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Chapter 5: The quality in fruits and vegetables 87

Chapter 5

The quality in fruits and vegetables

5.1 What does the consumer demand?

Many publications speak generically of the “consumer” as if a single type existed or as

if his/her likes and preferences were perfectly defined. On the contrary, consumption
profiles are specific for each country or even region and they vary with sex, age and
educational and socioeconomic levels. However, there are universal behaviour patterns
and this manual only refers to those characteristics and demands that are common
worldwide and that may be useful to understand the average consumer.

In the first place, there is a worldwide tendency towards a greater consumption of fruits
and vegetables because of a growing concern for a more balanced diet, with a lower
proportion of carbohydrates, fats and oils and a higher proportion of dietary fibre, vita-
mins and minerals.

Another aspect that deserves attention is the tendency towards simplification in the task
of preparing daily meals. In the United States, until the 1960s, the preparation of lunch
or dinner required about two hours and was planned in advance. Nowadays, meals are
prepared in less than one hour and the menu to be served at dinner begins to be defined
after 4 p.m. (Cook, 1998). The expanding availability of processed fruits and vegetables
and other readymade foods are partly responsible for this reduction in the time dedi-
cated to cooking. Probably the most significant fact that encourages this tendency is the
increasing incorporation of women in full-time work, which reduces their time to buy
and to prepare foods but gives them more means to spend money.

Consumption patterns are also influenced by the increasing market segmentation

through the expansion in shapes, colours, flavours, ways of preparation and packaging
of the product. For example, today at least four different types of tomatoes can be pur-
chased: conventional or beef tomato, extended shelf life, cherry and processing types
sold fresh, all of them in different sizes, packages and in some cases colour. There is
also an increasing supply of exotic or non-conventional fruits and vegetables, which
notably expands the purchase options. For example, in 1981 in a well-supplied super-
market in the United States, there were 133 options of different fruits and vegetables,
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88 Manual for the preparation and sale of fruits and vegetables: from field to market

which increased to 282 in 1993 and to 340 in 1995 (Cook, 1997). Without reaching
these levels, the same tendency is observed in the different countries of Latin America
and the Caribbean.

Lastly, there is a growing demand for higher external and internal quality. External
aspects (presentation, appearance, uniformity, ripeness, and freshness) are the main
components in the decision to purchase, which is usually taken when the consumer sees
the product exhibited at the sales point (Figure 63). This is particularly important in
self-service systems where the product must “self-sell” and if it is not chosen, repre-
sents a loss for the retailer. Internal quality (flavour, aroma, texture, nutritional value
and absence of biotic and non-biotic contaminants) is linked to aspects that are not gen-
erally perceived externally but are equally important to many consumers.

Within a general tendency towards greater consumption and variety, the consumer
demands quality in terms of appearance, freshness and presentation as well as nutri-
tional value and safety.

5.2 Definition of quality

The word “quality” comes from the Latin qualitas, which means attribute, property or
basic nature of an object. However, nowadays it can be defined as the “degree of excel-
lence or superiority” (Kader et al., 1985). Accepting this definition, it can be said that
a product is of better quality when it is superior in one or several attributes that are
objectively or subjectively valued.

In terms of the service or satisfaction that it produces to consumers, quality could also
be defined as the “degree of fulfilment of a number of conditions that determine its
acceptance by the consumer”. Here a subjective aspect is introduced because different
consumers will judge the same product according to their personal preferences.

The destination or use can also determine different criteria for judging quality within
the same crop. For example, the tomato for fresh consumption is valued essentially by
its uniformity, ripeness and absence of defects, while colour, viscosity, and industrial
yield as raw material define the quality for the tomato used for ketchup. It is common
to use additional words to define the quality to the specific use such as industrial qual-
ity, nutritional quality, export quality and edible quality.
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Chapter 5: The quality in fruits and vegetables 89

% of answers
Appearance/conditionn 97
Taste/flavor 96
Freshness/ripeness 96
Price 70
Certified safe by residue testing 68
Nutritional value 66
Shelf life 60
Convenient to eat/prepare 51
Size 45
In-season 41
Displayed loose 37
Calorie content 26
Organically grown 22
Growing area of origin 19
Prepackaged 11
Brand name 10

Figure 63: Percentage of answers by consumers evaluating these visible aspects

as extremely or very important (reproduced from Tronstad, 1995).

