Surge Tanks

 Surge tanks may be considered essentially as a forebay

close to the machine.
 They are essential part of the conveyance pressure
conduit whenever such systems are long.
 Their primary purpose is the protection of the long
pressure tunnel in medium- and high-head plants against
high water hammer pressures caused by sudden
rejection or acceptance of load.
 The surge tank converts these fast (water hammer)
pressure oscillations into much slower – and lower –
pressure fluctuations due to mass oscillation in the surge
chamber.
 The threefold purposes served by surge tanks may be
summarized as
(1) flow stabilization to the turbine,
(2) water hammer relief or pressure regulation, and
(3) storage function.
 The surge chamber (see Fig. ) dividing the pressure tunnel into a
short high-pressure penstock downstream and a long low-pressure
tunnel upstream thus functions as a reservoir for the absorption or
delivery of water to meet the requirements of load changes.
 It quickly establishes the equilibrium of the flow conditions, which
greatly assists the speed regulation of the turbine.
 The surge tank protects the low-pressure conduit/tunnel system
from high internal pressures.
 Due to the surge tank, the entire pressure conduit on the upstream
side of the surge tank can be designed as a low pressure system,
while the penstocks between the surge tank and the power house
will be designed as conduits which can resist high water hammer

pressures.
 Surges in surge chambers
 Sudden changes in load conditions of the turbine cause
mass oscillations in surge tanks which are eventually
damped out by the hydraulic friction losses of the
conveyance.
 The amplitude of these oscillations is inversely proportional
to the area of the surge tank, and if the area provided were
very large dead beats would be set in the tank.
 Although these conditions would be favorable to achieving
the new equilibrium state very quickly, the design would be
uneconomical.
 On the other hand, if too small an area is provided the
oscillations (surge tank) become unstable; this is
unacceptable.
 It is therefore essential to choose a section in which the
oscillations become stable within a short period of time.
 The critical section for stability is given by the equation,
known as Thoma criteria;

 where At and Lt are the tunnel cross-sectional area and

length respectively, and the suffix ‘0’ defines the steady
state conditions prior to the load variation (see Fig.).
 A stable tank area is usually chosen with a safety factor
of about 1.5.
 Hydraulic Design of Simple Surge Tanks
 Consider the simple surge tank installation shown below
where the initial flow through the control gate is cut off
rapidly
 It is desired to find the maximum upsurge in the surge tank
and the time at which this upsurge occurs.
 The equations are derived based on the assumptions that:
 hydraulic losses are negligible in the simple surge tank,
 the velocity head in the pipe can be neglected, and
 the rigid water column theory of water hammer is
sufficient.
 This is justified if the pressure rise is small and there is
neither appreciable stretching of the pipe nor compressing
of the water.
 Prior to the gate closure, the mass of water which is
moving in the tunnel is Lt At g/g.

 Upon gate closure, the unbalanced force acting on this

water column is

(i)
 From Newton’s 2nd Law of motion, the deceleration of the
water column in the tunnel is

(ii)
 From the condition of continuity of flow, following
complete gate closure, the flow of water into the surge
tank is the same as that out of the tunnel, that is;

(iii)

 The simultaneous solution of equations (ii) and (iii) is

performed with the following boundary conditions:
o when t = 0, Z = 0, and
𝑑𝑍
o = 𝑄0/𝐴𝑠.
𝑑𝑡
 Then,

(iv)

 From which

(v)

 And the time required to reach the maximum upsurge is;

(vi)
Where
Z = upsurge in surge tank above the static water level, m;

Q0 = water discharge in the pipe before gate closure, m3/s;

As = cross-sectional area of surge tank, m2;

Lt =length of pipe (low-pressure tunnel) from surge tank to

the reservoir (open water surface, m;

At = cross sectional area of pipe (tunnel), m2;

t = instantaneous valve closure time, sec;

