice (audio) intelligence is added to the RF signal by special circuit called the
modulator. The modulator uses the audio signal to vary the amplitude or frequency of
the RF signal.
If the amplitude is varied, the process is called amplitude modulation or AM.
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If the frequency is varied, the frequency is known as frequency modulation or FM.
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Modulator is a circuit that impresses useful information (e.g. the voice of a radio
announcer, a colour TV signal or just Morse code) on the radio frequency carrier so it
can be conveyed by the radio wave and received at a distance.
The amount of power generated by the transmitter affects the strength of the
electromagnetic field radiating from the antenna. Thus it follows that the higher the
power output from transmitter, the greater the distance its signal may be received.
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Basic Equipment Components
Microphone
Transmitter
Transmitting antenna
Receiving antenna
Receiver
Headset or Loudspeaker
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Microphone
• A microphone is essentially an energy converter that changes acoustical (sound)
energy into corresponding electrical energy.
• When spoken into a microphone, the audio pressure waves generate a strike the
diaphragm of the microphone causing it to move in and out. The diaphragm is
attached to a device which causes current to flow in proportion to the pressure
applied.
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A handheld microphone may be used at
any station equipped with a handheld
microphone jack. A push-to-talk switch on
the microphone completes power circuits
to its internal pre-amplifier, and
microphones audio and control circuits to
the system selected on the Audio Selector
Panel (ASP).
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The oxygen masks have carbon
microphones built into the mask. The PTT
switch on the audio selector panel or on
the captain’s or first officer’s control
wheels can be used to complete the
mask’s microphone circuits.
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Headset or Loudspeaker
A headset or loudspeaker has an output transducer, which converts electrical energy
to sound waves.
The boom microphone/headphone assembly incorporates a headphone and a
amplified microphone connected to an adjustable headband. The PTT switch on an
Audio Selector Panel is used to connect the boom microphone audio to the system
selected on the ASP.
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Transmitter
A transmitter may be considered as a generator which changes electrical power into
radio waves. The transmitter contains an oscillator circuit to generate RF signal (or sub
harmonic of the transmitter frequency, if frequency doubler or multipliers are used)
and amplifier circuits to increase the output of the oscillator to the power level
required for proper operation.
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Basic Radio Transmitter
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Receivers
The communications receiver must select radio frequency signals and convert the
intelligence contained on these signals into a usable or visual signal for navigation.
The receiver contains a demodulator circuit to remove the intelligence. If the
demodulator circuit to remove the intelligence circuit us sensitive to amplitude
changes, it is used in AM sets and called detector. A demodulator circuit that is
sensitive to frequency changes is used for FM reception is known as discriminator.
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Basic Receiver
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Antenna
An antenna is a special type of electrical circuit designed to radiate and receive
electromagnetic energy. A transmitting antenna is conductor which radiates
electromagnetic waves when a radio frequency current is passed through it. Antennas
vary in shape and design depending upon the frequency to be transmitted, the
specific purposes they must serve. In general, communication transmitting stations
radiate signals in all directions. However, special antennas are designed that radiate
only in certain directions or certain beam patterns.
The receiving antenna must intercept the electromagnetic waves that are present in
the air. The shape and size of the receiving antenna will also vary according to the
specific purpose for which it is intended. In airborne communications the same
antenna is normally used for both transmission and reception of signal.
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Antenna as transition device
Wire Antennas
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Types of antenna
Array Antenna
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Reflector antenna
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Antenna on Aircraft
Type and size of antenna varies with the different types of aircraft.
The location of antenna depends on the design of aircraft.
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VHF
COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM
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VHF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
VHF communication radios are the primary communication radios used in aviation.
They operate in the frequency range from 118.o MHz to 136.975. seven hundred and
twenty separates and distinct channels have been designated in this range with 25
kilohertz spacing between each channel. Further division of the bandwidth is possible,
such as in Europe where 8.33 kilohertz separate each VHF communication between
aircraft and air traffic control (ATC), as well as air-to-air communication between
aircraft. When using VHF, each party transmits and receives on the same channel.
Only one party can transmit at one time.
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VHF provides much clearer reception and is much less affected by atmospheric
conditions but the electromagnetic waves in the VHF band are limited to line of sight.
The pilot selects the appropriate channel assigned to a particular tower frequency and
then transmits. ICAO has designated VHF as the standard radio communication system
for ATC purposes over land. Over the oceans, HF is the band that provides the
additional range necessary to reach shore-based receivers.
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Components for typical installation include a control panel and the push-to-talk
switch (PTT) located in the flight deck, a transceiver interfaces with the flight deck
components, including the speakers and microphones of the intercom system.
The control box in thee following figure is typical of what would be found in a light
aircraft. It is a Nav/Comm control box and receiver all in one in a box.
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The squelch control adjusts how strong a received signal has to be before hearing the
audio. Turning the squelch up increases the reception range and allows the reception
of weaker signals.
To change from one frequency to another selector and check the display to verify that
the correct frequency has been set in the transceiver. The frequency that is changed is
the one in the STBY window. The window marked COMM in this case 118.00 MHz is
the active frequency, the window marked STBY is the next frequency to be selected.
To change the position of the COMM and STBY frequency, press on the arrow.
Large aircraft generally have three VHF system fitted. Two for communications and
the third is generally dedicated to ACARS.
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VHF System Diagram
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AUDIO OUT TO
INTERPHONE
RF IN & OUT
VHF
AERIAL
MICROPHONE
VHF
INTERPHONE
COMMUNICATION
TRANSCEIVER
1ST OFF
VHF
CONTROL
PANEL
CAPT
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HIGH FREQUENCY
High frequency (HF) waves travel in a straight line and do not curve to follow the
earth’ surface. This would limit transmissions from the broadcast antenna to receiving
antennas only in the line-of-sight. As a result, transoceanic aircraft often use HF radios
for voice communication. The range is between 2 to 30 MHz, these kind of radio
waves are known as sky waves.
Above HF transmissions, radio waves are known as space waves. They are only
capable of line of sight transmission and do not refract off of the ionosphere. Most
aviation communication and navigational aids operate with space waves.
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This HF provides greater range but it is more affected by atmosphere interference
than VHF, and sometimes an aircraft over the middle of an ocean will lose
communication because of thunderstorms or similar disturbance. HF radios have a
max range of about 2500 to 3000 Km compared to a maximum of only about 400 Km
for VHF communications. Range is dependent upon frequency selected & time of day
(ionosphere) etc.
Aircraft HF antennas produce an output of 80-400 watts which is much higher than
the output power typically found with VHF transmitters which is necessary to achieve
the long distance communications.
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The HF system is controlled by an HF control unit through its transceiver.
Depending on the version, one or two identical HF control units may be installed. Only
one antenna, located in the vertical stabilizer leading edge, is associated with these
two control units permitting reception of two frequencies but transmission of only
one frequency at the same time.
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HF System Diagram
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HF ANTENNA
HF COUPLER
UNIT
HF ANTENNA & COUPLER LOCATION
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MEGA HERTZ SELECTED KILO HERTZ
SELECTOR FREQUENCY SELECTOR
DISPLAY
2 .0 0 0
LSB AM
USB
OFF
RF
SENS
FUNCTION 10 KILO HERTZ RECEIVER
100 KILO HERTZ
SELECTOR SELECTOR GAIN
SELECTOR
SWITCH CONTROL
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Cabin Interphone System
• Interphone systems is not radio systems,
They use audio signals to permit communication between various
points in and around the aircraft.
• The two systems operate in a similar manner; the difference is:
who uses the systems
where the phone jacks are located
• The intercom system is used for voice communications from one point to
another within the aircraft.
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Large aircraft have intercom systems so that the cockpit crew can
communicate with the cabin crew and vice versa.
On small airplanes, the intercom is used to communicate within the
cockpit area and is needed because of noise in the cockpit area.
The interphone system permits conversation between the cockpit and
someone outside the aircraft, usually maintenance or service personnel.
The operation of intercom and interphone systems is the same.
Phone jacks are available at different locations where a handset or
headset can be connected.
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AUDIO SELECTOR PANEL
MIC SELECTOR
INOP SERV FLT
1 - VHF - 2 HF - 1 PA
INT INT
1 - NAV - 2 1 - ADF INOP MKR
B
MASKS V R
SPEAKER R/T I/C
BOOM
MIC
HEADSET
FLIGHT COMPARTMENT AUDIO
ACCESSORY
UNIT
EXTERNAL POWER
PANEL
EXTERNAL
INTERPHONE PILOT’S
POWER
CONTROL
STAND
FLIGHT SERVICE
NOSE
FORWARD
PILOT WHEELWELL
ON ATTENDANT’S
NOT CALL
NORM
STATION
IN USE
LIGHT
AFT
ATTENDANT’S SERVICE
STATION INTERPHONE
OFF
ON
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The handset or headset contains a microphone, a small speaker and a
push to talk switch (PTT).
The phone jacks and wiring are connected to an audio amplifier so
that the volume can be controlled.
Switches are available to select the desired system and a ringing
system like that of a telephone is used for alerting the other party.
On larger aircraft, a passenger address (PA) system is included so that
announcements can be made to the passengers by the flight crew or cabin
crew.
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There are two interphone systems in the aircraft:
The flight interphone system
The cabin/service interphone system
The flight interphone system permits the flight crew members on the
flight deck to communicate with each other and with audio
communications systems and ground crew members.
The service interphone permits communication between the pilots,
ground crew, and maintenance personnel.
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LIGHTS
MUSIC ATTENDANT’S
CAPTAIN’S CALL LIGHT
CALL LIGHT CALL SYSTEM
CAPTAIN ATTENDANT RESET
HANDHELD
MICROPHONE
(PA) HANDSET
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MID AISLE
SIGN
EXIT
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ATTENDANT
CALL LIGHT
ATTENDANT’S MASTER CALL LIGHT
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LIGHTS
MUSIC SYSTEM
VOLUME CONTROL
MUSIC
CALL SYSTEM
CAPTAIN ATTENDANT RESET
ATTENDANT’S
CALL LIGHT
RESET
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Jacks for plug-in microphone and headsets are at various locations on the
airplane.
When the service interphone switch is ON, the service and flight
interphone systems are connected together.
The flight interphone system provides the flight crew members on the
flight deck to communicate with each other and with:
Audio communication systems
Ground crew members
The flight interphone system (FIS) is an independent communications
network.
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The primary purpose is to provide private communication between cockpit
crewmembers without intrusion from the service interphone system.
The ground crew may also use flight interphone through a jack at the external
power receptacle. Ground personnel are able to communicate on the FIS through a
jack located on the APU ground control panel.
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JACK SOCKETS
INTERPHONE
EXTERNAL
POWER
FLIGHT SERVICE
NOSE
PILOT WHEELWELL
ON
NORM
NOT CALL
IN USE
LIGHT
PRESS TO
CALL SWITCH
EXTERNAL GROUND POWER PANEL
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Passenger Address System
Call System
• The call system is used as a means for various crew members to gain the
attention of other crew members and to indicate that interphone
communication desired.
• Attention is gained through the use of lights and aural signals (chime
or horn).
• The system can be activated from the cockpit, either flight attendant
station or from the external power receptacle.
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• Passengers may also use the system to summon an attendant, through the
use of individual call switches at each seat.
• The cockpit may be called by either flight attendant station, or by the
ground crew.
The ground crew may only be called by the cockpit.
Flight attendants may be called by the cockpit, the other attendant
station or by any passenger seat or lavatory.
Master call lights in the passenger cabin identify the source of
incoming calls to the attendants.
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• Good communication between the flight crew and the passengers is
extremely important in airline flying. There are four levels of priority
assigned to the passenger address system.
o Announcements by the pilot have first priority
o Announcements by the flight attendants.
o Pre-recorded announcements follow as third level
o Boarding music.
• A chime is produced when the pilot turns on the "fasten seat belt" or "no
smoking" signs.
• Pre-recorded emergency announcements may be initiated by the pilot or
by a flight attendant, and these messages are initiated automatically in the
event of a cabin depressurization.
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Public Address System
• The public address or passenger address (PA) system allows cockpit crewmembers
and flight cabin attendants to make announcements throughout the cabin to the
passengers.
• Cockpit crewmembers can make announcements through any microphone and
respective audio selector panel (ASP).
• Announcements are heard through speakers located in the cabin and in the
lavatories.
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o An audio selector panel (ASP) is installed at the captain, first officer, and
observer stations.
Each panel controls an independent crew station audio system and
allows the crewmember to select the desired radios, navigation aids,
interphones, and PA system for monitoring and transmission.
o Transmitter selectors on each ASP select one radio or system for
transmission by that crewmember. Any microphone at that crew station
may then be keyed to transmit on the selected system.
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o Receiver switches select the systems to be monitored.
A combination of systems may be selected. Receiver switches also
control the volume for the headset and speaker at the respective crew
stations.
o The cockpit crewmembers can make announcements using a PA hand
microphone or by using any standard microphone and the respective
audio selector panel.
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o Flight attendants make announcements using PA hand microphones located at
their stations.
o The attendants can also use the PA system to play recorded music for passenger
entertainment. The passenger entertainment system (PES) consists of a multi-track
tape player providing boarding music.
o PA announcements from any station override all tape player outputs.
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FLIGHT AFT
FORWARD
COMPARTMENT ATTENDANT’S
ATTENDANT’S
PA MIC PA MIC
PA MIC
PASSENGER ADDRESS SYSTEM
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PA
AMPLIFIER
PA SPEAKER
PA MIC
PA SPEAKERS
PASSENGER ADDRESS SYSTEM
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CONTROL
SWITCHES
TO/FROM VHF
TRANSCEIVER
HAND
HEADSET
MIC
& BOOM MIC MIC SELECTOR
INOP SERV FLT
1 - VHF - 2 HF - 1 PA
INT INT
INOP
1 - NAV - 2 1 - ADF MKR
HEADSET OXYGEN
MASK B
MASKS V R
SPEAKER R/T I/C
BOOM
AUDIO SELECTOR PANEL
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MIC/INT SWITCH
PRESS-TO-TALK
MICROPHONE
INTERPHONE
CONTROL WHEEL
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VHF COMM
120.60 118.30
TFR
NO 1
COMM VHF COMM
TEST TRANSCEIVER
MIC SELECTOR
MIC SELECTOR
SERV FLT
1 - VHF - 2 HF - 1 INOP PA
INT INT
SERV FLT
1 - VHF - 2 HF - 1 INOP PA
INT INT
1 - NAV - 2 1 - ADF INOP MKR
1 - NAV - 2 1 - ADF INOP MKR
MASK B
V R
R/T I/C MASK B
V R
BOOM
R/T I/C
BOOM
VHF COMM
120.60 118.30 NO 2
TFR VHF COMM
COMM
TRANSCEIVER
TEST
BOEING 737-300 VHF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
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SELCAL (SELECTIVE CALLING)
• The selective calling system allows a ground station to call an aircraft or group of
aircraft using HF or VHF without the flight crew having continuously to monitor the
station frequency.