5.3 Perception of quality

Quality is a complex perception of many attributes that are simultaneously evaluated by

the consumer either objectively or subjectively (Figure 64). The brain processes the
information received by sight, smell, and touch and instantly compares or associates it
with past experiences or with textures, aromas, and flavours stored in its memory. For
example, just by looking at the colour, the consumer knows that a fruit is unripe and
that it does not have good flavour, texture or aroma. If colour is not enough to evaluate
ripeness, he/she uses the hands to judge firmness or other perceptible characteristics.
The aroma is a less used parameter except in those cases where it is directly associated
to ripeness like in melon or pineapple. This comparative process does not take place
when the consumer sees for the first time an exotic fruit whose characteristics are
unknown.

The final evaluation is the perception of the flavour, aroma and texture when the prod-
uct is consumed and when sensations perceived at the moment of purchase are con-
firmed. If satisfaction is the result, loyalty is generated. For example, if you discover
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90 Manual for the preparation and sale of fruits and vegetables: from field to market

APPEARANCE/CONDITION
Shape
Compactness
Uniformity
Defects Physical
Morphological
Physiological
Pathological
Entomological

FRESHNESS/RIPENESS
Colour (ripeness)
Size
Gloss
Texture Firmness/hardness/softness
Crispines
Juiciness/succulence
Fibrousness
Mealiness

FLAVOUR/TASTE/AROMA
Sweetness - Sourness - Bitterness
Astringency - Volatiles (aroma)
Off-flavours and off-odours

NUTRITIVE VALUE SAFETY

Carbohydrates (included dietary fibre) Naturals toxicants
Proteins Non biotic contaminants
Lipids Mycotoxins
Vitamins Microbial contamination
Minerals
Phytochemicals

Figure 64: Consumer perception of quality.

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Chapter 5: The quality in fruits and vegetables 91

that you prefer red apples to green ones, you will continue consuming red apples. It is
possible to generate loyalty to commercial brands, presentation forms, packaging, sales
places, etc.

Fruits and vegetables are consumed mainly for their nutritive value as well as for the
variety of shapes, colours and flavours that make them attractive for food preparation.
When they are consumed raw or with very little preparation, the consumer’s main con-
cern is that they must be free of biotic or non-biotic contaminants that may affect health.

5.3.1 Components of quality

5.3.1.1 Appearance
Appearance is the first impression that the consumer receives and the most important
component of the acceptance and eventually of the purchase decision. Different studies
indicate that almost 40 percent of the consumers decide what to buy inside the super-
market. Shape is not a decisive aspect of quality, except in cases of deformation or mor-
phological defects. In some instances, shape is a ripeness index and therefore an indi-
cation of flavour such as in the case of the “full cheek” in mango or the “finger” angu-
larity in bananas.

Compactness is the most relevant feature in species where the inflorescence is the mar-
ketable part such as broccoli and cauliflower, and in those species that form “heads”
such as lettuce, cabbage and endive. In general, it is not associated to their organolep-
tic characteristics but rather is an indicator of the degree of development at harvest.
Open inflorescences indicate that they were picked too late while non-compact “heads”
are the consequence of a premature harvest. To a certain extent, compactness is also an
indicator of freshness because it decreases with dehydration.

Uniformity is a concept applied to all the components of quality (size, form, colour,
ripeness, compactness, etc.). For the consumer it is a relevant feature that indicates that
someone who knows the product has already selected and separated it into categories
based on the official standards of quality. It is so important that selecting products for
uniformity is the main activity of market preparation.