T = time required to reach the maximum upsurge in the

tank, sec.
 The last two equations can be useful for preliminary
analysis and in cases where the magnitude of hydraulic
losses is small in the pipe extending upstream from the
surge tank.
 In actual installations, frictional effects are not negligible.
 Jaeger has recommended the use of the following
approximate formula for the calculation of upsurge in
case where friction is taken into account.
 Hence, for sudden 100% load rejection, maximum
upsurge will be;
(vii)
Where
Z = maximum upsurge friction taken into account, m;
Zmax = maximum upsurge with negligible friction, m;
and
 maximum downsurge,
(viii)

 For 100% load demand, the maximum downsurge;

(ix)
 where P0 is given by the following relation

(x)

= the friction head loss in the steady state

condition, m.
 The maximum upsurge and down surge should be
contained within the surge chamber.
 The range of surge levels (amplitudes) must not be too
large to minimize the governing difficulties.
 The maximum upsurge and downsurge are computed for
extreme conditions, i.e.
 the top level of the surge chamber is governed by the
maximum upsurge level when the reservoir level is at
its maximum, and
 the bottom level of the chamber is controlled by the
maximum downsurge level when the reservoir is at its
lowest drawdown level.
 Instantaneous 100% demand conditions result in too
large a maximum downsurge, as the normal practice
is to allow for 0–10% of full load demand quickly but,
thereafter, the unit is brought to full load only
gradually.
 Maximum downsurges are normally calculated
against 75–100% of full load and, once again, the
bottom level of the chamber is controlled by the
reservoir at its lowest drawdown level condition.
 This condition is invariably more critical than the one
governed by the maximum downsurge after a load
rejection.
 Excessive surges may occur if several quick load variations
are imposed on the unit (overlapping surges).
 These may create additional governing difficulties and the top
and bottom levels of the surge chamber may have to be
modified to accommodate these excessive surges.
 In order to achieve conservative designs of the surge chamber
it is usual to assume
o a lower conduit friction factor than average for calculating the
maximum upsurge, and
o a higher friction factor for the maximum downsurge.
 In all cases due consideration of the effect of ageing of the
tunnel must be given.
 Head losses of all types are assumed to be proportional to V2.
 Types of surge tanks
1. Simple surge tanks.
 The simple surge tank (Fig. (a)) is of uniform cross-section
and is open to the atmosphere, acting as a reservoir.
 It is directly connected to the penstock so that water flows
in and out with small head losses when load variations
occur.
 It is usually large in size with expensive proportions and
sluggish in responding to damping surges and unstable.
 These are very rarely used in modern practice except in
installations where load changes are either small or very
gradual.
2. Throttled tank.
 In the throttled tank (restricted orifice type tank) the restricted
entry (Fig. (b)) to the surge tank creates retardation and
acceleration conditions of flow in the tunnel upstream of it, thus
reducing the storage requirement and minimizing the maximum
up and downsurges.
 This improves the stability damping quality of the surge tank
oscillations.
 Although this type of surge tank is economical (because of its
smaller size) compared with the simple tank section, the rapid
creation of retarding and accelerating heads complicates the
governing mechanism, requiring additional inertia in the turbo-
generator units
3. Surge tank with expansion chambers.
 This type of surge tank (Fig. (c)) consists of a narrow
riser (main surge shaft); attached to it at either end are
large expansion chambers.
 The narrow riser reacts quickly, creating accelerating or
decelerating heads, and at the same time the expansion
chambers minimize the maximum up- and downsurge
levels, thus limiting the range of surge levels (i.e. easier
governing).
 In order to reduce the costs of the structure, spilling
arrangements may sometimes be provided either to
wastage (if water is not scarce) or back to the penstock.
4. Differential surge tank.
 This type (also known as Johnson’s differential tank –
Fig. (d)) consists of an internal narrow riser shaft with an
orifice entry to the larger outer shaft at the bottom.
 As the central riser is narrow it responds instantaneously
during the upward phase; at the same time the maximum
amplitude is restricted to its top level, any excess water
spilling back into the outer chamber.
 Similarly, during the downward phase water spills into the
narrow riser while the riser itself responds quickly to
maintaining the desired level.
 The differential tank with an extended penstock, which
acts as a central riser, is shown in Fig. (e).
5. Surge tanks with venturi mounting.
 Considering the velocity energy under the surge tank
(V2/2g = E0), Thoma’s critical section can be written as

 More economical sections may result by providing a

venturi contraction (Fig. (f)) under the surge tank (thus
increasing the velocity head, E0.
Examples
Example 1. Given: H0 = 152 m, As = 29 m2, Dt = 3.0 m,
Lt = 915 m, and Q0 = 23.9 m3/s
Required: Zmax and T
Solution:
At=32xp/4 = 9p/4 m2
Example 2.