• A code signal is transmitted from the ground and received by the VHF of HF
receiver tuned to a Selcal Decoder, which activates aural and visual alerts if and
only if the received code corresponds to the code selected in the aircraft.
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SelCal
• it is also known as Selective Calling System.
• it is a signaling method which can alert an individual aircraft that a
ground station wishes to communicate with it.
• signals can be transmitted over either HF or VHF RTF.
• A SELCAL transmission consists of a combination of four preselected audio tones
which takes approximately two seconds to transmit.
• SELCAL can relieve a flight crew from maintaining a listening watch on
assigned frequencies, which can be especially helpful where ATC RTF still relies
upon noisy HF channels.
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SelCal HISTORY
• SELCAL began use in civil aviation in 1957 under the direction of ICAO. Shortly after
the introduction of SELCAL Operations, ICAO formally transferred the SELCAL
registration and management functions to Aeronautical Radio Incorporated
(ARINC).
• From that point, ARINC became the official registrar of SELCAL codes, accepting all
SELCAL applications directly, as well as providing an annual report to ICAO with a
summary of SELCAL usage.
• In 2006, the ARINC section responsible for SELCAL was re-structured into a
separate company called Aviation Spectrum Resources, Inc. (ASRI). ASRI is now the
official ICAO SELCAL Registrar for all SELCAL codes worldwide.
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SELCAL (SELECTIVE CALLING)
• The selective calling system allows a ground station to call an aircraft or group of
aircraft using HF or VHF without the flight crew having continuously to monitor the
station frequency.
• A code signal is transmitted from the ground and received by the VHF of HF receiver
tuned to a Selcal Decoder, which activates aural and visual alerts if and only if the
received code corresponds to the code selected in the aircraft.
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How does SelCal work?
Almost every aircraft operating over the ocean or in remote areas has a SELCAL code
registered with ASRI. The SELCAL code is entered into field 18 of the aircraft’s flight
plan that is filed with the relevant aviation authorities. When a ground station wishes
to communicate with an aircraft, the radio operator enters the required SELCAL code
into the radio system which then transmits the SELCAL tones. All aircraft monitoring
the assigned radio channel will receive the SELCAL broadcast, but only those that have
been programmed with the specific 4-alphabetic code will be alerted.
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SELCAL CODE AUDIO SELCAL CODE AUDIO
DESIGNATOR FREQUENCY (Hz) DESIGNATOR FREQUENCY (Hz)
A 312.6 T 329.2
B 346.7 U 365.2
C 384.6 V 405
D 426.6 W 449.3
E 473.2 X 498.3
F 524.8 Y 552.7
G 582.1 Z 613.1
H 645.7 1 680
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SELCAL CODE AUDIO SELCAL CODE AUDIO
DESIGNATOR FREQUENCY (Hz) DESIGNATOR FREQUENCY (Hz)
J 716.1 2 754.2
K 794.3 3 836.6
L 881 4 927.9
M 977.2 5 1029.2
P 1083.9 6 1141.6
Q 1202.3 7 1266.2
R 1333.5 8 1404.4
S 1479.1 9 1557.8
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AIRLINE DISPATCH
COMMUNICATION ARINC
ARINC
REMOTE VOICE
STATION STATION
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RESET
SWITCH
(DUAL)
SELCAL SELCAL
PUSH
1 TO
2
RESET
SELCAL 1 SELCAL 2
ALERT LIGHT ALERT LIGHT
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A A A A
A THROUGH TO S
(I, N AND O NOT USED)
1 2 3 4
DECODER
SELECTOR
SWITCHES
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HF 1 - VHF 1
ALERT DECODER
HF 1 No 1
VHF 1 REMOTE AURAL ALERTS SELCAL
ELECTRONICS WARNING CONTROL
HF 2 UNIT UNIT RESET PANEL
VHF 2 ALERT DECODER
No 2
HF 2 - VHF 2
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329
AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT
330
AIRCRAFT AVIONICS
Introduction
Instruments on the plane my be classified according to function in three principal
categories:
Power plant instruments
Provide information concerning the operation of the engines and the
powerplant systems.
Ex. Vapor-pressure temperature gages, Oil pressure gage, Engine gage unit,
etc.
Flight and navigational instruments
Give the pilot information concerning flight speed, altitude, airplane
attitude, heading, rate of ascent or descent, and other indications
pertaining to the airplane and its flight path.
Ex. Altimeter, Airspeed indicator, Vertical speed indicator, etc.
System instruments.
Provide information concerning the hydraulic system and its pressures, the
air-conditioning system, the electrical system, and other special systems
which may be installed in the airplane.
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Real Talk
There are two particularly important reasons why the principles of operation and the
art of interpreting the readings of instruments used in modern aircraft should be
thoroughly understood by the maintenance technician.
• First, the safety of the airplane, the crew, and the passengers depends on the
proper installation and correct operation of the instruments.
• Second reason why the technician must understand the operating principles of
instruments is that they provide many indications of impending powerplant or
system failure.
Just as the physician diagnoses an illness by means of instruments, the maintenance
technician can diagnose possible troubles in an aircraft powerplant or system by an
understanding of instrument indications.
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Classification of Instruments
• Classification of instruments according to the means by which they give their
indication.
Pressure-type instruments
Mechanical instruments
Gyro Instruments
Electrical and electronic instruments
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Bourdon – Tube Instruments
Bourdon – tube mechanism
• Instrument which measures pressures in relatively high pressure fluid systems are
usually operated through the medium of a bourdon tube.
• Indications requiring this type of instruments are hydraulic pressure, engine oil
pressure, oxygen pressure, and any other indication of comparatively high
pressures.
• The bourdon tube is constructed of metal and is oval or flattened in cross-
sectional shape, with the tube itself formed into a crescent or part circle. (See
Figure 12.1)
• Constructed of a metal such as spring-tempered brass, bronze, or beryllium
copper. These metals have strong spring effect which causes the bourdon tube to
return to its original position when pressure is released.
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Operation: When pressure enters the bourdon tube, the tube tends to straighten out,
and as it does so, it moves the linkage connected to the sector gear. The movement of
the sector gear causes the spur gear to rotate, and this in turn moves the indicating
needle along the scale to give a reading of the pressure.
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Other Types of Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure
- Is due to the weight of the air in the atmosphere enveloping the earth and is taken
as the pressure due to a column of air extending from sea level to the upper limits
of the earth’s atmosphere
Absolute Pressure
- This is a method of pressure measurement which has a perfect vacuum of zero.
Gauge Pressure
- Uses a datum, such as existing atmospheric pressure at zero. Below which, pressure
is considered negative and above which is considered positive.
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When pressure enters the bourdon tube, the tube tends to straighten out, and as it
does so, it moves the linkage connected to the sector gear. The movement of the
sector gear causes the spur gear to rotate, and this, in turn, moves the indicating
needle along the scale to give the reading of the pressure.
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Diaphragms
• Pressure gages designed to provide readings of comparatively low pressure are
usually of the diaphragm type.
• Is a corrugated circular metal discs, or circular rubber discs. They are arranged so
that exposed at one side to the pressure to be measured. Their deflections being
transmitted to the pointer mechanism.
• The purpose of the corrugation is to permit larger deflections furthermore, their
number and depth control response and sensitivity characteristics; the greater the
number and depth the more nearly linear is its deflection and the greater is the
sensitivity.
• The diaphragms consists of two discs of metal corrugated concentrically and sealed
together to form a cavity or capsule. The diaphragm is designed with an opening
through one of the disc to admit the pressure to be measured. The opposite side is
provided with a bridge that bear against a rocking shaft lever through which the
movement is transmitted to the indicating needle.
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Diaphragms
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BELLOWS
It is a unit in a differential pressure gauge compares two different pressure values. End
movement of the bellows away from the side with highest pressure input occurs when
the pressures in the bellows are not equal. The indicator linkage is calibrated to
display the difference.
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Vapor-Pressure Temperature Gages
• The standard glass-bulb type thermometer in which mercury or colored alcohol
expands from a bulb into a capillary tube to provide the temperature indication is
accurate and dependable.
• A thermometer, or temperature indicator, using the bourdon tube is called the
vapor-pressure type.
• The bourdon tube is connected to a temperature bulb by means of a capillary tube.
• The temperature bulb is design to be installed in direct contact with oil, water, air,
or whatever material is being tested for temperature.
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Oil-Pressure Gage
• All aircraft engines are equipped with oil pumps which furnish oil under pressure to
the essential parts of the engine for lubrication purposes.
• Pressure is usually controlled by a relief valve which opens when the pressure
exceeds the specified limit. In order to determine at exactly what pressure this
pump is delivering oil to the engine, an oil pressure gage must be connected
between the relief valve and the engine.
• During the flight it tells the pilot or engineer that oil is circulating properly and
under normal pressure or it gives him warning of impending engine failure due to
lack of oil, broken lines, oil-pump failure, or burned-out bearings
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• The principal difference between oil-pressure gages and most bourdon-tube
instruments is that the opening into the bourdon tube is smaller than the rest of
the line leading to the engine; that is, the opening is restricted.
• The instrument dial, or the pressure gage, is graduated in pounds per square inch
with a range suited to the engine to which it is connected.
• The range may be from 0 to 100 psi or as high as 0 to 200 psi or even greater.
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ENGINE GAUGE UNIT/FUEL PRESSURE GAUGE
A single panel-mounted instrument case that contains three engine instruments
operated by three separated Bourdon tube.
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ENGINE GAUGE UNIT
Oil temperature gauge
Oil-pressure gauge Fuel-pressure gauge
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Purpose
To furnish a more economical utilization of the instrument panel space.
To make it easier for the pilot to read simultaneously all three indications
relative to the operation of one engine.
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TYPES OF ENGINE GAUGE UNIT
ANALOG ENGINE GAUGE UNIT
DIGITAL ENGINE GAUGE UNIT
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FUEL-PRESSURE GAUGE
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Purpose
It gives a clear picture of the status of the fuel system at all times
Provides a constant check on the operation of the fuel pump and the fuel-
pressure-relief value
Shows whether the fuel is being supplied to the carburetor or the fuel-control
unit steadily and at correct operating pressure
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FUEL-PRESSURE GAUGE in a Engine Gauge unit
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Mechanism
• The instrument consist of two bellows capsules joined end to end. One capsule is
connected to the fuel-pressure line and the other capsule is vented to ambient
pressure in the airplane.
• The fuel pressure causes the fuel bellows to expand and move toward the air
capsule. This movement is transmitted to the indicating needle through
conventional linkages.
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PITOT-STATIC TUBE
• It provides the source of air pressure for the following aircraft instruments:
• ALTEMETER (ALT)
• VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (VSI)
• AIRSPEED INDICATOR
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THE PITOT TUBE
Is normally mounted on the leading edge of a wing. The Pitot tube on an aircraft used
only for flight under Visual Flight Rules (VFR) may not be heated to prevent icing.
Aircraft to be used under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) are heated electrically, to
prevent icing when operating in visible moisture and cold temperatures. A switch in
the cockpit controls Pitot heat.
THE STATIC PRESSURE PORT
Is normally found on the side of the fuselage. On later model aircraft, an alternate
static source is provided inside the cockpit. The pilot can select the internal static
source if the outside source becomes clogged with ice.. When the pilot selects the
alternative source, the instruments relying on the static pressure may operate slightly
differently.
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PARTS OF THE PITOT – STATIC TUBE
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The purpose of the Head is to pick up indications of dynamic (ram) air pressure
and static (ambient) air pressure to be transmitted through tubing to the
instrument requiring these pressure for operation.
The Baffle plate helps to prevent water from entering the system.
The water that goes by the baffle plate is stopped by the Pressure Chamber.
Water is drained from the head through the two drain holes.
Static pressure is picked up through the Static holes.
From the static holes it is carried through the Static tube to the instruments such
as altimeter, vertical-speed indicator, and other requiring static pressure.
The pitot head shown is provided with Heaters to prevent the formation of ice.
The heater are connected to the Electrical contact.
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PITOT-TUBE
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Blockages occurring in the Pitot-Static System
• blockage of the Pitot tube affects only the airspeed indicator.
• blockage of the static port affects, airspeed indicator, VSI and altimeter.
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Blockages occurring in the Pitot-static system
• If pitot tube clogs and drain hole remains open(clear) – airspeed decrease to zero
because its senses no difference in pressure.
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Blockages occurring in the Pitot-Static System
If pitot tube and drain hole clogs – airspeed indicator acts like an altimeter.
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Blockages occurring in the Pitot-Static System
Static port becomes clogged and Pitot tube open – airspeed indication are slower
than actual speed when aircraft is operated above the altitude where static port
clogged.
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Flight Instruments
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Altimeter
Also called as Altitude Meter
To indicate how high the aircraft is from sea level (altitude).
Measured in feet.
• It works by measuring air pressure that enter through pitot-static system.
• Air pressure increases and decreases as the aircraft descends and climbs.
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TYPES OF ALTITUDE
• Indicated altitude - altitude you read directly from altimeter when it is correctly
adjusted to local altimeter setting.
• Pressure altitude - altitude measured from ISA of 29.92 in. Hg.
• Density altitude - pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature.
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TYPES OF ALTITUDE
• True altitude - actual height above MSL.
• Absolute altitude - AGL altitude of airplane above w/c it is flying.
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TYPES OF ALTITUDE
Encoded Altitude – altitude as seen in the radar, with regards to the airborne
transponder in your aircraft.
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TYPES OF ALTIMETER SETTING
• QNE – Standard Pressure (29.92 inch of hg/ 1013.2 hpa)
• QNH – Local / Station Pressure( ATIS/ ATC)
• QFE – Field Elevation ( uncontrolled airports)
Hot atmosphere = aircraft is higher than indicated.
Cold atmosphere = aircraft is lower than indicated.