In many cases, internal or external defects do not affect product excellence, but the con-
sumer rejects them because the absence of defects is one of the main components of
appearance and therefore of the primary decision to purchase. Different factors during
growth (climate, irrigation, soil, variety, fertilization, etc.) can lead to morphological or
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92 Manual for the preparation and sale of fruits and vegetables: from field to market

physiological defects. Some examples of morphological defects are “doubles” in cher-

ries, root ramifications in carrots, “catface” tomatoes, “knobby” tubers and “hollow
heart” potatoes. Tip burn on leafy vegetables and black heart in celery caused by calci-
um deficiencies as well as internal rot in various species because of boron deficiencies
are examples of physiological defects. More serious are those physical and physiolog-
ical defects that originate during or after preparation for the fresh market and that show
up at the retail or consumer level. Physical defects include mechanical damages, bruis-
es and wounds that occur during the handling of the product (see Chapter 1) and which
are the entrance doors to most pathogens that cause postharvest rot. Chilling injury, eth-
ylene effects and sprouting and rooting are physiological responses to inadequate stor-
age conditions.

Freshness and ripeness are part of the appearance and they have components of their
own. They are also indicative of the expected flavour and aroma when products are con-
sumed. “Freshness” is the condition of being fresh or as close to harvest as possible.
Freshness is also used to describe vegetables harvested at the point of maximum
organoleptic quality characterized by the greatest turgidity, colour, flavour and crisp-
ness. “Ripeness” is a concept used for fruits that refers to the point of maximum edible
quality. In many cases, however, ripeness is reached at the level of sales or consump-
tion because, in most commercial operations, fruits are harvested slightly immature. For
example, fruits stored in controlled atmosphere reach their edible quality after leaving
the store room, several months after harvest.

Within the parameters for defining freshness and ripeness, colour, both in its intensity
and uniformity, is the external aspect most easily evaluated by the consumer. It is deci-
sive in those products like leafy vegetables or unripe fruits such as cucumber, snap
beans and others where an intense green colour is associated with freshness and pale
green or yellowing to senescence. Colour is also an indicator of ripeness and is very
important in those fruits where no substantial changes take place after harvest (non-cli-
macteric fruits), such as citrus, pepper, eggplant, and cucurbits in general. In fruits that
suffer changes after harvest (climacteric), colour is less decisive and basically indicates
the degree of ripeness, such as tomato, pear and banana.

Consumers give size a certain importance (Figure 63) and at equivalent quality, inter-
mediate sizes are preferred. For fruits that are naturally large, such as pumpkins, water-
melons and melons, there is a strongly defined trend towards sizes that can be con-
sumed by a family (1-2 kg) in a relatively short period (one week). Size is one of the
main indicators of the moment of harvest (Chapter 1) and in many cases it is directly
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Chapter 5: The quality in fruits and vegetables 93

associated to other aspects of quality such as flavour or texture. Such is the case for zuc-
chinis, peas, haricot beans and miniature vegetables in general where consumers par-
ticularly value small sizes.

Gloss enhances the colour of most products, but it is particularly valued in species such
as apples, peppers, eggplant, tomatoes, grapes, plums and cherries to such a point that
many of them are waxed and polished to improve their shine. In vegetables, gloss is
associated in a certain way to turgidity: a brilliant green is one of the indicators of fresh-
ness. It can also be used as a harvest index for eggplants, cucumbers, squash and other
fruits that are harvested unripe and where the decrease in shine indicates that they have
developed too much and have lost part of their characteristics of flavour and texture. On
the contrary, for melon, avocado and other species, gloss is indicative that they have
reached ripeness for harvest.

Different sensations perceived by humans are included within the definition of texture.
Thus, firmness is perceived with the hands, and the type of surface (hairy, waxy,
smooth, rough, etc.) is perceived with the hands and lips. Teeth determine the rigidity
of the structure that has been chewed while the tongue and the rest of the mouth cavity
detect the type of particles that are crushed by teeth (soft, creamy, dry, juicy, etc.). Also
the ears contribute to the sensation of texture, for example, the noises generated when
chewing in those species where crispness is an important aspect (Wills et al., 1981).