In a hydropower project, water is delivered from an

impounding reservoir through a low-pressure tunnel and
four high-pressure penstocks to the four turbine units. The
elevation of the reservoir water level is 1500 m a.m.s.l,
and the elevation of the tailwater is 1200 m a.m.s.l. The
maximum reservoir storage which can be utilized
continuously for a period of 48 hours is 15 x 106 m3.
The low-pressure tunnel is constructed as follows:

 Length, Lt = 4 km
 Diameter, Dt = 8 m
 Friction factor, f =0.028
The high-pressure penstocks (4 in no.) are constructed as follows:

 Length of each penstock, Lp = 500 m

 Diameter of each penstock, Dp = 2.0 m

 Friction factor, f = 0.016
 Turbine efficiency, ηt = 90%
 Generator efficiency, ηg =90%
i. Determine the maximum power output from the
installation;

ii. If a simple surge tank 6 m in diameter is provided at the

end of the low-pressure tunnel, estimate

a) The maximum upsurge and downsurge in the surge

tank for a sudden rejection of one unit, and

b) The maximum downsurge for a sudden demand of

one unit
,

Solution
 The discharge available, Q = 15 x 106/48 x 60 x 60 = 86.8 m3/s
i. Power output
 Velocity in tunnel,

 Therefore, head loss in tunnel,

 Discharge per penstock, Qp = 86.8/4 = 21.7 m3/s

 Velocity in penstock, Vp = 21.7x4/4p = 6.91 m/s
 Head loss in penstock,

 Gross head at the turbine = 1500 – 1200 = 300 m

 Hence, net head, H = 300 – 2.13 – 9.73 = 288.14
m
 Power output per turbine,

 Total power output,

Ptot = 4 x 55.20 = 220.80 MW
 The net output of the generator
Pnet= 0.90 x 220.80 = 198.72 MW
ii. Surge Tank
 Area of surge tank, As = p x 62/4 = 28.27 m2
 Area of tunnel, At = p x 82/4 = 50.27 m2
 Length of tunnel, Lt = 4000 m
a) Sudden rejection of one unit
 Therefore, maximum upsurge, Z, will be,

 Hence, Z = Zmax x 0.8817 = 11.62 x 0.8817 = 10.25 m

 Maximum downsurge, Z,

Z(min.) = 11.62 x (- 0.70) = - 8.14 m

b) Maximum downsurge for sudden demand of one unit,

Z(min.) = 11.62 x (-1.023) = -11.9 m

Exercise 1. A power station is fed through a 10,000m long concrete

lined tunnel of 5.0 m diameter operating under a gross head of 200
m. The discharge through the tunnel is 30m3/s. A surge tank of 300
m2area has been provided at the end of the tunnel. Calculate:
a) The maximum upsurge in the tank,
b) The minimum downsurge in the tank.
Assume a friction factor f for the concrete lined tunnel as 0.016.
 Penstocks
 The penstocks are pipes of large diameter, usually of steel
or concrete, used for conveying water from the source
(reservoir or forebay) to the power house.
 They are usually high-pressure pipelines designed to
withstand stresses developed because of static and water
hammer pressures created by sudden changes in power
demands (i.e. valve closures and openings according to
power rejection and demand).
 The provision of such a high-pressure line is very
uneconomical if it is too long, in which case it can be
divided into two parts,
 a long low-pressure conveyance (tunnel) followed by
short high-pressure pipeline (penstock) close to the
turbine unit, separated by a surge chamber which
absorbs the water hammer pressure rises and converts
them into mass oscillations.
Figure Components of a penstock
 Classification of penstock
Classification may be based on:
1) The material of fabrication/construction

2) Method of support.