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Airspeed Indicator
• Tells the pilot how fast the plane is going.
• To shows the aircraft's speed relative to the surrounding air.
• Speed is measured in knots.
• The airspeed can be calculated by measuring the differences of air pressure.
• Air pressure is measure using pitot-static system.
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Color coded arcs denote safe operation in ranges for various flight conditions.
• White arc
• flap operating range
• Green arc
• normal operation range
• Yellow arc
• caution range
• Red line
• operating above this speed is prohibited since it may result in damage or
structural failure
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TYPES OF AIRSPEED
1.) Indicated airspeed - reading you get directly for Airspeed indicator
2.) Calibrated airspeed - corrected for installation and instrument error
3.) True airspeed - corrected for altitude and non-standard temperature.
“ to get the true airspeed add 2% for each 1000’ altitude “
ex. Indicated airspeed at 5000’ is 90 knots.
5 x 2% = 10%
10% of 90 knots is 9
true airspeed : 90 knots + 9 = 99 knots
4.) Ground speed - airspeed over the ground / adjusted for wind.
* only at sea level on standard day , Indicated airspeed and true airspeed the same.
* Wind calm – true airspeed and ground airspeed are the same.
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Vertical Speed Indicator
To display the vertical speed of the aircraft.
It used to maintain proper rate of climb and rate of descend
Measured in feet per minute.
Rate of change is also measured based on air pressure differences through pitot-
static system.
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Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) / Vertical Velocity Indicator (VVI)
- converts rate of change of static pressure to a rate of change in altitude
*VSI info
a.) Trend - immediate indication of the
airplane’s rate of climb or descent.
b.) Rate - shows stabilized rate of change
(after 6-9 seconds)
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Attitude Indicator
• To show the aircraft's attitude relative to the horizon.
• Also called as artificial horizon.
• Shows whether wings are level or not and whether aircraft pitch up or down.
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Attitude
Indicator
Examples
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Heading Indicator
• To displays aircraft heading/direction with respect to earth’s magnetic north.
• Also called directional gyro or gyro compass.
• When the aircraft turns, the needle indicates which direction it is heading.
• Measured in degrees (0-north, 90-east, 180-south, and 270-west)
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Turn Coordinator
• To display direction of turn and rate of turn. Use the gyroscope.
• For example, direction of roll while the aircraft is rolling.
• Measured in degrees per minute
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Turn Coordinator
• modern version of a turn and slip indicator.
• provides “yaw” and “roll” movement about the vertical and longitudinal axis.
• miniature airplane – indicate a rate of turn.
• inclinometer – indicate a coordinated flight.
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Turn Coordinator
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• SKID – the rate of turn is too great for the angle of bank, and the ball moves outside
of the turn.
• SLIP – the rate of turn is too slow for the angle of bank, the ball moves inside of the
turn.
>to correct this always remember to “STEP ON THE BALL”
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Gyroscope
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Gyroscope
• One of the most essential devices for the navigation of both aircraft and space
vehicles.
• A device consisting of a wheel having much of its weight concentrated around the
rim, mounted on a spinning axis which is free to rotate about or both of the two
axes perpendicular to each other and to the spinning axis
• A gyro scope mounted in gimbal rings so that the mounting can be rotated in any
direction without disturbing the gyro is called a free gyro.
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Gyroscope
Gimbal Rings
The rings in which the gyro is mounted and which permits it to move.
X – axis
the spinning axis of the gyro
Y – axis
perpendicular to the X – axis allows the X – axis to rotate
Z – axis
perpendicular to both X and Y – axis allows the Y – axis to rotate
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Gyroscope
Rigidity Precession
• The force of the gyro which opposes • Another important characteristic of the
any other force which tends to change gyro is its tendency to process if
its plane of rotation in space. external forces are applied to it.
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Gyroscope
Effects of bearing friction
• The effect of friction in the X, Y or Z axis makes it necessary to balance the
gyroscope gimbals dynamically.
Nutation
Oscillation caused by energy transferred back and forth from one element of the
gimbal system to the another
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Gyroscope
Gyro rotor design
• The rotor of the gyro is basically asymmetrical mass capable of rotating at high
speed.
• It has high angular momentum about its spin axis as a result of its speed and the
way its mass is distributed about the axis.
• The cylindrical rotor of a useful instrument should have its length substantially less
than 0.87 of its diameter.
• Air driven gyro operates at 8000 RPM while electric driven rotors operates at
slightly less than 24000 RPM
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Gyroscope
Flux valve
• An electro magnet used as a compass.
• Made up of coils of conductors which give electric signals depending on its
alignment to the magnetic north.
• The aircraft must be aligned to 0 degrees or magnetic north before being
calibrated.
• A Flux Valve is a magnetic sensory device that electrically transmits information to
an aircraft's compass system regarding its orientation relative to Earth's magnetic
field. This information, in the form of three separate electrical signals tied to a
common return, is used to generate a visual indication to the flight crew regarding
the heading of the aircraft relative to magnetic north.
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Gyroscope
Gimbal error
It the aircraft could be turned keeping the gimbals perpendicular, then the pointer
would move around the card an amount equal to the amount of the turn and its
position at any instant would be equal to the heading of the aircraft.
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Gyroscope
Bank and turn indicator
An instrument designed to tell the pilot the rate at which the airplane is turning and
whether the turn is coordinated, that is, the degree of bank is correct for the rate of
turn.
The Gyro horizon Indicator
Also called the artificial horizon or attitude gyro, is designed to provide a visual
reference horizon for an airplane which is flying “blind”, that is, with no visible
reference outside the airplane.
Directional Gyro
• A gyro –operated direction instrument designed to eliminate some of the problems
associated with the magnetic compass.
• The directional gyro must be reset to the magnetic compass from time to time to
correct for precession or drift after a period of operation, usually after every 15
minutes.
• The spinning axis is usually horizontal.
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Flight Instruments Scanning Techniques
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Flight Instruments Scanning Techniques
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Flight Instruments Scanning Techniques
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Flight Instruments Scanning Techniques
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Modern Flight Instruments
“Glass Cockpit”
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Glass Cockpit History
• 1970: NASA conducted research on flight instruments displays
• 1982: The success of the NASA-LED glass cockpit work is reflected in the total
acceptance of electronic flight displays in Boeing 767.
• By the end of the 1990s, display panels were increasingly favored among aircraft
manufacturers because of their efficiency, reliability and legibility.
• Nowadays, Modern aircraft such as the Boeing 777, Boeing 787, and Boeing 747-
400, Boeing 767-400ER, Airbus A320 family (enhanced version), Airbus A330, Airbus
A340 , Airbus A380 and Airbus A350 are fitted with glass cockpits consisting of
liquid crystal display (LCD) units
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Glass Cockpit
A glass cockpit is an aircraft cockpit that feature EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument
System)
On a glass cockpit aircraft, traditional flight instruments are replaced by an EFIS
through LCD screens displaying flight information in most convenient form, each
screen integrating several instruments.
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EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument System)
• EFIS installations vary greatly.
• A light aircraft might be equipped with one display unit, on which are
displayed flight and navigation data.
• A wide-body aircraft is likely to have six or more display units.
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F/A-18 - Glass Cockpit
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Boeing 777 Cockpit
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Bell 430 Cockpit
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EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument System)
An EFIS installation will have the following components:
1. PFD : Primary Flight Display
2. ND : Navigation Display
3. ECAM : Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor
4. FMS: Flight Management System
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1. Primary Flight Display (PFD)
• PFD replaces the traditional flight instruments.
• The PFD displays all information critical to flight, including airspeed, altitude,
heading, attitude & vertical speed
• PFDs also increase awareness by alerting the aircrew to potentially hazardous
conditions (for example, low airspeed, high rate of descent )by changing the
color or shape of the display or by providing audio alerts.
• The PFD is designed to improve a pilot's situational awareness by integrating
all information into a single display.
• The PFD is also designed to reduce the amount of time necessary to monitor
the instruments.
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2. Navigation Display
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2. Navigation Display
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2. Navigation Display
• ND shows navigational information from multiple system. (VOR, DME, ILS)
• ND also displays weather information from multiple systems (on-board radar or
lightning detection sensors)
• Similar with the PFD, the ND can change the color or shape of the data to alert the
aircrew to hazardous situations.
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3. Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor (ECAM):
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3. Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor (ECAM):
• ECAM monitors the overall aircraft systems, including its fuel, electrical and engine
systems.
• Give the pilots warning when there is a malfunction.
• For example, if an engine begins to lose oil pressure, the ECAM might sound an
alert, switch the display to the page with the oil system information and outline
the low oil pressure data with a red box.
• The upper ECAM screen displays engine, flaps setting, fuel quantity and alert
information.
• The lower ECAM displays the various systems parameters.
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EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument System)
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4. Flight Management System (FMS)
Multifunction
Control
Display Unit
(MCDU)
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4. Flight Management System (FMS)
• The flight management system (FMS) is the avionics that holds the flight plan,
and allows the pilot to modify as required in flight.
• Given the position and the flight plan, the FMS guides the aircraft along the
flight plan.
• The FMS is normally controlled by Multifunction Control Display Unit (MCDU)
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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
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AIRCRAFT NAVIGATION
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Introduction
Navigation is the art of ascertaining the position and bearing of an aircraft. The
aircraft navigation systems provide the crew with information required for a flight in
compliance with safety requirements.
Methods of Navigation
• Pilotage - with reference to landmarks
• Celestial - with reference to heavenly bodies
• Dead reckoning - with reference to two stations (triangulation)
• Radio Navigation - navigation that is now applied in most commercial
aircraft.
• Electronic Navigation - it uses VOR, ADF, ILS, and other digital instruments for
navigation
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VERY HIGH FREQUENCY
OMNIDIRECTIONAL
RANGE
(VOR)
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Very High Frequency Omni-directional Range (VOR)
• The VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) is a ground-based navigation aid,
measuring radials from a facility.
• It is the standard air navigational system in the world used by both commercial
and general aviation.
• VOR is a type of short-range radio navigation system for aircraft, enabling aircraft
with a receiving unit to determine their position and stay on course by receiving
radio signals transmitted by a network of fixed ground radio beacons.
• Bearing information is shown by Radio Magnetic Indicators (RMI) and by the
Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicators (EHSI).
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• The system provides an aural signal to allow VOR station identification. The
frequency used for the VOR system between 108 and 117.95 MHz giving 200
channels in VOR/LOC mode (50KHz spacing).
• The first 4 MHz is shared with the Instrument Landing System (ILS), in the range
108 – 111.95 MHz.
• The VOR information is also displayed on the EHSI’s, depending on the EFIS
control panel.
• On the EHSI, it also gives the lateral deviation between the aircraft heading radial
and the pilot via the course selector of the instrument remote controller.
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Analog VOR indicator
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Digital VOR indicator
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The following information can be obtained from the VOR:
• The magnetic bearing of the aircraft FROM the VOR beacon;
• The magnetic bearing from the aircraft TO the VOR beacon;
• The position of the aircraft, that is port or start board of a selected radial;
• When the aircraft is closing and when it is flying along a selected radial;
• When the aircraft passes over the VOR beacon.
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VHF Omni-directional Range Components
VOR Receiver - in many modern aircraft one control unit is used for both the VOR
receiver and the VHF communications transceiver. When located
together, the radio is called a COMM/NAV. The VOR signals are
received on the antenna, normally located on the vertical stabilizer or
on top of the fuselage. This antenna resembles a "V" lying in a
horizontal plane. The VOR receiver converts signals from the antenna
to the readings displayed on the navigation indicator.
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Navigation indicator - VOR navigation indicator gives the pilot aircraft position
information by means of three components. The track selector,
sometimes called the omni bearing selector or OBS, is used to
rotate the azimuth ring, which displays the selected VOR track.
This ring may also show the reciprocal of the selected track.
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Track Arrow - each time a track is chosen on the selector, the area around the VOR
station is divided into halves or envelopes. It is helpful to think of the
dividing line as a track arrow, which runs through the station and points
in the direction of the selected track. The TB shows the pilot in which of
these two envelopes the aircraft is located. If the aircraft is flying along
the track line, the TB needle is centered. If the aircraft flies to the left of
the track arrow (as in position A), the TB needle swings to the right. If
the aircraft moves to the right of the track arrow, (position B), the TB
needle swings to the left
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Reference Line - when the pilot selects a track, the position of another line is
established, a reference line perpendicular to the track arrow and
intersecting it at the station. The reference line divides the VOR
reception area into two additional sectors. The area forward of the
reference line is the FROM envelope and the area to the rear of the
reference line is the TO envelope. The TO-FROM indicator shows in
which envelope the aircraft is located. In the To-From Envelopes
figure, on the right, both aircraft display a FROM reading.
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Four Elements of the Analogue VOR display:
• Rotating Course Card
Calibrated from 0 to 360°, which indicates the VOR bearing chosen as the
reference to fly TO or FROM. This VOR gauge also digitally displays the VOR
bearing, which simplifies setting the desired navigation track.
Omni Bearing Selector knob (OBS)
Used to manually rotate the course card.
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The CDI, or Course Deviation Indicator
This needle swings left or right indicating the direction to turn to return to
course. When the needle is to the left, turn left and when the needle is to
the right, turn right, When centered, the aircraft is on course. Each dot in
the arc under the needle represents a 2° deviation from the desired course.
This needle is more-frequently called the left-right needle, with the CDI
term quickly forgotten after taking the FAA written exams. Here, the pilot is
doing well, and is dead-on course—or maybe lazy and with the autopilot
activated in the "NAV" mode.
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The TO-FROM indicator.
This arrow will point up, or towards the nose of the aircraft, when flying TO
the VOR station. The arrow reverses direction, points downward, when
flying away FROM the VOR station. A red flag replaces these TO-FROM
arrows when the VOR is beyond reception range, has not been properly
tuned in, or the VOR receiver is turned off. Similarly, the flag appears if the
VOR station itself is inoperative, or down for maintenance.
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How does the VOR operate?
• The VOR facility transmits two signals at the same time. One signal is constant in
all directions, while the other is rotated about the station. The airborne
equipment receives both signals, looks (electronically) at the difference between
the two signals, and interprets the result as a radial from the station.
• VOR Beacons are often placed with other types of beacons. Therefore, there are
different variation of symbols of VOR depending on the other type of beacon it is
located with.