Together with flavour and aroma, texture constitutes eating quality. An overripe toma-
to, for example, is mainly rejected for softening and not because important changes in
the flavour or aroma have taken place. Although texture is decisive for the quality of
some fruits and vegetables, in others it has relative importance. In terms of texture, each
product is valued differently: for firmness (tomato, pepper), the absence of fibres
(asparagus, globe artichoke), softness (banana), juiciness (plum, pear, citrus) and crisp-
ness (celery, carrot, apple).

Firmness and colour are the main parameters used to estimate the degree of ripeness of
fruit. Ripeness initially improves and softens fruit texture and, together with the
changes in flavour and colour, brings the fruit to reach its maximum edible quality.
However, as this process continues, overripeness takes place, which leads finally to tis-
sue disorganization and decay of the product. Firmness is used mainly as a harvest
index and it is measured with instruments (Figure 12) that register the force necessary
for a certain deformation or resistance to the penetration of a piston of known dimen-
sions.
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94 Manual for the preparation and sale of fruits and vegetables: from field to market

Juiciness is the sensation of liquid spilling inside the mouth as tissues are chewed. The
juice content of many fruits increases as they ripen on the plant. For citrus fruits the reg-
ulated minimum juice content is as follows: 30 percent for navel oranges; 35 percent for
grapefruit and other oranges; 25 percent for lemons; 33 percent for mandarins and 40
percent for clementines (Thompson, 1996).

5.3.1.2 Flavour
Flavour is the combination of the sensations perceived by the tongue (taste) and by the
nose (aromas) (Wills et al., 1981). Although these sensations can be perfectly separat-
ed one from the other, as the sensitive receptors are so close, simultaneously with the
act of bringing the product near the mouth, of biting, chewing and tasting, we are per-
ceiving the aromas, particularly those that are liberated with the crushing of tissues. It
is also possible, however, that certain external aspects (particularly ripeness) anticipate
the flavour that should be expected when consuming the product. The human being has
stored in his/her memory an enormous quantity of different tastes and aromas and, if a
product was eaten previously, is able to recognize the product without seeing it.

For fruits and vegetables, taste is usually expressed in terms of the combination of
sweet and sour principles that are an indication of ripeness and eating quality. The con-
tent of soluble solids is a good estimate of total sugar content, and many fruits should
have a minimum content of solids to be harvested (Table 14). Organic acids (citric,
malic, oxalic, tartaric) are the other important components of taste, particularly in their
relationship with soluble solids. As the fruit ripens the organic acids tend to diminish
and so the relationship with the soluble solids tends to increase. Titratable acidity is the
form of expressing acidity. The soluble solids/titratable acidity relationship is a denom-
inated ratio and it is essentially used in citrus where it is a function of the species and
of the variety. Its value is 8 for mandarins, navel oranges and hybrids, 7 for other type
of oranges, and 5.5 for grapefruits (Lacey et al., 2000).

Astringency (sensation of loss of lubrication in the mouth) and bitter tastes are caused
by different compounds, which are not frequent and when they do exist, usually dimin-
ish with ripening. In those cases in which they appear naturally and represent a disad-
vantage, they have been eliminated through breeding programmes.

There are specific compounds that characterize certain species or a group of them, for
example, pungency in peppers denominated “hot” is basically determined by the cap-
saicin content and four other structurally similar compounds. There are also cases in
which enzymes and substrata responsible for the taste are compartmentalized in healthy
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Chapter 5: The quality in fruits and vegetables 95

Table 14: Recommended minimum soluble solid content at harvest

Apple 10,5-12,5
Apricot 10
Blueberries 10
Cherry 14-16
Grape 14-17,5
Grapefruit 8
Kiwifruit 14
Mango 8
Mandarin 8
Melon 10-12
Nectarine 10
Orange 8
Papaya 11,5
Peach 10
Pear 13
Persimmon 18
Pineapple 12
Plum 12
Pomegranate 17
Raspberry 8
Strawberry 7
Watermelon 10

Source: Kader, 1998.

tissues and only come in contact by cutting, chewing or crushing. This is the case of
pungency in garlic and onion and also of the taste of raw cucumber. Cooking these veg-
etables whole prevents these reactions and the resulting taste is different.