3) Rigidity of connection and support

4) Number of penstocks
1. Material of fabrication/construction
Factors for the choice of material are:
 the head to which the penstock is subjected,
 the topography of the terrain, and
 the discharge to be handled.
 Various materials used are steel, R.C., PVC, wood stave
pipes, banded steel, etc.

 Steel penstock has become the most common type of

installation due to simplicity in fabrication, strength and
assurance that they can perform in a wide variety of
circumstances.

 The penstocks required to withstand high pressures

because of very high heads, are fabricated usually as
banded steel pipes.

 Banded steel pipes are thin-walled but strengthened with

the help of hoops of high-strength steel slipped over them.
 Very large diameters of precast or cat-in-place R.C.
penstocks are impractical.

 They are usually limited to heads of less than 30 m and

working pressures of the order of 5 to 15 kg/cm2 (500 to
1500 kPa).

 Diameters may vary from 0.3 m to 3.0 m, and in 3 m to 7

m sections.
 The following factors have to be considered when
deciding which material to use for a particular project:
o Required operating pressure,

o Diameter and friction loss,

o Weight and ease of installation,

o Accessibility of site,

o Cost of the penstock,

o Design life,

o Availability,

o Weather conditions.
2. Method of support
 A penstock may be either buried or embedded
underground (or inside dams) or exposed above ground
surface & supported on piers.

 Buried penstocks: are supported on the soil in a trench

at a depth of 1 to 1.5m and backfilled.

 For buried penstocks the general topography of the land

should be gently sloping and of loose material.

Burried Penstocks
Advantages Disadvantages

Continuity of support given by the Difficulty of inspection

soil provides better structural
stability
Protection of the pipe against Difficulty of maintenance
temperature fluctuations with the
help of small overburden
Conservation of natural landscape Possibility of sliding on steep
slopes
Protection from slides, storms & Expensive for large diameter in
sabotage rocky soils
Exposed penstocks: Exposed to view and supported
on piers or saddles.
Advantages Disadvantages
Ease of inspection of faults Direct exposure to weather
effect
Economy in rocky terrain & large Development of longitudinal
diameters stress due to support and
anchorage, thus requiring
expansion joints
Stability is ensured with proper
anchorage

When the situation warrants, partly buried system, may be adopted that
combines the advantages of both system.
3. Rigidity of connection & Support
 There are three possible methods of support,
a) Rigid pipe support: Here every support is an anchorage so
that any movement is checked completely. This type is
suitable when the temperature condition is moderate.
b) Semi-rigid pipes: Here each member of the pipe line is fixed
at one and leaving the possibility of movement over the other
support.
c) Flexible support (Flexible or loose-coupled pipes): Here
expansion joint are introduced between each adjacent
section
4) Number of Penstocks
 The number of penstocks used at any particular installation can be
single or multiple.
 The general trend at older power stations was to use as many
penstocks between the forebay/surge tank and the powerhouse as the
number of units installed.
 The recent trend is to use a single penstock, unless the size or
thickness of the penstock involves manufacturing difficulties.
 When a single penstock feeds a number of turbines, special sections
called manifolds are used at the lower end of the penstock to direct
flow to individual units.
 The design of such sections is an intricate job and has to be analyzed
carefully.
 The advantages of using a single penstock over the use of
multiple penstocks are:
o The amount of material required to manufacture is
less, making it economical.
o The cost of civil engineering components such as
penstock supports and anchors is less.
 On the other hand, the use of a single penstock means
reduced safety of operation and complete shutdown will
become necessary in case of repair.
 Furthermore, significant losses are usually experienced at
the manifolds.
 In general, the use of multiple penstocks is preferably
employed for low-head plants with short penstocks;
whereas for high-head plants requiring long penstocks,
provision of a single penstock with manifold at the end
usually proves economical.
 Design Criteria for Penstocks
 For the purpose of engineering feasibility and preliminary
design, there are three major considerations that need
engineering attention:
1. The head loss through the penstock,
2. The safe thickness of the penstock shell (wall), and
3. The economical size of the penstock.
 Head Losses
 The head losses consist of
o Trash rack losses,
o Entrance losses,
o Friction losses in the pipe,
o Bend losses, and
o Stop log, gate slot, and transition losses
 Thickness of Penstock
 According to ASME wall thickness may be computed using
the following formula Where
t = wall thickness, cm
P = pressure, kg/cm2
R = internal radius, cm
S = design stress, kg/cm2
h = joint efficiency factor and 0.15
cm is allowance for corrosion.
 Under normal flow, the penstock is subjected to only
internal hydrostatic pressure.
 But when turbine gates at the end of penstock are closed
suddenly, there is a sudden pressure rise, i.e. water
hammer pressure.
 In this case the following steps are followed to compute
the wall thickness.
1. Calculate the pressure wave velocity, a, as;