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The VOR Ground Station sends out:
• Omnidirectional master signal
• Receiving signals or transmitting in all direction
• Highly directional second signal
• Extreme signals being engaged
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It is propagated by a phased antenna array and rotates clockwise in space 30 times a
second.
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Types of VHF Omni-directional Range
• Broadcast VOR (BVOR)
• Doppler VOR (DVOR)
• Terminal VOR (TVOR)
• VHF Omni-directional Test (VOT)
• Co-Located VOR and TACAN Beacons (VORTAC)
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Broadcast VOR (BVOR)
• Gives you whether an airfield information between beacon identification.
Doppler VOR (DVOR)
• It is the same as the broadcast VOR but it has improved accuracy.
• It is a ground based, radio navigation aid, transmitting an omni-directional
signal that enables an aircraft to determine its bearing relative to the
location of the beacon.
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Doppler VOR Station
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Terminal VOR (TVOR)
• A low-powered VOR (very high frequency omnidirectional radio-range)
located at or near an airport at which a particular flight terminates and
which has been specified as a NAVAID (navigational aid) in the final
approach clearance. It has a low power. It is used in major airfields.
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VHF Omni-directional Test (VOT)
• It is found in certain airfields. It broadcast a fixed omni-directional signal for
a 360 degree test radial. This is not for navigation use, but is use to test or
calibrate an aircraft equipment accuracy before an IFR flight.
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Co-located VOR and TACAN beacons (VORTAC)
• TACAN stands for "TACtical Air Navigation"
• It is a military equipment fulfilling a similar function to DME.
• A navigation system used by military aircraft. It provides the user with
bearing and distance (slant-range) to a ground or ship-borne station.
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VORTAC STATION
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Different Types of VOR Indicator
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AUTOMATIC
DIRECTION
FINDER
(ADF)
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Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)
Some aircraft are equipped with an ADF receiver. They receive radio signals in the
medium frequency band of 190 KHz to 1750 KHz. The ADF receiver can “Home” on
both AM radio stations and Non-Directional Beacons. Commercial AM radio stations
broadcast on 540 to 1620 KHz. Non-Directional Beacons (NDBs) operate in the
frequency band of 190 to 535 KHz.
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All radio beacons except compass locators transmit a continuous three-letter
identification in code except during voice transmissions. A compass locator, which is
associated with an instrument landing system, transmits a two-letter identification.
Standard broadcast stations can also be used in conjunction with ADF. Positive
identification of all radio stations is extremely important and this is particularly true
when using standard broadcast stations for navigation.
• NDBs have one advantage over the VOR. This advantage is that low or medium
frequencies are not affected by line-of-sight. The signals follow the curvature of the
Earth; therefore, if the aircraft is within the range of the station, the signals can be
received regardless of altitude.
• One of the disadvantages that should be considered when using low frequency (LF)
for navigation is that low frequency signals are very susceptible to electrical
disturbances, such as lightning. These disturbances create excessive static, needle
deviations, and signal fades. There may be interference from distant stations. Pilots
should know the conditions under which these disturbances can occur so they can
be more alert to possible interference when using the ADF.
• Basically, the ADF aircraft equipment consists of a tuner, which is used to set the
desired station frequency, and the navigational display.
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• The receiver unit has tuning dials to select the station frequency A volume control
allows the audible volume to be controlled for identifying the station. The volume
can be reduced to prevent interference with other communications. You should,
however, continuously monitor the identifier while using the NDB for navigation.
• The navigational display contains a compass rose dial graduated in 5 degree
increments from 0° to 355°, a pointer with an arrow on one end, and a square form
on the other end. We will call the arrow end the “Pointer”, and the square end the
“Tail” for the sake of identification.
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ADF Components
The aircraft equipment consists of two antennas, the ADF Receiver, and the ADF
Indicator. The two antennas are called the (1) LOOP antenna and the (2) SENSE
antenna.
The LOOP antenna can sense the direction of the signal from the station, but cannot
discriminate whether the station is in front or behind the aircraft.
The SENSE antenna can discriminate direction, and solves the ambiguity of the loop
antenna.
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ADF Antenna
The aircraft consist of two antennas. The two antennas are called LOOP antenna and
SENSE antenna. The ADF receives signals on both loop and sense antennas. The loop
antenna in common use today is a small flat antenna without moving parts. Within
the antenna are several coils spaced at various angles. The loop antenna sense the
direction of the station by the strength of the signal on each coil but cannot
determine whether the bearing is TO or FROM the station. The sense antenna
provides this latter information.
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Loop Antenna
A loop antenna is a radio antenna consisting of a loop (or loops) of wire, tubing, or
other electrical conductor with its ends connected to a balanced transmission line.
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Sense Antenna
A type of non-directional radio antenna used with an automatic direction finder. The
sense antenna picks up signals with equal strength from all directions.
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ADF Receiver
Pilot can tune the station desired and to select the mode of operation. The signal is
received, amplified, and converted to audible voice or Morse code transmission and
powers the bearing indicator.
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ADF Control Box
Control Box (Digital Readout Type) : Most modern aircraft has this type of control in
the cockpit . In this equipment the frequency tuned is displayed as digital readout.
ADF automatically determines bearing to selected station and it on the RMI.
The receiver unit has tuning dials to select the station frequency. A volume control
allows the audible volume to be controlled for identifying the station. The volume can
be reduced to prevent interference with other communications.
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ADF Indicators
• Fixed Compass Card
• Rotatable Compass Card
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FIXED COMPASS CARD
The fixed indicator's compass card is
exactly as the name says. It is fixed to the
face of the instrument and cannot rotate;
0° is always straight up to the nose of the
aircraft. visualizing the situation with this
type of indicator can be daunting.
The fixed-indicator can still be found on
many aircraft panels, but seldom in planes
where the pilot actually uses the ADF.
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Rotatable Compass Card
The Rotatable Compass Card Indicator was a big step over the fixed-card indicator. The
pilot can now rotate the compass card with the heading knob to display the aircraft’s
magnetic heading "straight up."
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Bearing Indicator or Bearing Pointer
Displays the bearing to station relative to the nose of the aircraft.
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• Relative Bearing
Is the angle formed by the line drawn through the center line of the aircraft and
a line drawn from the aircraft to the radio station.
• Magnetic Bearing
Is the angle formed by a line drawn from aircraft to the radio station and a line
drawn from the aircraft to magnetic north (Bearing to station).
• RMI : Radio Magnetic Indicator
Radio Magnetic Indicator is an instrument that combines radio and magnetic
information to provide continuous heading and bearing.
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Single-Needle Radio Magnetic Indicator
The face of the single needle RMI is similar to the rotatable card ADF.
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Dual-Needle Radio Magnetic Indicator
The dual needle RMI is similar to single
needle RMI except that it has a second
needle. The first needle indicated just like
single needle. In the picture , the yellow
needle is a single which indicate the
Magnetic Bearing to the NDB station . The
second needle is the green needle in the
picture.
The second needle (green) is point to VOR
station .The dual needle indicator is useful
in locate the location of an aircraft.
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NAME ID TYPE NAME ID TYPE
ALABAT AL NDB COTOBATO COT VOR-DME
BACOLOD BC VOR DAET DT NDB
BAGABAG BA NDB DAVAO DAO VOR-DME
BAGUIO BG NDB DAVAO DAO NDB
BASA BB NDB DIPOLOG DI NDB
BASCO BS NDB DUMAGUETE DG VOR
BUTUAN BN VOR-DME ILOILO IOO VOR-DME
CABANATUAN CAB VOR-DME JOLO JL NDB
CAGAYAN DE ORO CGO VOR-DME JOMALIG JOM VOR-DME
CATICLAN CT NDB JOVELLAR JV NDB
CAUAYAN CUY VOR-DME KALIBO KLO VOR-DME
CLARK CIA VOR-DME LAOAG LAO VOR-DME
CLARK CIA NDB LARAP LR NDB
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NAME ID TYPE NAME ID TYPE
LEGASPI LP VOR-DME PUERTO PRINCESA PR NDB
LIPA LIP VOR ROSARIO RS NDB
LIPA LIP NDB ROXAS ROX VOR-DME
LUBANG NBG VOR-DME SAN FERNANADO SAN VOR
MACTAN MCT VOR-DME SAN JOSE SAJ VOR-DME
MACTAN MCT VOR-DME SUBIC BAY SBA VOR-DME
MALAMPAYA MP NDB SUBIC BAY SFS NDB
MANILA MIA VOR-DME SURIGAO SU NDB
MASBATE MBT VOR-DME TACLOBAN TAC VOR-DME
NAGA NGA VOR-DME TAMBLER GSA VOR-DME
PAGADIAN PN NDB TANDANG TD NDB
PAMALICAN PIN NDB TUGUEGARAO TUG VOR-DME
PLARIDEL PL NDB VIRAC VC NDB
PUERTO PRINCESA PS VOR-DME ZAMBOANGA ZAM VOR-DME
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DISTANCE MEASURING
EQUIPMENT
(DME)
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DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT
(DME)
• Distance measuring equipment (DME) is
one of the most valuable pieces of
avionics in the aircraft, especially for the
IFR pilot.
• The main purpose of the DME is to
display an aircraft distance to a ground
station.
• DME reduces pilot workload by
continuously showing the distance to
the station, time-to-station and
groundspeed.
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Uses of Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
• DME provides the physical distance from the aircraft to the ground DME
transponder expressed in Nautical Miles (NM).
• DME also calculates ground speed and the time needed to reach the station if the
aircraft is fitted with appropriate computer.
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DME
1 2 3.5
NAUTICAL MILES
INDICATOR
REPLY
PULSE
INTERROGATION
PULSE
DME
GROUND
FACILITY
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DME Components
The DME system consists of three basic components which are:
• DME antenna on the aircraft body (Interrogator).
• DME navigation display unit in aircraft cockpit.
• DME transmitter/receiver in the ground (Transponder).
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FREQUENCY RANGE
1 MHz SPACING
1 0 2 5 . 00 ACT
DME MODE
SWITCH
1 1 5 0 . 00 PRE
I
STBY L
NORM VOR/DME S
T
E
ON TEST S
T
HOLD
DME
HOLDSTBY
- LOCKS
NORM
- RXSYSTEM
OPERATIVE/TX
- NORMAL
ONTOOPERATION
CURRENT
INHIBITEDDME
LAMP ON WHEN
“HOLD” SELECTED
BAe 146 - VHF NAVIGATION CONTROL PANEL
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DME NO 1
DME NO 2
BROADBAND
L-BAND AERIAL
DME ANTENNA LOCATION (B737)
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DME Hardware
The DME system is composed of a UHF transmitter/receiver (interrogator) in the
aircraft and a UHF receiver/transmitter (transponder) on the ground.
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DME Interrogator and Transponder
An airplane’s DME interrogator uses frequencies from 1025 to 1150 MHz. DME
transponders transmit on a channel in the 962 to 1213 MHz range and receive on a
corresponding channel between 1025 to 1150 MHz. The band is divided into 126
channels for interrogation and 126 channels for reply. The interrogation and reply
frequencies always differ by 63 MHz. The spacing of all channels is 1 MHz with a signal
spectrum width of 100 kHz.
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DME Indicator
DME enables aircraft to establish its range to the ground station:
• Distance in nautical miles;
• Ground speed in knots;
• Flying time to the station in minutes.
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DME distance = 107.9 nm
Ground speed = 250 kt
Time to station = 25 mins
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How DME works
• DME provides distance (slant range) from the aircraft to the ground DME.
• DME operates on Ultra High Frequency (UHF) which is between 962 to 1213
MHz.
• DME works based on pulse techniques, where pulse means a single vibration of
electric current.
• The aircraft’s antenna sends out paired pulses at specific spacing.
• The ground DME station receives the pulses and then responds with paired
pulses at the same spacing but a different frequency.
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How the Interrogator & Transponder Receives Vibration at Specific Timing
The aircraft interrogates the ground transponder with a series of pulse-pairs
(interrogations) and, after a precise time delay (typically 50 microseconds), the ground
station replies with an identical sequence of pulse-pairs. The DME receiver in the
aircraft searches for pulse-pairs (X-mode= 12 microsecond spacing) with the correct
interval between them, which is determined by each individual aircraft's particular
interrogation pattern. The aircraft interrogator locks on to the DME ground station
once it recognizes a particular reply pulse sequence has the same spacing as the
original interrogation sequence.
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INSTRUMENT
LANDING
SYSTEM
(ILS)
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HISTORY
• Until the mid-1950’s, only visual landing procedures were possible
• 1958-First IFR landing system developed
• 1966-First ILS system developed and tested at Edwards AFB in Mojave, CA
• 1968-First ILS applications installed at major airports
• 1974-ILS systems mandated by FAA for at least two major runways at all Regional,
and International Airports.
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HISTORY
The Instrument Landing System had been invented in the 1930s by Ernst Kramar IEEE
Pioneer 1964 at Standard Electric Lorenz an ITT subsidiary. Andrew Alford IEEE
Pioneer 1965, under a CAA contract, developed and tested a full system embodying a
Localizer and a constant intensity Glide Path.
Amelia Earheart
July 24, 1897 – disappeared July 2, 1937
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Instrument Landing System
ILS stands for Instrument Landing System. It is a ground-based instrument approach
system which provides precision guidance to an aircraft approaching a runway.
Installed on each end of the runway. It was accepted as a standard system by the ICAO
( International Civil Aviation Organization), in 1947. Uses radio signals and sometimes
coupled with high-intensity lights. Enables safe landing during IMC (Instrument
meteorological Condition). Such as low ceilings or reduced visibility. Instrument
Approach Procedure charts (or "approach plates are published for each ILS approach,
providing pilots with the needed information to fly an ILS approach during Instrument
flight Rules (IFR) operations.
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On Board ILS Gauge
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Operation of ILS
VHF Frequency transmits radar signal and intensity data to ILS Signal Deciphering and
Display Computer Localizer signal transmitted in direction opposite of runway to
horizontally guide aircraft to touchdown point Glide-Slope signal transmitted at an
angle of 7.5-10 degrees into sky to define vertical descent path to runway touchdown
point on-board antenna system located in aircraft Radom receives radar and VHF
signals and sends it to on-board ILS computer Signal data is then displayed on
instrument panel gauge which maps the directional, and descent path to the runway.
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BASIC PRINCIPLE: ILS works on basic principle of bearing by lobe comparison. MAIN
COMPONENTS REQUIRED BY ILS:
• Guidance information: the localizer and glide slope.