There is a correlation between dry matter content and organoleptic characteristics main-
ly used by the industry. In general, a higher content of solids means higher industrial
yield and taste. This is particularly important in dehydrated products. For potatoes, a
higher content of dry matter (measured as specific gravity) is associated with a better
cooking quality. For the fresh market, however, dry matter content is not used as an
indicator of the time of harvest and/or organoleptic quality, except in the case of avo-
cado where there is a close correlation with the oil content. Depending on the variety
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96 Manual for the preparation and sale of fruits and vegetables: from field to market

considered, avocados with a dry matter content lower than 21-23 percent should not be
marketed (McCarthy, 2000).

The aroma of fruits and vegetables is attributable to the human perception of numerous
volatile substances. Refrigerated fruits and vegetables are less aromatic because volatile
liberation diminishes with temperature. As in the case of taste, many aromas are liber-
ated when tissues lose their integrity.

5.3.1.3 Nutritive value

From the point of view of nutrition, fruits and vegetables are insufficient to satisfy daily
requirements, essentially because of their low content of dry matter. They have a high
content of water and are low in carbohydrates (except for sweet potatoes, potatoes, cas-
sava, and other underground organs), proteins (except for legumes and some crucifers)
and lipids (except avocados), but, in general, they are a good source of minerals and
vitamins. Different countries have made tables of recommended daily consumption, the
best known being probably the U.S.R.D.A. (United States Recommended Daily
Allowances) as shown in Table 15. These tables are only for reference and they indicate
the capacity of foods to satisfy the daily needs for certain nutrients. The actual content
of nutrients is affected by the conditions of cultivation, varieties, climate and prepara-
tion.

Dietary fibre can be defined as the vegetable portion that cannot be degraded by the
enzymes of the human digestive tract although its components are anaerobically metab-
olized in variable proportions by the colon microflora. The optimum daily intake for a
healthy adult is between 25 and 30 grams and the contribution of certain fruits and veg-
etables to the minimum needs is shown in Table 15.

The discovery that certain foods have biologically active compounds beneficial to
health beyond basic nutrition opened a new stage in nutrition science. These com-
pounds or their metabolites that have been denominated “functional” help to prevent
diseases such as cancer and have a protective effect on cardiovascular problems. They
are also neutralizers of free radicals, reduce cholesterol and hypertension and prevent
thrombosis. Those foods that contain them are also called “functional” although other
names such as “pharmafoods”, “nutraceuticals” and others have been proposed. As
most of these compounds are of plant origin, many authors call them phytochemicals.
Fruits and vegetables are rich in phytochemicals such as: terpenes (carotenoids in yel-
low, orange and red fruits and limonoids in citrus); phenols (blue, red and purple
colours of cherries, grapes, eggplant, berries, apples and plums); lignans (broccoli); and
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Chapter 5: The quality in fruits and vegetables 97

Table 15: Content of essential nutrients (* = good; X = very good; XX = excellent;

= exceed daily requirements)

Vitamin A

Riboflavin
Vitamin C

Calcium
Thiamin

Niacin

Fiber
Iron
SPECIES

Swiss chard X *
Artichoke * XX
Pineapple X
Celery * X
Blueberry X *
Cranberry * *
Pea XX * *
Banana X
Sweet potato XX * *
Broccoli * *
Carambola * XX *
Onion * X
Plum *
Cauliflower XX
Kohlrabi XX
Kale
Snapbeans *
Cherimoya XX * * XX
Parsnip * *
Sweet corn *
Apricot XX *
Date *
Belgian endive *
Asparagus * * XX
Spinach XX X *
Raspberries XX XX
Strawberry
Fig X * XX
Mushrooms *
Kiwi XX
Lettuce Iceberg *
Lettuce Romaine X X
Lime X
Lemon XX
Mango XX *
Apple * X
Cantaloupe ripe *
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98 Manual for the preparation and sale of fruits and vegetables: from field to market

Table 15: (cont.)

