THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Studying the earth's interior can help us to understand earthquakes, volcanoes, plate tectonics and
more about the inner Earth’s natural processes.
In general the Earth's interior has been sorted by gravity. Heavier elements like iron tend to sink
toward the centre or core of the Earth. Lighter materials, the silicates, oxygen compounds and water
have risen to become part of the crust. This action has created distinct layers within the earth and is
still in process today. Temperature becomes greater the deeper you go and does pressure.
The Inner Earth is composed of three main parts; the crust, the mantle, and the core as shown in the
diagram of the earth's interior below:

 
  
 The Crust - silicate rocks, primarily granite and basalt

 Oceanic Crust - mostly basalt

 Continental Crust - igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks

 The Mantle - iron and magnesium rich silicate rocks

 Upper Mantle

 Lower mantle

 The Core - iron nickel alloy

 Outer core
  Inner core

The Crust
The crust of the earth is very slowly growing thicker. Volcanic activity is continually adding mass to
the crust. Though the crust is solid it is made up of about 12 plates. They are called Tectonic Plates.
These plates are in constant motion. The movement is caused by convection currents in the mantle.
The movement is very slow, averaging about 2 inches a year. This is about like the growth of your

fingernails.
 The crust is made up of silicate rocks such as granite and basalt.

 The continental crust is much thicker than the oceanic crust as shown here in the diagram of
the earth's crust.

 Oceanic crust - The crust under the oceans is about 10 km thick and is generally
made up of rock rich in iron and magnesium. These are primarily basalt formed by
volcanic action at the mid ocean ridges. The oceanic crust is denser than
continental crust.

 Continental crust - Where there are continents the crust is about 30 to 50 km thick.
It is made up of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The continental
crust is less dense than the oceanic crust. When the continental crust collides with
oceanic crust through plate movement the continental crust rides over the top of
the oceanic crust while the oceanic crust is pushed back down towards the
mantle.

The Mantle
Much less is known about the mantle than the crust. The crust we can see, measure, dig and drill.
The mantle is different. We have little direct contact with the inner earth. We can tell some things
about the mantle by studying volcanoes and what comes out of them.

Much of what we believe is true about the earth's interior comes from studying seismology.
Seismology began as the study of earthquakes and the seismic waves they produced. These waves
travel through the earth and move at different speeds in different materials. By studying these
waves and how they move through the inner earth we can learn about the its structure.

Lithosphere
 it is the outermost part of the Earth, consisting of the crust and the outermost layer of the
mantle
 it is about 100 km thick
 
Asthenosphere
 this area lies beneath the lithosphere
 it is composed of hot, semi-molten and therefore deformable rock
 
 

  

The core
The core is composed primarily of a nickel-iron alloy. There is an outer core that is liquid and an
inner core that is solid.

 Outer core

 Is about 2100 km thick.

 It makes up about 30 % of the Earth's total mass.

 Inner core

 Is about 1300 km thick.

 It makes up about 2 % of the Earth's total mass.

Some points to remember in studying the earth’s interior:

 There are distinct layers to the earth’s interior.

 Heavier elements tend to sink to the core

 Lighter elements rise toward the surface

 Much more is known about the crust than the mantle and core.

 What we believe is true about the mantle and core comes from studying
seismology.
The Theory of Plate Tectonics 2c

The theory of continental drift was proposed by Alfred Wegner.

According to the theory of plate tectonics the Earth’s crust is made up of several plates that
are slowly moving because of convection currents in the Earth’s mantle.
All the continents were once joined into one giant landmass called Pangaea. This land mass
then split into two land masses called Gondwana and Laurasia. Australia was part of
Gondwana.
 
Evidence to support the theory of plate tectonics:
The outline of the continents seems to fit together when the true outline of the continents
(the outer continental shelf) is considered.
Rocks found on either edge of matching continents are of similar ages and contain similar
rocks and fossils.
There are mid-ocean ridges between every continent. These are sites of active volcanoes.
They arise where two plates are moving away from each other creating new ocean floor.
The rocks on either side of an ocean ridges become gradually older as you move away from
the ridge.
Certain fossils have been found on all the continents that made up Gondwana but not on
the continents that made Laurasia. Some examples of these fossils are Moa and Cassowary.
Certain species that are believed to have a common ancestor are found on all the continents
that made up Gondwana. The flightless birds that are the most genetically common are
found on the landmasses that became separated most recently.

What are convection current?

Convection currents transfer heat from one place to another by mass motion of a fluid such
as water, air or molten rock. The heat transfer function of convection currents drives the
earth’s ocean currents, atmospheric weather and geology. Convection is different from
conduction, which is a transfer of heat between substances in direct contact with each
other.

How do convection currents work?