• Range information: the outer marker (OM) and the middle marker (MM)
beacons.
• Visual information: approach lights, touchdown and center line lights, runway
lights.
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Localizer
It is the lateral component of the instrument landing system. It is an antenna array,
normally located at the departure end of the runway. Each antenna transmits a
narrow beam, one slightly to the left and one slightly to the right.
It is used to provide lateral guidance to the aircraft and thus allows for tracking the
extended runway center line. Localizer information is typically displayed on a course
deviation indicator (CDI) which is used by the pilot until visual contact is made and the
landing completed.
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Localizer Antenna Array
A VHF transmitter emitting highly directional lobes is located typically 1,000ft (300 m)
beyond the stopping end of the runway. The two lobes are amplitude modulated; the
one to the right at 150 Hz and the other to the left at 90Hz on one of the carrier
frequency between 108.10 MHz and 111.95 MHz. Only odd frequencies are for the
localizer. There are 40 channels available for ILS localizer. The localizer radiation
patterns are normally arranged. The dual-frequency localizers are extremely precise
and can be used for the ILS categories II/III.
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Glideslope
The rate of descent you should maintain primarily depends on your groundspeed. For
the same glide slope angle (usually 3°), you will need a lower rate of descent as your
groundspeed decreases, and vice versa. If you maintain the glide slope for an
approach, you should reach the decision height at approximately the middle marker.
Although you may reach the decision height at or near the middle marker, the charted
MAP for an ILS approach is the point where the glide slope intercepts the decision
height. This point may or may not be at the middle marker.
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Marker Beacon
A marker beacon is a particular type of VHF radio beacon used in aviation, usually in
conjunction with an instrument landing system(ILS), to give pilots a means to
determine position along an established route to a destination such as a runway.
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Outer Marker Beacon
The Outer Marker, which normally identifies the final approach fix (FAF), is situated on
the same course/track as the localizer and the runway center-line, four to
seven nautical miles before the runway threshold. It is typically located about 1 NM
(2 km) inside the point where the glideslope intercepts the intermediate altitude and
transmits a 400 Hz tone signal on a low-powered (3 watts), 75 MHz carrier frequency.
Its antenna is highly directional, and is pointed straight up. The valid signal area is a
2,400 ft (730 m) × 4,200 ft (1,280 m) ellipse (as measured 1,000 ft (300 m) above the
antenna.) When the aircraft passes over the outer marker antenna, its marker
beacon receiver detects the signal. The system gives the pilot a visual
(blinking blue outer marker light) and aural (continuous series of audio tone morse
code-like 'dashes') indication.
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Middle Marker Beacon
A middle marker works on the same principle as an outer marker. It is normally
positioned 0.5 to 0.8 nautical miles (1 km) before the runway threshold. When the
aircraft is above the middle marker, the receiver's amber middle marker light starts
blinking, and a repeating pattern of audible Morse code-like dot-dashes at a
frequency of 1,300 Hz in the headset. This alerts the pilot that the CAT I missed
approach point (typically 200 feet (60 m) above the ground level on the glide slope)
has been passed and should have already initiated the missed approach if one of
several visual cues has not been spotted.
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Inner Marker Beacon
Similar to the outer and middle markers; located at the beginning (threshold) of the
runway on some ILS approach systems (usually Category II and III) having decision
heights of less than 200 feet (60 m) AGL. Triggers a flashing white light on the same
marker beacon receiver used for the outer and middle markers; also a series of audio
tone 'dots' at a frequency of 3,000 Hz in the headset.
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ILS Critical Area
Disturbance to ILS localizer and glide slope courses may occur when surface vehicles
or aircraft are operated near the localizer or glide slope antennas.
Note: Vehicles not subjected to ATC may cause momentary deviation to ILS course or
glide slope signals.
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CATEGORIES
• CAT I
• CAT II
• CAT III A
• CAT III B
• CAT III C
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CAT I
• A precision instrument approach and landing with a decision height not lower than
200 feet (60 m) and with either a visibility of not less than ½ statute mile (800 m) or
a runway visual range of not less than 2600 feet (800 m).
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CAT II
A precision instrument approach and landing with:
a) a decision height lower than 200 feet (60 m) but not lower than 100 feet (30
m);
b) a runway visual range not less than 1,200 feet (350 m) at RVR A; and
c) a runway visual range not less than 600 feet (175 m) at RVR B.
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CAT III A
A precision instrument approach and landing with:
a) a decision height lower than 100 feet (30 m), or no decision height: and
b) a runway visual range not less than 600 feet (175 m) at each of RVR A, RVR B
and RVR C.
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CAT III B
A precision instrument approach and landing with:
a) a decision height lower than 50 feet (15 m), or no decision height: and
b) a runway visual range less than 600 feet (175 m) but not less than 150 feet
(50 m) at each of RVR A, RVR B and RVR C.
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CAT III C
A precision instrument approach and landing with no decision height and no runway
visual range limitation.
A Category III C system is capable of using an aircraft’s autopilot to land the aircraft
and can also provide guidance along the runway.
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ILS CATEGORIES
CAT 1
200
CAT 2 A B C
100
CAT 3
800 600 400 200 50 0
RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (METRES)
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Approach Lighting System
Installed on the approach end of an airport runway and consisting of a series of light
bars, strobe lights.
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Variety of Approach Light Systems
HIRL – High Intensity Runway Light system
MALSR – Medium intensity Approach Light System with Runway
alignment indicator lights.
TDZ/CL – runway Touchdown Zone and Centreline Lighting system
ALSF 1 – high intensity Approach Light System with Sequenced Flashing
lights, system length 2,400 to 3,000 feet
ALSF 2 – high intensity Approach Light System with Sequenced Flashing
lights and red side row lights the last 1,000 feet, system length
2,400 to 3,000 feet
SALS/SALSF – Short Approach Lighting System, high intensity
(same as inner 1,500 feet of ALSF 1)
SSALF – Simplified Short Approach Lighting system with sequenced
Flashing lights and runway alignment indicator lights, system
length 2,400 to 3,000 feet
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MALD/MASLF – Medium intensity Approach Lighting, with and without Sequenced
Flashing lights, system length 1,400 feet
ODALS – Omni Directional Approach Lighting System with sequenced flashing
lights, system length 1,400 feet
RAIL – Runway Alignment Indicator Lighted sequence flashing lights (which are
only installed in combination with other light systems)
REIL – Runway End Identifier Lights (threshold strobes)
LDIN – sequenced flashing LeaD-IN lights
VASI – Visual Approach Slope Indicator
PAPI – Precision Approach Path Indicator
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Runway Markings
There are runway markings and signs on most large runways. Larger runways have a
distance remaining sign (black box with white numbers). This sign uses a single
number to indicate the thousands of feet remaining, so 7 will indicate 7,000 ft
(2,134 m) remaining. The runway threshold is marked by a line of green lights.
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HomNon-Instrument Runway (NI) Precision Runway (P)
e
Previou
s
Nex
t
Aiming
Hel
p
point
Touchdown
zone
Threshold
Non-Precision Runway (NP)
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Types of Runway Approach
1. Non-Instrument Runway (NI)
• A runway intended for the operation of aircraft using visual approach
procedure
2. Instrument Runway
• A runway intended for operation of aircraft using instrument approach
procudures
a. Non-precision Runway (NP)
• An instrument runway served by visual aids and a non-visual aid providing
at least lateral guidance adequate for a straight-in approach
b. Precision Runway (P)
• Allows operations with a decision height and visibility corresponding to
Category I, II or III.
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LDA and SDF Approach
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Localizer type directional aid (LDA)
Is a type of localizer-based instrument approach to an airport. It is used in places
where, due to terrain and other factors, the localizer antenna array is not aligned with
the runway it serves.
In these cases, the localizer antenna array may be off set in such a way that the
approach course it projects no longer lies along the extended runway centerline. If
the angle of offset is 30 degrees or less, the facility is classified as an offset localizer. If
the offset angle is greater than 30 degrees, the facility is classified as a localizer type
directional aid.
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Simplified Directional Facility (SDF)
Is a localizer-based instrument non-precision approach to an airport, which provides
final approach course similar to instrument landing system (ILS) and Local type
Directional Aid (LDA) approaches, although not as precise.
The SFD signal is fixed at either 6 or 12 degrees, as necessary to provide maximum
flyability and optimum course quality. Unlike an ILS, an SDF does not provide vertical
guidance in form of a glideslope.
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RADIO ALTIMETER
(RA)
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HEIGHT ABOVE GROUND = TIME BETWEEN TX & RX
2
RADAR PULSE
TRANSMITTED FROM RADAR ECHO
AIRCRAFT RECEIVED BY
AIRCRAFT
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• The radio altimeter system determines the height of the aircraft above the ground
irrespective of atmospheric pressure.
• The radio altimeter sends a signal to the ground and measures the elapsed time
between signal transmission and reflected signal reception. Then the system
computes the distance from the aircraft to the ground.
• One of the main characteristics of the radio altimeter system is that it locks onto
the leading edge of the reflected wave which enables it to measure the distance
between the aircraft and the nearest obstacle. It can therefore operate over non-
flat ground surfaces.
• The radio altimeter gives accurate height information when flying below 2500 feet
and is particularly useful during the approach phase.
• The radio altimeter information and the decision height (DH) are displayed on the
EADI's.
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• The radio altimeter system comprises the following components:
• One transmission antenna and one reception antenna,
• One transceiver.
• Altitude information is transmitted to the EADI's through the SGU's.
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• The radio altimeter information is displayed on the bottom right corner of the
EADI's by a 4 blue digits followed by the white RA label.
• The range of the display is from - 20 to + 2500 feet.
• The resolution is:
• 0 feet above 200 feet,
• 5 feet from 200 feet to 10 feet,
• 1 foot below 10 feet.
• Radio altitude is not displayed above 2500 feet.
• The decision height is displayed on the bottom left corner of the EADI's by 3 blue
digits followed by the white DH label.
• The range of the display is from 0 to + 990 feet and the resolution is 10 feet.
• Decision height selection is made by means of the DH/ TEST inner knob on the EFIS
Control Panel (ECP)
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• When the aircraft height is equal to or lower than the selected DH value + 100 feet,
a white box is displayed on the EADI, left of the RA.
• When the aircraft height is equal to or lower than the selected DH value, the
amber DH annunciator is displayed in this white box.
• A yellow runway symbol appears at the bottom of the sphere when the radio
altitude is lower than 200 feet and moves up linearly until it comes into contact
with the aircraft symbol, for a height lower than or equal to 3 feet.
• When invalid radio altitude occurs, amber dashes are displayed on each digit
instead of radio altitude and DH displays.
• WARNING: when decision height is set to 0, decision height is not displayed on the
EADI's.
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TX
RX ANTENNAS
ANTENNAS
HORN ANTENNA
RADALT ANTENNA & LOCATION
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TEST
CONNECTOR
TEST
SWITCH
SYSTEM OK
TEST PASS LIGHT
RADALT
TRANSCEIVER
SYSTEM OK
TRANSCEIVER
R/T UNIT
FAIL LIGHT
ANT
IND
ANTENNA
FAIL LIGHT
INDICATOR
FAIL LIGHT
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100
ON TEST
INDICATOR SHOWS
40ft INDICATION
150
SET
TEST
TEST
SYSTEM OK
R/T UNIT
ANT
LAMP CHECK
IND
RAD ALT
SYSTEM
TEST PASS
RADALT TESTING
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Radio Detection
And Ranging
(RADAR)
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Radio Detection And Ranging
Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range,
altitude, direction, or speed of objects. Developed during World War II as a method to
detect the presence of ships and aircraft (the military considered weather targets as
noise) Since WW II, there have been many advances in radar technology (e.g., Doppler
techniques) and it’s used on land, sea and in space for both research and operational
needs.
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Application of Radar in Aircraft
In aviation, aircraft are equipped with radar devices that warn of aircraft or other
obstacles in or approaching their path, display weather information, and give accurate
altitude readings.
Radar signal
A radar system has a transmitter that emits radio waves called radar signals in
predetermined directions. When these come into contact with an object they are
usually reflected or scattered in many directions.
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Reflection
If electromagnetic waves traveling through one material meet another material,
having a very different dielectric constant or diamagnetic constant from the first, the
waves will reflect or scatter from the boundary between the materials.
Doppler effect
Frequency shift is caused by motion that changes the number of wavelengths
between the reflector and the radar.
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Polarization
In all electromagnetic radiation, the electric field is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation, and this direction of the electric field is the polarization of the wave.
Limiting factors of Radar
Line of sight, which depends on height above ground. This means with out a direct
line of sight the path of the beam is blocked. The maximum non-ambiguous range,
which is determined by the pulse repetition frequency. The maximum non-ambiguous
range is the distance the pulse could travel and return before the next pulse is
emitted.
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Noise
Signal noise is an internal source of random variations in the signal, which is
generated by all electronic components.
The noise floor and signal to noise ratio are two different measure of performance
that impact range performance.
Interference
Radar systems must overcome unwanted signals in order to focus only on the actual
targets of interest. These unwanted signals may originate from internal and external
sources, both passive and active.
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Jamming
Radar jamming refers to radio frequency signals originating from sources outside the
radar, transmitting in the radar's frequency and thereby masking targets of interest.
Jamming may be intentional, as with an electronic warfare tactic, or unintentional, as
with friendly forces operating equipment that transmits using the same frequency
range.
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Radar Signal Processing
• *Distance measurement
• One way to obtain a distance measurement is based on the time-of-flight: transmit
a short pulse of radio signal (electromagnetic radiation) and measure the time it
takes for the reflection to return.
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Frequency Modulation
Another form of distance measuring radar is based on frequency modulation.
Frequency comparison between two signals is considerably more accurate, even with
older electronics, than timing the signal.
In these systems a "carrier" radar signal is frequency modulated in a predictable way,
typically varying up and down with a sine wave or sawtooth pattern at audio
frequencies.
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Speed Measurement
• Speed is the change in distance to an object with respect to time.
• Thus the existing system for measuring distance, combined with a memory
capacity see where the target last was, is enough to measure speed. to
• Modern radar systems perform the equivalent operation faster and more
accurately using computers.
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WEATHER RADAR SYSTEM
• Detects and displays conditions involving storm cells and rainfall.
• Provides range, bearing and intensity of cloud formations.
• Weather information is displayed either on a dedicated weather radar display or
onto the EHSI display.