Vitamin A

Riboflavin
Vitamin C

Calcium
Thiamin

Niacin

Fiber
Iron
SPECIES

Melon Honeydew XX *
Blackberry X X
Turnip *
Orange Navel
Orange Valencia XX
Nectarine *
Okra * *
Avocado * XX
Potato * XX * * * * X
Papaya * X
Cucumber *
Pear * X
Pepper
Grapefruit XX
Leek *
Radish X
Beet (topped) *
Cabbage XX XX
Cabbage (red) XX
Cabbage Savoy * X
Brussels sprouts * *
Rutabaga X
Watermelon X XX X *
Tomato * XX
Jerusalem artichoke *
Carrot *
Pumpkin X *
Pumpkin acorn X * *
Pumpkin Butternut XX *
Pumpkin Hubbard * *
Source: The Packer, 1996; Produce Marketing Association, 2000.
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Chapter 5: The quality in fruits and vegetables 99

thiols (sulphur compounds present in garlic, onion, leek and other alliums and cabbages
and other crucifers in general).

5.3.1.4 Safety
Fruits and vegetables should be fresh, nutritive and attractive in their appearance and
presentation. Their consumption should not put health at risk. The consumer has no way
to detect the presence of dangerous substances and therefore he/she depends entirely on
the seriousness and responsibility of all the members of the production and distribution
chain. As a logical result the consumer must place his trust in them, in addition to the
usual precautions of washing, peeling and/or cooking the product before consuming it.
However, this trust is very volatile and any suspicion about safety has a tremendous
impact at the consumer level. Among the most relevant examples is the epidemic of
cholera in the 1990s in Latin America that reduced the consumption of vegetables in
many countries of the region for almost one year. Another example may be the two
grapes with dangerous residues detected in the 1980s in an entrance port of the United
States, which severely affected Chilean exports. Also about that time, the Alar
(daminozide, a growth regulator used to control fruit set) scare considerably reduced the
consumption of apples in the United States.

Food safety is the absence of substances dangerous for health, and the presence of pes-
ticide residues on fruits and vegetables has been the main concern for consumers.
However, there are many other contaminants potentially as dangerous such as the pres-
ence of pathogenic microorganisms, mycotoxins, heavy metals and others.

As fruits and vegetables are consumed fresh and many times are not peeled, all patho-
genic organisms that are carried on their surface constitute a potential danger. The
hygienic and sanitary measures necessary to reduce the food risk have already been
described in the previous chapter. Bacteria, like Shigella spp., Salmonella spp.,
Aeromonas spp., Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes and the toxins produced by
Clostridium botulinum and others, have been identified as responsible for illnesses
associated with the consumption of fruits and vegetables. The hepatitis A virus has been
detected on fresh produce as well as parasites like Entomoeba histolyca, and Giardia
lamblia (Table 12).

Agrochemicals are one of the tools that man has used to satisfy the growing need for
food. They are the herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, fumigants, rodenticides, growth
regulators, waxes, disinfectants, additives and all other products of a chemical nature
used during production or postharvest handling. Their residues have always been a
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100 Manual for the preparation and sale of fruits and vegetables: from field to market

major concern, although advances in chemistry and biochemistry, better understanding

of ecology as well as pests and diseases and the growing use of non-chemical control
methods have made the present world a much safer place. The agrochemicals used
today are less toxic and persistent and their degradation products are generally innocu-
ous. Better laboratory methods have been developed for their detection and there is a
greater consciousness about their use, waiting times, doses, etc.

Each country has its own legislation in terms of the Maximum Residue Levels (MRLs)
within the framework of the Codex Alimentarius Commission or other international
organizations. An MRL or tolerance is the maximum concentration of pesticide residue
allowed resulting from its application according to correct agricultural practices.

Agrochemical use should be within the framework of the Good Agricultural Practices
to guarantee maximum safety and to minimize risks to consumers’ health. Specific
products should be used to control pests or diseases. The manufacturer’s indications
should be followed carefully, particularly those referring to crops on which they can be
used, as well as minimum waiting times between application and harvest.