Convection currents form because a heated fluid expands, becoming less dense. The less-
dense heated fluid rises away from the heat source. As it rises, it pulls cooler fluid down to
replace it. This fluid in turn is heated, rises and pulls down more cool fluid. This cycle
establishes a circular current that stops only when heat is evenly distributed throughout the
fluid. For instance, a hot radiator heats the air immediately around it. The air rises toward
the ceiling, pulling cooler air down from the ceiling into the radiator to be heated. This
process repeats until the air in the room is evenly heated.

Plate tectonics.
According to the theory of plate tectonics the Earth is made up of a number of plates that are
moving slowly due to convection currents in the mantle.

 Identify a pattern in the location of recent Earthquakes. They are located near tectonic
boundaries
 Identify a pattern in the location of recent volcanic eruptions. They are also relatively close to
plate boundaries and some are also on top of the tectonic plate boundaries.
 Compare the location of Earthquakes and volcanoes. What do you notice? Both earthquakes
points and volcanoes are located quite close to each other.
 When the plate boundaries are shown, what do you notice? All the plate boundaries are shown
joint together and in a close range of the other plate boundary.
 Which plate is Australia sitting on? The Indo-Australian Plate is sitting nearby to Australia.
 Is an earthquake or volcanic eruption likely in Australia? Justify your answer. A volcanic or
earthquake eruptions are not very common in Australia because for one, we do not have
volcanoes in Australia (other than the ones that are extinct) and two Australia is located right in
the middle of the Indo-Australian plate boundary that surrounds it.
 What is happening at a transverse plate boundary? The tectonic plates grind sideways past each
other and when high amount of friction occurs the plates get stuck causing large amount of
stress to develop in the rock and when the rock breaks free the stress that has built up over the
many years is released very quickly, in result of an earthquake.
 Why do earthquakes sometimes occur at transverse plate boundaries? Because they tend to get
caught due to friction and when they release the energy that has built up whilst they were stuck
releasing so quickly due to the stress within the rocks it results in catastrophic earthquake

Earthquakes:
  Earthquakes occur when intense pressure in the Earth’s crust cause the rocks to
break and move along a fault.
 The earthquakes that have occurred in California have been caused by Earth
movements along a very large fault called the San Andreas fault.
 
           
     

 Earthquakes occur along all types of plate boundaries.

The conditions required to put rocks under the amount of stress needed to fracture them
mainly occurs around the boundaries of tectonic plates. As plates push together or slide past
each other they stick due to friction and then suddenly break and earthquakes are produced.

THE FOCUS AND EPICENTRE OF AN EARTHQUAKE

Generally, the slipping causing an earthquake starts well below the Earth’s surface.
The energy released causes shock waves to be generated, which spread out in all
directions.
 The place inside the Earth where faulting begins is called the focus of the
earthquake.
 The point directly above the focus on the surface is called the epicentre.
  
 As the waves spread out from the focus they lose energy and the vibrations become
smaller. On the surface, the damage is greatest at the epicentre and decreases as you
go further away from it.

HOW ARE EARTHQUAKES DETECTED?

Earthquakes are recorded by instruments called seismographs

How does the seismograph work?

In a seismograph, a large heavy mass is suspended freely. During an
earthquake, this mass tends to remain steady while the rest of the instrument
vibrates.

EARTHQUAKE WAVES
Seismograms show that all earthquakes generate three kinds of waves, called
P, S and L waves.
 P waves arrive at the seismic station first, and then the S waves arrive next. The greater the
distance the waves have to travel =, the greater the difference in time between the arrival of P
and S waves.

P waves S waves L waves

Primary, Compressional and Secondary Transverse Waves Long Surface

longitudinal

Compression waves (the shake is in Transverse waves (the shake is Transverse

the direction of the wave) across the direction of the wave) waves

Faster than S and L waves Faster than L waves Slowest waves

Speed from 5 to 13 km/s Speed from 3 to 8 km/s Speed about 3

to 4 km/s

Travel through solid and lquid Travel through solid only Surface waves
only

Least destructive   Most

destructive
 
P waves:

S waves:

L Waves:
Richter Scale:
 The strength or magnitude of an earthquake can be measured using a Richter scale.
 Magnitude of an earthquake is how much energy it has and is measured in a scale
from 0 to 10.
 On this scale the intensity or energy of an earthquake increases tenfold for a single
increase in magnitude. For example, an earthquake of magnitude 5 causes ten times
more ground motion (potential damage) than one of magnitude 4 and 100 times more
than one of magnitude 3.
 The table below compares the magnitudes of earthquakes and their effects at the
epicentre.

Forming a Fold:

Folds in the lithosphere develop when plastic rock material is pushed together. A section of
the lithosphere is made up of several layers of plastic rock, pften sedimentary rock. When
great forces push the layers together, they begin to bend up and down like ocean waves.
Because the rock in the layers is plastic and not brittle, it does not break. As a result, over a
long period of time, fold mountains are formed.