• Also provides ground mapping mode (used to illuminate coastlines during coastal
crossings).
• Maximum range up to 300nm.
• Operates in the “x” band (6 - 12.5 GHz).
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Anatomy of a Weather Radar
Radome
Feed horn
Antenna
Receiver Transmitter
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• Antenna - the main purpose of the antenna (also called the “dish”) is to focus the
transmitted power into a small beam and also to listen and collect the returned
signal
• Feed horn - directs the signal from the transmitter onto the antenna (also directs
the return signal from the antenna to the receiver)
• Receiver - detects the signal returned from a target
• Radome - protects the antenna from high winds
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SELECTED
RANGE
GAIN TILT
UP
SB/T WX WX/T RCT GCR MAP
DWN
MIN MAX
RFLECTED VAR 10 20 40 80 160 320 SEC
ENERGY DISPLAY DISPLAY
OFF MAX OFF MAX
FRZ FRZ
LEFT RIGHT
AUX ALRT
TRANSMITTED
SCAN ANGLE
ENERGY
WEATHER RADAR OPERATION
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GAIN TILT
UP
SB/T WX WX/T RCT GCR MAP
DWN
MIN MAX
VAR 10 20 40 80 160 320 SEC
DISPLAY DISPLAY
OFF MAX
FRZ
OFF MAX
FRZ
STORM CELL
LEFT RIGHT
AUX ALRT
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Weather Radar Scanning
For a radar to find a target of interest (e.g., a cloud), 3 pieces of information are
needed:
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Weather Radar Scanning
In meteorology, radars usually employ one of two scanning techniques:
Plan Position Indicator (PPI): The radar holds its elevation angle
constant but varies its azimuth angle. If the radar rotates through
360 degrees, the scan is called a "surveillance scan". If the radar
rotates through less than 360 degrees, the scan is called a "sector
scan".
Range Height Indicator (RHI): the radar holds its azimuth angle
constant but varies its elevation angle. The elevation angle
normally is rotated from near the horizon to near the zenith (the
point in the sky directly overhead).
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Applications of Weather Radar: National Weather Service
Radar is an important component in the arsenal of forecaster tools to understand
both the current state of the atmosphere as well as what might happen in the near
future. While satellite data gives a forecaster a sense of the “big picture”, radar
provides more detail on at smaller scales of weather.
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Next Generation Weather Radar (NEXRAD) Sites (NWS)
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Significant improvements over older weather radar systems:
• Ability to see motion of air (precipitation) using Doppler effect.
• Increased sensitivity and resolution allows observation of cold fronts, dry lines, and
thunderstorm gust fronts.
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How Does the Radar Sense a Target in the Atmosphere?
• Radars operate by sending out energy from a source and “listening” to the amount
that is reflected (scattered) from targets
• Targets can be trees, cloud, bumblebees or anything else the radar pulse intercepts
• Weather radars utilize frequency of ~ 3000 MHz (10 cm wavelength) - radio waves
• The radar transmits short pulses of these radio waves at rate of ~ 1000 pulses/s
• Each pulse is very short, lasting only about 1/1,000,000 s
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• After each pulse, there is a short period for radar to “listen” to the scattered signal
from the target of interest
• The scattered signal is a result of energy from the transmitted pulse interacting
with the target (snow, rain, hail, etc.)
• A small portion of the transmitted power is returned to the radar (the echo),
received by the antenna, and analysed by the radar signal processor. Once that’s
done, precipitation rates can be determined (we’ll talk about this in more detail
later)
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Measuring Air Motion with Radar
In addition to measuring the amount of signal returned from targets, NEXRAD radar
has the added capability of being able to measure a frequency shift that is introduced
into the reflected signal by the motion of the precipitation particles. This frequency
shift is then used to determine wind speed (we assume that the particles are
instantaneously moved around by the wind).
• The amount of “shift” can be determined by comparing the frequency of
the transmit pulse with the frequency of the reflected pulse
• Particles moving toward the radar are shifted to higher frequency
• Particles moving away from the radar are shifted to lower frequency
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TILT ANGLE
RADAR
PULSE
GAIN TILT
UP
SB/T WX WX/T RCT GCR MAP
DWN
MIN MAX
VAR 10 20 40 80 160 320 SEC
DISPLAY DISPLAY
OFF MAX OFF MAX
FRZ FRZ
GROUND
LEFT RIGHT
AUX ALRT
RETURNS
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WX PARABOLIC
SCANNER ASSEMBLY
AZIMUTH
REFLECTOR
GEAR
ELEVATION
GEAR
AERIAL
GIMBAL
WAVEGUIDE
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GAIN TILT
UP
SB/T WX WX/T RCT GCR MAP
DWN
MIN
VAR
MAX
10 20 40 80 160 320 SEC
LEVEL OF RETURN COLOUR
NEGLIGIBLE BLACK
DISPLAY MARKER
LOW GREEN
OFF MAX OFF MAX
MODERATE YELLOW
FRZ FRZ HIGH RED
LEFT RIGHT
INOP ALRT
WEATHER RADAR SIGNAL LEVELS
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GAIN TILT GAIN
TILTMARKER
DISPLAY
SB/T WX WX/T RCT GCR MAP
UP ADUSTS
ALLOWS
ADJUSTS THE
THE GAIN
ELEVATION
ADJUSTS THE
MIN MAX
DWN OF THE RADAR
MOVEMENT
BRIGHTNESS
BRIGHTNESS OF THE
VAR 10 20 40 80 160 320 SEC SCANNER
OF OF THE
THE RANGE
WEATHER
MARKERS
DISPLAY
TO MEASURE
TOP/BOTTOM OF
DISPLAY MARKER
STORM CLOUD OR
GROUND MAPPING
OFF MAX OFF MAX
MODE
FRZ FRZ
LEFT RIGHT
AUX ALRT
WEATHER RADAR
DISPLAY
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GAIN TILT
UP WXMAP
SEC
VAR SB/T
WX/T
GCR
RCT
FRZ
SB/T WX WX/T RCT GCR MAP RIGHT ALRT
DWN NORMAL
STANDBY
GROUND
SCANNING
ALLOWS
GROUND
RAIN
FREEZEOPERATING
AND
MAPPING
SECTOR
WEATHER
ECHO AND
VARIABLE
CLUTTER
DISPLAY
MIN MAX DISPLAYS ONLY
TARGET ALERT
VAR 10 20 40 80 160 320 SEC MODE
MODETEST
(NORMAL
GAIN
REMOVAL SELECT
160° OR 90°)
TURBULENCE
INPUT
ATTENUATION
RIGHTHAND
MODE OF DISPLAY
(VIA MODE
GAIN CONTROL)
MODE
COMPENSATION
TECHNIQUE
(REACT)
DISPLAY MARKER
OFF MAX OFF MAX
FRZ FRZ
LEFT RIGHT
INOP ALRT
WEATHER
RADAR
DISPLAY
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IRS
ANTENNA
PITCH ROLL ASSEMBLY
115V A.C.
POWER
SUPPLIES 28V D.C.
WAVEGUIDE
POWER
TRANSMITTER
GAIN
SB/T WX WX/T RCT GCR MAP
UP
TILT
CONTROL -RECEIVER STAB
DWN
MIN MAX
VAR 10 20 40 80 160 320 SEC
POWER
DISPLAY DISPLAY
OFF MAX OFF MAX
VIDEO
FRZ FRZ
LEFT RIGHT
AUX ALRT
SWEEP
INDICATOR
CONTROL
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RADOME
ANTENNA
WAVEGUIDE
WX
ELECTRONICS RCEIVER/TRANSMITTER
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ANTENNA
PEDESTAL SYSTEM
POWER 30" FLAT
SUPPLY PLATE
ANTENNA
RF
WAVEGUIDE
SCAN
MOTOR ELEVATION
MOTOR
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ANTENNA
PEDESTAL
WAVEGUIDE
SECTION 1
WAVEGUIDE
SECTION 2
30" FLAT WAVEGUIDE
PLATE SECTION 3
ANTENNA
WX
RX/TX
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WX
WEATHER +10
RETURN MODE
ANNUNCIATION
40 TILT ANGLE
1/2 RANGE
INDICATION
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HSI RANGE
EXP
ADI VOR/ 80 160 320
NAV
DH REF ILS 40
VOR/
ILS MAP
150 FULL
CTR
20
NAV MAP 10
PLAN WXR
RST ON
MAP
BRT VOR/ADF NAV AID ARPT RTE DATA WPT
ON ON ON ON ON
EFIS CONTROL PANEL
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TEST - WEATHER TEST
ONLY ONEPATTERN
OF THESEDISPLAYED
MODES
WX/T
WX
MAP- -- WEATHER/TURBULENCE
NORMAL
GROUND OPERATING
MAPPING MODE
MODE
MODE
ON THEAT
SELECTED EHSI
ANY ONE TIME
MODE
TEST WX WX+T MAP
-7 -6 10
MIN -5 5 15
-4 UP
GAIN 0
-3 DN
CAL -2 5 15
MAX -1 10
IDNT STAB
STAB - CORRECTS SCANNER FOR
IDNT - GROUND CLUTTER
AIRCRAFT’S PITCH &SUPPRESSION
ROLL ANGLES
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TEST
0
40
WX
TEST
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TEST
0
40
ATTITUDE
STABILIZATION
TRANCEIVER
CONTROL
ANTENNA
INPUT WX
OFF
FAULT
FAULT
FAULT FAIL
RT
ANT
CONT
ATT
STAB
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RED/WHITE ROPE
120°
R = 6 MTRS
120°
WARNING
SIGN
SAFETY AREA - WX RADAR GROUND TRANSMISSIONS
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ANTI-STATIC/ANTI-EROSION
COATING APPLIED TO RADOME
AREA
ALUMINIUM STRIPS
(DISCHARGE STATIC
FROM RADOME
TO AIRCRAFT
STRUCTURE)
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Traffic Collision
Avoidance System
(TCAS)
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Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)
TCAS was designed to reduce the chance of having a mid-air collision. After multiple
accidents from the mid to the late nineteenth century the ICAO (International Civil
Aviation Organization) and FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) went into action
after several major mid-air collisions with a high loss of life, so they fixed the problem
by creating TCAS
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TCAS Operation
TCAS works by sending information like direction, height and distance from one plane
to another. If you are at the same altitude as another plane TCAS will instruct you to
either climb, descend or maintain flight level.
As you can see in the image of a TCAS you will see the two approaching aircraft the
closer one says +08 and underneath it has and arrow pointing downward. That would
mean that the plane is eight seconds away the downward arrow means that its going
underneath. At any point and time you see a diamond shape like the second object
has it is travailing around the same altitude.
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Traffic Display Symbology
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Non-threat traffic
An open white diamond indicates that an
intruder’s relative altitude is greater than
±1200 feet, or its distance is beyond 6 nm
range. It is not yet considered a threat.
This one is 1700 feet below your own
altitude, climbing at 500 feet per minute or
greater.
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Proximity intruder traffic
A filled white diamond indicates that the
intruding aircraft is within ±1200 feet and
within 6 nm range, but is still not
considered a threat.
This intruder is now 1000 feet below your
aircraft and climbing at 500 feet per
minute or greater.
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Traffic Advisory (TA)
A symbol change to filled yellow circle
indicates that the intruding aircraft is
considered to be potentially hazardous.
Depending on your altitude TCAS II will
display a TA when time to Closest Point of
Approach (CPA) is between 20 and 48
seconds.
Here the intruder is 800 feet below your
aircraft, climbing at 500 feet per minute or
greater. A voice is heard in the cockpit,
advising:
“TRAFFIC, TRAFFIC”
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Resolution Advisory (RA)
A solid red square indicates that the intruding aircraft is projected to be a collision
threat. TCAS II calculates that the intruder has reached a point where a Resolution
Advisory is necessary. The time to closest approach with the intruder is now between
15 and 35 seconds depending on your altitude. The symbol appears together with an
appropriate audio warning and a vertical manoeuvre indication on the RA/VSI. Voice
announcements are listed later in this section.
This aircraft is now 600 feet below your altitude and still climbing at 500 feet per
minute or greater.
A synthesized voice announces a vertical manoeuvre command, such as:
“CLIMB, CLIMB. CLIMB”
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System Components
TCAS Computer Unit
Performs airspace surveillance, intruder tracking, its own aircraft altitude tracking,
threat detection, resolution advisory (RA) manoeuvre determination and selection,
and generation of advisories.
Antenna
The antennas used by TCAS II include a directional antenna that is mounted on the top
of the aircraft and either an omnidirectional or a directional antenna mounted on the
bottom of the aircraft. Most installations use the optional directional antenna on the
bottom of the aircraft. In addition to the two TCAS antennas, two antennas are also
required for the Mode S transponder. One antenna is mounted on the top of the
aircraft while the other is mounted on the bottom. These antennas enable the Mode S
transponder to receive interrogations at 1030 MHz and reply to the received
interrogations at 1090 MHz.
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Cockpit Presentation
The TCAS interface with the pilots is provided by two displays: the traffic display and
the RA display. These two displays can be implemented in a number of ways, including
displays that incorporate both displays into a single, physical unit. Regardless of the
implementation, the information displayed is identical. The standards for both the
traffic display and the RA display are defined in DO-185A.
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Operation Modes
Stand-by
Power is applied to the TCAS Processor and the mode S transponder, but TCAS does
not issue any interrogations and the transponder will reply to only discrete
interrogations.
Transponder
The mode S transponder is fully operational and will reply to all appropriate ground
and TCAS interrogations. TCAS remains in stand-by.
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Traffic advisories only
The mode S transponder is fully operational. TCAS will operate normally and issue the
appropriate interrogations and perform all tracking functions. However, TCAS will only
issue traffic advisories (TA), and the resolution advisories (RA) will be inhibited.
Automatic (traffic/resolution advisories)
The mode S transponder is fully operational. TCAS will operate normally and issue the
appropriate interrogations and perform all tracking functions. TCAS will issue traffic
advisories (TA) and resolution advisories (RA), when appropriate.
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Alerts
TCAS II issues the following types of aural annunciations:
• Traffic advisory (TA)
• Resolution advisory (RA)
• Clear of conflict
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To evaluate the threat potential of other aircraft (intruders), the system divides the
space around TCAS II equipped aircraft (own aircraft) in five volumes:
• Closest Point of Approach volume (CPA volume).