Other health hazards include, for example, the presence of nitrates in leafy vegetables,
oxalates in some species and heavy metals accumulation, particularly when household
waste is used as fertilizer or an organic amendment. Some toxicity may exist in some
natural compounds produced by the crop itself or by the fungi (mycotoxins) that colo-
nize the surface of the product.

5.4 Obtaining a product of quality

Producing a quality product begins well before planting the seed. Soil selection and
preparation, its fertility and irrigation potential, weed control and crop rotations, vari-
ety selection and other decisions have an influence on the quality of the product. In the
same way, quality is affected by the climatic conditions during the growing period, as
well as irrigation, fertilization, control of pests and diseases and other cultural practices.
Harvest is the end of cultivation and the beginning of postharvest actions during which
preparation for the market, distribution and sale take place.

Fruits and vegetables are highly perishable products that demand water and nutrients
before being detached from the mother plant. Once harvested, however, they depend on
their reserves to continue living. Respiration, transpiration and the continuous changes
taking place determine the internal and external quality. Deterioration rates depend on
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Chapter 5: The quality in fruits and vegetables 101

the type of product, growing conditions and other factors, but mainly on the conditions
in which the produce is maintained after harvest, such as temperature, relative humidi-
ty, movement and composition of the air. Postharvest changes can only be delayed with-
in certain limits and thus preparation for the fresh market should be quick and effi-
ciently performed in order to avoid quality losses.

Besides natural deterioration and physiological and mechanical injuries already

described in previous chapters, rot is also responsible for loss of quality. Postharvest
losses caused by microorganisms can be severe, particularly in warm climates with a
high relative humidity. Rotting produce contaminates the rest and under these condi-
tions ethylene production is stimulated accelerating the rate of deterioration.

Most of the fungi and bacteria that attack fruits and vegetables after harvest are weak
pathogens and they mainly invade tissues through wounds (Wills et al., 1981). Injuries
produced during handling provide numerous entrance routes for these pathogens,
although some of them are able to invade healthy products. Unripe fruits are usually
more resistant to pathogen attack. It is also possible that infection occurring at the
immature stage shows up later, when the natural defences are weakened by the ripen-
ing process (Dennis, 1987). A good disease control programme at field level reduces the
source of inoculum and the risks of infections after harvest, facilitating the control of
postharvest diseases. Also, careful handling during harvest and packing operations
reduces the physical damage that facilitates the establishment of microorganisms.
Temperature control is one of the main tools used to control postharvest diseases
because it diminishes the metabolic activity of the microorganisms and keeps the natu-
ral defences of the product high by reducing the rate of the ripening process. The con-
trol of relative humidity to avoid, in particular, the condensation of water on the prod-
uct and to maintain controlled atmosphere is also useful in the control of postharvest
diseases.

5.5 Towards total quality in fruits and vegetables

The concept of quality as a way to differentiate products has been recognized for years.
As local or regional trade internationalizes, quality consolidates as the main competi-
tive tool for excellence, reinforcing the need to establish standards to separate quality
into categories or degrees and to define the limits of allowed defects. Nowadays,
domestic and international trade of fruits and vegetables is regulated by quality stan-
dards in most countries, providing a common language among the different participants
of the production-commercialization-consumption chain. Standards are also the legal
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102 Manual for the preparation and sale of fruits and vegetables: from field to market

framework used to settle commercial disputes and are useful as a basis for reporting on
market prices, which can be compared only with the same quality category.

The quality system established by the standards is known as “inspection for quality”
(Table 16) where representative samples at the final stage of preparation for the market
should fulfil the specified limits and their tolerances. Although it is easy to apply, this
quality system has at least two major disadvantages. It is not totally adaptable for high-
ly perishable products where quality varies continually, and its application does not
improve the quality of the product, it only separates in degrees the quality that comes
from the field.