Define the term “fold” (in the context of geology). A fold can be defined as a bend in the rock that is
the response to compressional forces. Folds are most visible in rocks that contain layering. For
plastic deformation or rock to occur several conditions must be met including:
The rock material must have the ability to deform under pressure and heat
The high the temp of the rock the more plastic it becomes
Pressure must not exceed the internal strength of the rock. If it does, fracturing occurs.
Deformation must be applies slowly.
Folds are the result of compressional forces, that means that the layers of rocks are pushed.
together from the sides.

Name Diagram Description

Monocline fold  A number of different folds

have been recognized and
classified by geologists. The
simplest types of fold is
called a monocline. This fold
involves a slight bend in
otherwise parallel layers of
rock.
   
Fold that involves a slight
bend in the rocks
Anticline fold  An anticline is a convex up
fold in rock that resembles
an arch like structure with
the rock beds (or limbs)
dipping way from the center
of the structure.
 
It is when it folds upwards

Syncline  A syncline is a bold fold

where the rock layers are
warped downward. Both
anticlines and synclines are
the result of compressional
stress.
 
 
It is when the fold goes
  downwards.

Define the term “fault” (in the context of geology). Faults form in rocks when the stresses overcome
the internal strength of the rock resulting in a fracture. A fault can be defined as a the displacement
of once connected locks of rock along a fault plane. This can occur in any direction with the blocks
moving away from each other. Faults occur from both tensional and compressional forces. A fault is
just a crack in the rocks, when they break apart.

1. Complete the table below:

Type of Diagram Is this fault the result of

fault the rocks being pushed
together or pulled away
from each other?

Normal  This fault occurs when

fault rocks are being pushed in
opposite direction. The
force causes one slab to
be pushed up and the
other slab to be pushed
Normal faults occur when tensional forces act in opposite down.
directions and cause one slab of the roc to be displaced up
and the other slab down.

Reverse   In this fault the

fault compressional forces
cause one block to be
pushed up and over the
 other block. 

Reverse faults develop when compressional forces exist.

Compression causes one block to be pushed up and over the
other block.

Graben    In this fault forces move

fault outer blocks towards the
outside and the middle
block down.

A graben fault is produced when tensional stresses result in

the subsidence of a block of a rock. On a large scale these
features are known as Rift Valleys.

Horst    The force between the

fault outer blocks pushes the
middle block up.

A horst fault is the development of two reverse faults

causing a block of rocks to be pushed up.
Divergent Plate Boundary:

A divergent boundary occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other. Along
these boundaries, earthquakes are common and magma (molten rock) rises from the Earth’s
mantle to the surface, solidifying to create new oceanic crust.

Convergent Plate Boundary:

When two plates come together, it is known as a convergent boundary. The impact of the
colliding plates can cause the edges of one or both plates to buckle up into a mountain ranges or
one of the plates may bend down into a deep seafloor trench. A chain of volcanoes often forms
parallel to convergent plate boundaries and power earthquakes around common along these
boundaries. At convergent plate boundaries, oceanic crust is often forced down into the mantle
where it begins to melt. Magma rises into and through the other plate, solidifying into granite, the
rock that makes up the continents. Thus, at convergent boundaries, continental crust is created
and oceanic crust is destroyed.
Transform Plate Boundary:

Two plates sliding past each other forms a transform plate boundary. Natural or human-made
structures that cross a transform boundary are offset—split into pieces and carried in opposite
directions. Rocks that line the boundary are pulverized as the plates grind along, creating a linear
fault valley or undersea canyon. Earthquakes are common along these faults. In contrast to
convergent and divergent boundaries, crust is cracked and broken at transform margins, but is
not created or destroyed.

Epicentre: The epicentre is the point on the earth’s surface vertically above the focus point
in the crust where a seismic rupture beings.
Focus: The focus of an earthquake is the point where the rocks start to fracture. It is the origin of the
earthquake. The epicentre is the point on land directly about the focus.

Seismograph: An instrument that measure and records details of earthquakes, such as their force
and duration.

Seismogram: A record produced by a seismograph, they keep a copy of all the earthquakes that are
measured by the seismograph (like a long record).

How are earthquakes formed? They are caused when rocks underground suddenly break along a
fault. This sudden release of energy causes seismic waves that make the ground shake. Earthquakes
are caused by tectonic movements in the earths crust. The main cause is that when tectonic plates
collide.

How a Cyclones Forms

Definition: A cyclone is a severe low air pressure system in the tropics lasting about a week.

The Sequence Due to the heat from the sun, warm moist air rises from tropical oceans. As it's
of a Cyclone: moisture cools into rain, the high air condenses. The condensation releases heat
causing a strong updraft. Warm air rushes into the updraft and as a result begins
to rotate the system. More and more warm moist air rushes into the spiral
producing more condensation and clouds. The resulting cyclone moves at speeds
of about 20km/h across the earth. --> Warm air rises, Cool air sinks, number
three of the diagram and then the air whirls.

Description: A cyclone could about 100km in diameter and about 20km high. Winds of
120km/h and heavy rainfalls surround the calm and narrow eye of a cyclone.