• Others Advisory volume (OA volume)
• Proximate Advisory volume (PA volume).
• Traffic Advisory volume (TA volume).
• Resolution Advisory volume (RA volume).
RA volume has different proportions according to the altitude of own aircraft.
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• TCAS I provides Traffic Advisories (proximity warnings) only, to assist the pilot in
visually locating the intruder aircraft. It is intended for use by smaller commuter
aircraft and by general aviation aircraft.
• TCAS II provides Traffic Advisories and Resolution Advisories (recommended escape
maneuver) in a vertical direction, to avoid conflicting traffic. Airline aircraft, and
larger commuter and business aircraft will use TCAS II equipment.
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• TCAS II Version 7 has been available from the beginning of 1999 and is acceptable
by most regulatory authorities. Version 7.0 improves TCAS compatibility with air
traffic control systems. The most significant enhancements are the introduction of
a horizontal miss distance filter and 25 ft vertical tracking, compatibility with RVSM
( Reduced Vertical Separation Minimal) operations and the reduction of
electromagnetic interferences.
• TCAS III provides the same advisories as TCAS II. However, Resolution Advisories
provide also horizontal maneuvers. TCAS II and III provide advisories in
coordination with surrounding TCAS equipped aircraft.
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Aircraft Traffic Control
(ATC)
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Air Traffic Control (ATC)
The Air Traffic Control system allows controls to track aircraft movement on ground
radar displays. The altitude and identification of the aircraft is monitored by the
ground station, which also calculates it range, bearing and airspeed.
An on-board transponder transmits information about the altitude and identification
of the aircraft to the ground. This is to respond to interrogation signals initiated by the
ground station. It also responds to TCAS interrogation by other aircraft for collision
avoidance.
Transmission by the ground station is on 1,030 MHz. Replies are made by the airborne
transponder at 1,90 MHz to valid interrogation.
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The ATC system is equipped with a self test which is activated by setting the mode
selector from "OFF" to power the unit and then by pressing the TEST button on the
control unit.
If the ATC transponder is functioning correctly, "AL" will be displayed in the upper
window and the actual altitude will be displayed, in thousands of feet with 100 feet
increments in the lower window.
Here an altitude of 2,060 ft is indicated by the number 2.1.
Note: When ATC system test is initiated, the active display intensity will modulate
from minimum to maximum.
If a fault is detected during self test, "DIAG" will be displayed in the upper window and
a FAULT code will be displayed in the lower window.
FAULT codes displayed in the lower window correspond to the following causes:
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ATC Components
ATC system is composed of:
• four ATC antennae,
• two ATC transponders,
• one ATC control unit.
ATC system is connected to ADC 1 or 2 which provides encoded altitude data.
On the ATC control unit, a "1/2" switch allows the crew to operate either system 1 or
system 2.
ATC system is connected to DME system by a coaxial suppressor to avoid simultaneous
operation of ATC and DME systems.
ATC 1 system is power supplied by the DC EMER BUS bar (28 VDC).
ATC 2 system is power supplied by the DC BUS 2 bar (28 VDC)
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• Four ATC antennae (1 and 2) are mounted on the fuselage between frames 16-17.
• Two of them are located on the top, two are mounted under the fuselage.
• All four antennae are identical and are connected to each interrogator by means of
a 50 ohm coaxial cable with PTFE (PolyTetraFluoroEthylene) insulation.
• Electrical bonding is ensured through the antenna base and attaching screws.
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Transponder 1 an Transponder 2 are located in the LH electronics racks, respectively
on shelves 85VU and 84VU.
ATC transponder provides mode A (aircraft identification and location) and mode C
(aircraft identification, location and uncorrected barometric altitude) replies to
interrogation from ground based radar.
In addition, it provides mode S replies to selective interrogation from ground based
radar and aircraft TCAS systems. Mode S replies include all the information supplied
by modes A and C plus a unique aircraft identifier.
• Mode S transponders also provide the capability for a digital data link between
aircraft and ground stations and aircraft to aircraft. It also enhances the operation
of TCAS, and ATC communications.
The interrogation signals are sent on the 1,030 Mhz frequency. The reply signals are
sent on the 1,090 MHz frequency.
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• ATC control unit is located on the centre pedestal. The ATC control unit enables
selection of the active code on which the transponder is tuned. The upper part of
the face features the following:
• an upper display window showing the active code on which the transponder
is tuned.
• a lower window showing "ID" label when pressing ident pushbutton.
• both windows are also used together to display:
- aircraft current altitude during self test.
- a diagnostic message during self test.
• two types of annunciators: ACT and TX
- ACT illuminates amber during code changes. It also flashes when the
actual reply code is not identical to the code shown in the active code
display.
- TX illuminates amber when the ATC replies to an interrogation.
• a "1/2" position switch, which allows selection of the transponder, which will
be controlled by the control box.
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• the display flashes the code for approximately 5 seconds before sending
the code.
• an IDENT button which is used to transmit a special identification pattern
when requested to "squawk ident" by the air traffic control. ID letters are
displayed under the active code.
• a TEST button is used to initiate the self test routine of ATC system. It can
also initiate the self test routine of TCAS system if it is turned on.
• a PRE (preset) button:
– Pushing and holding the PRE button while turning the code select
knob allows selection of a code for storage. The stored code can be
recalled by momentarily pressing the PRE button again.
• a light sensor is provided to automatically control the display brightness.
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Air Traffic Control Radio
Beacon System
(ATCRBS)
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AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (ATC)
• Provides means of “IDENTIFICATION” to ATC
• Can provide INDENT number and height AMSL
• Aircraft replies once interrogated
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GROUND SURVEILLANCE
RADAR
SECONDARY
RADAR PRIMARY RADAR
ATC RADAR
ANTENNAS
ATC RADAR OMNI DIRECTIONAL
TRANSMITTER ANTENNA
/ RECEIVER ATC TRANSPONDER PRINCIPLE
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STBY MODE
A B
1 2
2567
ALT RPTG
ALT
IDENT
1 2
OFF
SOURCE
DISPLAY RANGE FROM 0000 - 7777
GIVING 4096 POSSIBLE CODES
ADF CONTROLLER - BAe 146
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ATCRBS ONLY ATCRBS ONLY
ATCRBS OPERATION
ATCRBS ONLY
(MODE A & C)
GROUND STATION
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MODE S OPERATION
ATCRBS/MODE S ONLY
ATCRBS ONLY
ATCRBS/MODE S ONLY
ATCRBS/MODE S
GROUND STATION
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Ground Proximity
Warning System
(GPWS)
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• Ground Proximity Warning System is a type of equipment carried by aircraft to
warn pilots if they are at a dangerously low altitude and in danger of crashing.
• The GPWS system generates aural and visual warnings, if the A/C adopts a
potentially hazardous configuration (excessive descent rate or unsafe terrain
clearance, below G/S)
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The purpose of GPWS is to warn the flight crew when the aircraft mistakenly comes
too close to the ground.
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• The Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) provides alerts in case of dangerous
flight path conditions which would result in inadvertent ground contact if
maintained.
• To achieve this function the GPWS generates visual (warning or caution light) or
aural (synthetic voice) warnings or cautions by processing signals supplied by other
A/C systems (air data system, radio altimeter, flaps, landing gear…)
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• The system generates alerts only between 50ft and 2500ft AGL (Above Ground
Level). Six alert modes are established with defined danger envelopes:
• Mode 1 excessive sink rate .
• Mode 2 excessive terrain closure rate Mode 3 descent after take-off
• Mode 4 inadvertent proximity to terrain with landing gear or flaps not in
landing configuration (terrain clearance)
• Mode 5 descent below ILS glideslope\Mode 6 descent below minimums.
• Mode 6 descent below minimums
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Mode 1: Excessive Sink Rate
A GPWS warning light will illuminate and “SINK RATE, SINK RATE, SINK RATE” will be
heard. If the situation is not corrected “WHOOP WHOOP PULL UP, PULL UP” will be
heard.
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Mode 2: Excessive Terrain Closure Rate
Audio warnings will be generated “ TERRAIN, TERRAIN” “WHOOP, WHOOP, PULL UP,
PULL UP.
There may be no change in barometric altitude but the radio altitude is decreasing.
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Mode 3 : Altitude Loss After Take Off
If the aircraft sinks 10 percent of its radio altitude “DON’T SINK” will be heard.
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Mode 4: Terrain Clearance
Mode 4A: if the aircraft is too low and slow with landging gear retracted.
“TOO LOW GEAR”
If the airspeed is higher the warning will be “TOO LOW TERRAIN”
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Mode 4: Terrain Clearance
Mode 4B : when the gear is selected down and the flaps are still retracted
This warning can be cancelled by the pilot in the event of flapless landing.
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Mode 5: Below Glideslope
Warns the crew of glideslope deviations.
When the aircraft receives a valid glideslope and sinks two dots below “GLIDESLOPE”
will be heard
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• Mode 6 : RA Call Outs/Bank Angle
• Mode 6 functions provides optional call
outs as the aircraft descends through
predefined altitude below 2500 feet AGL
or through the decision height set by
the pilot in PFD
• The call out “BANK ANGLE, BANK ANGLE
advise an excessive roll angle. The
EGPWS provides several bank angle
envelope supporting Air Transport or
Commercial Aircraft.
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Mode 7 : Windshear
Mode 7 compiles information from the aircraft's air data computer (ADC) and the
different barometric sources on board the aircraft to determine if the aircraft is in a
windshear condition, also know as a micro burst.
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• The GPWS includes :
• A GPWS computer
• Two GPWS-G/S pushbuttons
• A GPWS FAULT amber light on CAP
• A GPWS switch
• The GPWS switch controls the whole system. FLAPS OVRD intermediate position
inhibits mode 4 and enables reduced flap landing configuration.
• The GPWS computer triggers Aural alerts through RCAU.
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• GPWS computer receives information from :
• Radio altitude transceiver
• SGU ½ (Decision Height)
• ADC1 data
• Glide deviation (ILS2)
• Landing gear lever position.
• CCAS (flaps position transmitter)
• Go Around Mode
• AFCS Back Course Mode
• Note : GPWS is inhibited in case of stall warning signals generated by the CCAS.
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Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS)
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• The Honeywell MK VIII Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS) is
installed on ATR aircraft to comply with the FAA and JAA regulations. This requires
the installation of a Terrain Awareness and Warning System (TAWS) to enhance the
basic GPWS.
• In addition to the basic GPWS functions (mode 1 to 5), the EGPWS incorporates the
following enhanced functions:
• Mode 4 update: Envelope & Aural Alerts
• Mode 6 update: Altitude and call-outs
• Terrain awareness Alerting and Display (TAD)
• Terrain Clearance Floor (TCF) The new functions use information (position,
altitude) provided by the aircraft systems and a terrain database stored in
EGPWS.
• This information is processed in EGPWS computer to trigger aural and visual alerts,
supplying terrain information on EFIS, in addition to the basic GPWS modes.
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• The EGPWS basic architecture includes:
• An EGPWS computer
• Two GPWS-G/S pushbuttons
• A GPWS FAULT amber light on CAP
• An EGPWS pushbutton located on 2VU captain side
• The computer can be tested using the CAPT or F/O GPWS pushbuttons.
• The EGPWS switch controls the whole system. FLAPS OVRD intermediate position
inhibits mode 4 and enables reduced flap landing configuration.
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• The EGPWS switch controls the whole system. FLAPS OVRD intermediate position
inhibits mode 4 and enables reduced flap landing configuration.
• EGPWS computer receives information from :
• Radio altitude transceiver
• SGU 1 and 2 (Decision Height)
• ADC1 data
• Glide deviation (ILS2)
• Landing gear lever position.
• CCAS (flaps position transmitter)
• Go Around Mode
• AFCS Back Course Mode
• The EGPWS computer triggers Aural alerts through RCAU.
• Note : EGPWS is inhibited in case of stall warning signals generated by the CCAS.
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• EGPWS computer is a MARK VIII type and is supplied with 28VDC BUS1.
• “GPWS FAULT” amber light will illuminate on the CAP in case of loss of:
• GPS signal loss
• Weather radar loss
• AHRS loss
• Radio altitude signal
• Altitude rate signal
• Radio altimeter track monitor
• Computer DC input power (if required)
• Computer DC reference signal (if required)
• Gear switch (during self test only)
• Flap switch (during ground self test only)
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• Detected baro reference or rate faults inhibit only mode 1 and 3 and the altitude
gain feature of mode 2. These faults display on aircraft GPWS FAULT light after a
delay of 5 +/- 1s
• All other faults inhibit all modes and are displayed on aircraft GPWS FAULT light
after a delay of 5 +/- 1 second.
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SATELLITE NAVIGATION
(SATNAV)
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WHAT IS SATNAV?
• A satellite navigation or SATNAV system is a system of satellites that provide
autonomous geo-spatial positioning with global coverage.
• It allows small electronic receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude
and altitude) to high precision (within a few meters) using time signals transmitted
along a line of sight by radio from satellites.
• The signals also allow the electronic receivers to calculate the current local time to
high precision, which allows time synchronization.
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Types of Orbits
• Geosynchronous
• Same rotational velocity as earth
• Maintains position relative to earth
• Altitude – 35 786 KM
• Velocity – 11 300 KM/hr
• Asynchronous
• Much lower altitude = much higher velocity
• Position over earth constantly changing
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Type of Orbits
• GEO: ~ 36 000 KM from the earth
• MEO: 6 000 – 20 000 KM
• LEO: 500 – 1 500 KM
• HEO: Highly Elliptical Orbit, elliptical orbits
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Low Earth orbit (LEO)
• A low Earth orbit (LEO) typically is a circular orbit about 160 to 2,000 kilometers (99
to 1,243 mi) above the earth's surface and, correspondingly, a period (time to
revolve around the earth) of about 90 minutes
• Due to low orbits, transmitting stations are not as powerful as those that transmit
to satellites orbiting at greater distances from earth’s surface.
• Most communication applications use LEO satellites because it takes less energy to
place the satellites into LEO. Moreover, they need less powerful amplifiers for
successful transmission.
• As LEO orbits are not geostationary, a network of satellites are required to provide
continuous coverage. Satellites in LEO have a small momentary field of view, only
able to observe and communicate with a fraction of the Earth at a time, meaning a
network (or "constellation") of satellites is required to in order to provide
continuous coverage.