At the same time that quality standards were developed and applied, new ideas began
to be conceived by industry. First of all, it became evident that to improve quality a sys-
tematic and preventive approach was much more effective and economic than the elim-
ination of faulty units at the end of the line, when production and packaging had already
taken place. Secondly, it became clear that the quality concept extends beyond the prod-
uct itself because it is affected by the systems and procedures involved in the produc-
tion and preparation for the market. Finally, the consumer’s opinion began to be more
and more important. It is no longer sufficient for a product to be technically perfect and
to be produced in an economically profitable way, it is also necessary to satisfy the con-
sumer’s expectations of quality.

The application of statistics to control the variability of the different units in the pro-
duction lines gave birth to the system called “quality control” or “statistical quality con-
trol”, which was adopted by most manufacturing companies in the first half of the twen-
tieth century. This method or system essentially provides the analytic tools for moni-
toring the production process and for taking measures when variability exceeds certain
limits considered as normal. Its application improves the quality of the process con-
tributing greatly to improve the quality of the product. They are tools that can be applied
at the level of the fruit and vegetable packinghouse.

This system was transferred to Japan after World War II where it evolved into what
today is known as “total quality management” (TQM) or simply “total quality”. Total
quality is today the most complete conceptual framework to assure the quality to which
each person or activity within the production process is committed, aiming at zero
defects and customer’s complete satisfaction, even going beyond his/her expectations.
At the same time that TQM was developed, the concept of “quality assurance” was
coined in Europe. Its scope is slightly narrower than TQM, but a lot easier to implement
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Chapter 5: The quality in fruits and vegetables 103

Table 16: Comparison of the main quality systems

Quality Quality Total

Aspects
inspection assurance quality

System Reactive Preventive Preventive

Quality is A control procedure The objective of A philosophy

at the end an explicit policy
of the process

Application Only Mandatory + Mandatory +

of the mandatory ones voluntary ones voluntary of
regulations (Standards) as ISO, HACCP own design

Quality The final product The organization Human resources

is based on

Quality control A quality laboratory Quality All

is performed by management level

Documentation No Yes Yes

on processes
and methods

Internal auditing No Yes Yes

Certification No Yes Not necessary

of conformity

and probably better adapted to fruit and vegetables. It is defined as all those planned
and systematized actions necessary to guarantee that the product or service will satisfy
the requirements of quality. It usually requires the fulfilment of certain rules, protocols,
or standards developed specifically and certification by an independent company
authorized to grant it. The ISO system is probably the best known and within it the
series 9000.
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104 Manual for the preparation and sale of fruits and vegetables: from field to market

It is also appropriate to mention the HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points)
system, designed specifically to guarantee that food is not exposed to any type of con-
tamination that could put health at risk. Today, this method is recognized international-
ly as the logical and scientific tool for all food quality systems. It is also preventive in
nature and the key element is the identification of the critical points within the process,
where quality should be controlled to prevent, eliminate or reduce to acceptable levels
all possible safety risks. The HACCP system is required today in the United States and
other countries to import meat, fish, eggs and other foods. Up to now, it is not required
for fruits and vegetables, although different export countries are already implementing
it to assure a superior quality of their products. The logic of the HACCP can be applied
to the detection of other defects of quality.

Although all these systems have their origin in industry, their application extends to
other sectors. Agriculture, and particularly the production of fruits and vegetables, is
now incorporating many of the methods and ideas conceived by the industrial sector
because the basic principles are not only applicable but also recommendable for high-
ly perishable products where quality deteriorates quickly. Several export companies
have implemented the HACCP together with the ISO 9002 certification, which guaran-
tees food safety within a system of quality assurance. A key concept is that quality sys-
tems are not mutually exclusive but rather they overlap, widening the application
approach, extending beyond the product itself and embracing the preparation process,
inputs, suppliers and intermediaries, besides the incorporation of the feedback from the
client or consumer for its continuous improvement.

The basic principles of total quality can be summarized in the following way:

• the consumer is always first;

• each operation is part of a process;
• quality improvement never ends;
• quality is made, not controlled;
• prevention of quality problems is made through planning;
• the desired product should be obtained at the desired moment;
• postharvest handling should be appropriate to reach the desired market under the
desired conditions.