• However, as a result of the popularity of this type of satellite, studies reveal that the
LEO environment is getting congested with space debris. NASA keeps track of the
number of satellites in the orbit, and estimates that there are more than 8,000
objects larger than a softball circling the globe. Not all of these objects are not
satellites, but rather pieces of metal from old rockets, frozen sewage and broken
satellites
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Medium Earth orbit
• A MEO is a satellite in orbit somewhere between 2,000 and 35,786 kilometres
(1,243 and 22,236 mi) above the earth’s surface.
• Sometimes called intermediate circular orbit (ICO)
• MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellites in functionality.
• The orbital periods of MEO satellites range from about two to 12 hours.
• MEO satellites have a larger coverage area than LEO satellites.
• Because its orbital period of about 2.5 hours did not match the Earth's rotational
period of 24 hours, continuous coverage was impossible. It was apparent that
multiple MEOs needed to be used in order to provide continuous coverage. A fleet
of several MEO satellites, with orbits properly coordinated, can provide global
wireless communication coverage.
• In 1962, the first communications satellite, Telstar, was launched. It was a medium
earth orbit satellite designed to help facilitate high-speed telephone signals.
Although it was the first practical way to transmit signals over the horizon, its major
drawback was soon realized.
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Satellite constellation
• A satellite constellation is a group of artificial satellites working in concert. Such a
constellation can be considered to be a number of satellites with coordinated
ground coverage, operating together under shared control, synchronized so that
they overlap well in coverage, the period in which a satellite or other spacecraft is
visible above the local horizon.
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Geostationary orbit (GEO)
• A geostationary orbit, often referred to as a geosynchronous equatorial orbit (GEO),
is a circular geosynchronous orbit 35,786 km (22,236 mi) above Earth's equator and
following the direction of Earth's rotation.
• To an observer on the earth, a satellite in a geostationary orbit appears motionless,
in a fixed position in the sky. This is because it revolves around the earth at the
earth's own angular velocity (360 degrees every 24 hours, in an equatorial orbit).
• A geostationary orbit is useful for communications because ground antennas can be
aimed at the satellite without their having to track the satellite's motion. This is
relatively inexpensive.
• Satellites in geostationary orbit must all occupy a single ring above the equator. The
requirement to space these satellites apart to avoid harmful radio-frequency
interference during operations means that there are a limited number of orbital
"slots" available, and thus only a limited number of satellites can be operated in
geostationary orbit. This has led to conflict between different countries wishing
access to the same orbital slots (countries near the same longitude but differing
latitudes) and radio frequencies.
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HOW IT WORKS?
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NAVIGATION SYSTEM
• GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM (GNSS)
– A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed a global
navigation satellite system or GNSS.
• REGIONAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM (RNSS)
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CLASSIFICATION OF GNSS
Gnss-1 is the first generation system and is the combination of existing satellite
navigation systems (GPS and GLONASS), with satellite based augmentation
systems (SBAS) or Ground Based Augmentation Systems (GBAS). In the united states,
the satellite based component is the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), in
Europe it is the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS), and in
japan it is the Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS). Ground based
augmentation is provided by systems like the Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS).
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Gnss-2 is the second generation of systems that independently provides a full civilian
satellite navigation system, exemplified by the European Galileo positioning system.
These systems will provide the accuracy and integrity monitoring necessary for civil
navigation; including aircraft. This system consists of l1 and l2 frequencies for civil use
and l5 for system integrity. Development is also in progress to provide GPS with civil
use l2 and l5 frequencies, making it a gnss-2 system.
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REGIONAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM
• Regional SBAS including WAAS (US), EGNOS (EU), MSAS (JAPAN)
and GAGAN (INDIA).
• Regional Satellite Navigation Systems such as China's BEIDOU, India's yet-to-be-
operational IRNSS, and Japan's proposed QZSS.
• Continental scale ground based augmentation systems (GBAS) for example the
Australian GRAS and the us department of transportation national DIFFERENTIAL
GPS (DGPS) service.
• Regional scale GBAS such as CORS networks.
• Local GBAS typified by a single GPS RefereNCE STATION OPERATING REAL TIME
KINEMATIC (RTK) CORRECTIONS.
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AUGMENTATION
Augmentation of a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is a method of
improving the navigation system's attributes, such as accuracy, reliability, and
availability, through the integration of external information into the calculation
process. There are many such systems in place and they are generally named or
described based on how the GNSS sensor receives the external information. Some
systems transmit additional information about sources of error (such as clock
drift, ephemeris, or ionospheric delay), others provide direct measurements of how
much the signal was off in the past, while a third group provide additional vehicle
information to be integrated in the calculation process.
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SATELLITE BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEM
A satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS) is a system that supports wide-area or
regional augmentation through the use of additional satellite-broadcast messages.
Such systems are commonly composed of multiple ground stations, located at
accurately-surveyed points. The ground stations take measurements of one or more of
the GNSS satellites, the satellite signals, or other environmental factors which may
impact the signal received by the users. Using these measurements, information
messages are created and sent to one or more satellites for broadcast to the end
users. SBAS is sometimes synonymous with WADGPS, wide-area DGPS
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GROUND BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEM
Each of the terms Ground-based Augmentation System (GBAS) and Ground-based
Regional Augmentation System (GRAS) describe a system that supports augmentation
through the use of terrestrial radio messages. As with the satellite based
augmentation systems detailed above, ground based augmentation systems are
commonly composed of one or more accurately surveyed ground stations, which take
measurements concerning the GNSS, and one or more radio transmitters, which
transmit the information directly to the end user.
Generally, GBAS networks are considered localized, supporting receivers within 20
kilometers (12 mi), and transmitting in the very high frequency (VHF) or ultra high
frequency (UHF) bands. GRAS is applied to systems that support a larger, regional
area, and also transmit in the VHF bands.
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AIRCRAFT BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEM
The augmentation may also take the form of additional information being blended
into the position calculation. Many times the additional AVIONICS operate via
separate principles than the GNSS and are not necessarily subject to the same sources
of error or interference. A system such as this is referred to as an Aircraft-based
Augmentation System (ABAS) by the ICAO.
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Global Positioning System
(GPS)
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HISTORY
The design of GPS is based partly on similar ground-based radio-navigation systems,
such as LORAN and the Decca navigator, developed in the early 1940s and used by the
British Royal Navy during World War 2. n 1956, the German-American
physicist Friedwardth Winterberg proposed a test of general relativity using
accurate atomic clocks placed in orbit inside artificial satellites. Later, calculations
using general relativity determined that the clocks on GPS satellites would be seen by
Earth's observers to run 38 microseconds faster per day, and this was corrected for in
the design of GPS.
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GPS ANTENNA
• It transmits less than 5 watts so by the time it reaches you it is very weak and
because of this the GPS has a built in amplifier to boost the signal for the receiver.
• The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation system
that provides location and time information in all weather conditions .
• It’s frequency is in gigahertz band that the signal travels to the line of sight.
• The Trimble needs in GPS antenna is 25dB gain, and 50 ohm nominal impedance.
• Communications radios can cause a lot of interference with GPS as a result of the
proximity of the panel units or their antennas. The reason is that GPS signals are so
weak, and com signals are so very powerful.
• It is important that the com and GPS antennas be mounted as far apart as possible.
Sometimes a com antenna must be relocated to the bottom of the aircraft
• Authorities also classify non-installed components as "Transmitting Portable
Electronic Devices" (T-PEDS) and as such require them to be switched off during
the critical phases of flight.
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GPS OPERATION
• GPS aircraft tracking solution needs a device embedded in the aircraft and made of
a GPS sensor. It transmits in real time or not the GPS position received on board to
a server on ground via communication network. The server collects the data. Data
received on ground can be recorded and/or used to display the aircraft real time
position.
• Devices installed in the aircraft are avionics components like (ACARS), (ADS-B) or
other solutions. In these cases, the receiving and transmitting antenna are usually
located outside of the airframe.
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• When devices are not installed as avionics components they have to be completely
independent from the aircraft. They are typically placed in the aircraft airframe in a
location where the GPS and communication satellites are directly visible to the
device.
• ACARS - (Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System) is a
digital data link system for transmission of short messages between aircraft and
ground stations via air band radio or satellite.
• ADS–B -(Automatic dependent surveillance – broadcast) is a cooperative
surveillance technology in which an aircraft determines its position via satellite
navigation and periodically broadcasts it, enabling it to be tracked.
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GPS ELEMENTS
• SPACE SEGMENT
• CONTROL SEGMENT
• USER SEGMENT
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SPACE SEGMENT
• GPS satellites fly in circular orbits at an
altitude of 20,200 km and with a period
of 12 hours.
• Powered by solar cells.
• The satellites continuously orient
themselves to point their solar panels
toward the sun and their antenna
toward the earth.
• Orbital planes are centered on the
Earth.
• Orbits are designed so that, at least, six
satellites are always within line of sight
from any location on the planet.
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The satellites are composed of:
• Solar panels. Each satellite is equipped with solar array panels. These panels
capture energy from the sun, which provides power for the satellite throughout its
life.
• External components such as antennas. The exterior of the GPS satellite has a
variety of antennas. The signals generated by the radio transmitter are sent to GPS
receivers via the l-band antennas. Another component is the radio transmitter,
which generates the signal. Each of the 24 satellites transmits it's own unique code
in the signal.
• Internal components such as atomic clocks and radio transmitters. Each satellite
contains four atomic clocks. These clocks are accurate to at least a billionth of a
second or a nanosecond. An atomic clock inaccuracy of 1/100th of a second would
translate into a measurement (or ranging) error of 1,860 miles to the GPS receiver.
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CONTROL SEGMENT
The CS consists of 3 entities:
• Master Control system
• Monitor Stations
• Ground Antennas
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MASTER CONTROL STATION:
The master control station, located at Schriever air force base in Colorado springs,
Colorado, is responsible for overall management of the remote monitoring and
transmission sites. GPS ephemeris being a tabulation of computed positions, velocities
and derived right ascension and declination of GPS satellites at specific times, replace
"position" with "ephemeris" because the master control station computes not only
position but also velocity, right ascension and declination parameters for eventual
upload to GPS satellites.
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MONITOR STATIONS:
Six monitor stations are located at Schriever air force base in Colorado, Cape
Canaveral, Florida, Hawaii, ascension island in the Atlantic ocean, Diego Garcia atoll in
the Indian ocean, and Kwajalein island in the south pacific ocean. Each of the monitor
stations checks the exact altitude, position, speed, and overall health of the orbiting
satellites. The control segment uses measurements collected by the monitor stations
to predict the behavior of each satellite's orbit and clock. The prediction data is up-
linked, or transmitted, to the satellites for transmission back to the users. The control
segment also ensures that the GPS satellite orbits and clocks remain within acceptable
limits. A station can track up to 11 satellites at a time. This "check-up" is performed
twice a day, by each station, as the satellites complete their journeys around the
earth. Noted variations, such as those caused by the gravity of the moon, sun and the
pressure of solar radiation, are passed along to the master control station.
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GROUND ANTENNAS:
Ground antennas monitor and track the satellites from horizon to horizon. They also
transmit correction information to individual satellites.
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COLORADO
SPRINGS
HAWAII
MASTER CONTROL
KWAJALIEN
MONITOR STATION ASCENSION
GROUND ANTENNA
DIEGO
GARCIA
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USER SEGMENT
GPS receivers are generally composed of:
• An antenna (tuned to the frequencies
transmitted by the satellites),
• Receiver-processor, and
• Highly-stable clock (commonly a
crystal oscillator).
They can also include a display for showing
location and speed information to the user.
A receiver is often described by its number
of channels (this signifies how many
satellites it can monitor simultaneously).
As of recent, receivers usually have
between twelve and twenty channels.
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The aviation community is using GPS extensively. Aviation navigators, equipped with
GPS receivers, use satellites as precise reference points to trilaterate the aircraft's
position anywhere on or near the earth. GPS is already providing benefits to aviation
users, but relative to its potential, these benefits are just the beginning. The foreseen
contributions of GPS to aviation promise to be revolutionary. With air travel nearly
doubled in the 21st century, GPS can provide a cornerstone of the future air traffic
management (ATM) system that will maintain high levels of safety, while reducing
delays and increasing airway capacity. To promote this future ATM system, the FAA's
objective is to establish and maintain a satellite-based navigation capability for all
phases of flight.
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AIRCRAFT AVIONICS
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AIRCRAFT AVIONICS
SATELITTE TRANSMITS
DATA IN THE UHF BAND AT
1227.60 MHz & 1575.42 MHz
LINE OF
POSITION
(LOP)
USER SEGMENT
715 AENG 514
AIRCRAFT AVIONICS
3 SECONDS
SATELLITE 1 SATELLITE 2
RECEIVERS ARE PROGRAMMED
TO DETECT MEASUREMENTS
THAT CANNOT INTERSECT
A SINGLE POINT
4 SECONDS
5 SECONDS
SATELLITE 3
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AIRCRAFT AVIONICS
CURRENT LOCATIONS OF GPS SATELLITES
• GPS satellites are orbiting the earth that an altitude of 11,000 miles.
• The orbits and the locations of the satellites are known in advance.
• GPS receivers store this orbit information for all of the GPS satellites in an
ALMANAC.
• The ALMANAC is a file which contains positional information for all of the GPS
satellites.
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AIRCRAFT AVIONICS
ACCURACY
• The position calculated by a GPS receiver relies on three accurate measurements.
• Current time
• Position of the satellite
• Time delay for the signal
• The GPS signal in space will provide a “worst case” accuracy of 7.8 meters at a 95%
confidence level.
• GPS time is accurate to about 14 nanoseconds.
• Higher accuracy is available today by using GPS in combination with augmentation
systems. These enable real-time positioning to within a few centimetres.
718 AENG 514
AIRCRAFT AVIONICS
LIMITATIONS
• GPS can provide worldwide, three-dimensional positions, 24 hours a day, in any
type of weather.
• But, there must be a relatively clear “line of sight” between the GPS antenna and
four or more satellites.
• Hence it becomes too difficult to ensure reliable positioning. These difficulties are
particularly prevalent in urban areas.
• The GPS signal may bounce off nearby causing another problem multi path
interference.
719 AENG 514
AIRCRAFT AVIONICS
720 AENG 514
AIRCRAFT AVIONICS
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
721 AENG 514
AIRCRAFT AVIONICS
“I’m only responsible for what I say,
not for what you understand”.
- JLV
722 AENG 514
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