Where
a = pressure wave velocity, m/s
r =mass density of water, kg/m3
k = bulk modulus of water ≈ 2 x 109 N/m2
D = internal diameter of penstock, m
E = modulus of elasticity of penstock material = 200 x
109 N/m2
t = thickness of the penstock wall, m
2. Calculate velocity, surge head (∆h), and total head
(htot)

1. For steel penstock, if it is subjected to corrosion and

welding and rolling defects, the effective thickness is
less than the nominal thickness quoted by the
manufacturer.
 Therefore, to find the effective thickness (teff),
 Welding divide t by 1.1
 Flat-rolled divide by 1,2
 Corrosion subtract 1mm for 10 years life
Subtract 2mm for 20 years life
4. Calculate factor of safety (F.S.) as follows:

Where teff = effective wall thickness, m

S = ultimate tensile strength of penstock material, N/m2
D = diameter of penstock, m
5. If safety factor is less than 3.5, reject the penstock
option and repeat the above steps for stronger wall
option
 Economic Diameter of a Penstock
 For successful operation, the size of the pipe for a
given discharge may vary between wide limits, but
usually there is one size that will make for the greater
economy in design.
 The diameter of the penstock is determined from
economic consideration and then checked to see that
acceptable velocities are not exceeded.
 The following two methods are used to determine the
size/diameter of a penstock
o Empirical equations
o Graphical (economic analysis)
 Empirical Relations
 These are over-simplified rule of the thumb relations
based on available experience.
1) USBR Formula

V = optimum velocity
The formula generally applies up to middle range of heads.
2) Sarkaria developed an empirical approach for
determining steel penstock diameter by using data from
large hydro projects with heads varying from 57 m to 313
m and power capacities ranging from 154 MW to 730
MW.
 He reported that the economical diameter of the
penstock is given by the equation

D = Penstock diameter (m)

P =rated hp (metric) of the turbines,
H = Net head at the end of the penstock, m.
3. Donald’s formula
4. Gordon and Penman: for steel penstocks used in
small hydropower installations;

5. Fahlbusch reformulated the objective of the economic

analysis in terms of the amount of the invested capital
and the capitalized value of the lost energy, and arrived
at the conclusion that the most economical diameter
can be computed within an accuracy of about ±10%
from

where P is the rated capacity of the plant (kW), H is the

rated head (m), and D is the diameter (m).
Graphical Method
 There are various combinations of V and D which would
give the same discharge.

 The frictional loss in the penstock i.e

 depends on diameter and in turn determine efficiency on

the penstock pipe.

 Thus, the larger the diameter for a given discharge, the

smaller will be the head losses and greater will be the net
head available to the turbines, resulting in a greater power
development.
 On the other hand, greater size would mean less velocity
and greater capital investment.

 We should choose, therefore, a size which would give the

least annual costs.

 If the total annual cost of the penstock corresponding to

any given diameter is plotted, installation cost results.

 On the other hand, if the cost (which is the price of

energy lost in friction at the prevalent rate of sale of
energy) due to the horse power lost is plotted in the same
figure, power lost would result.
 The total cost would be the sum of the ordinates of the
two curves corresponding to any diameter.
 Then, the total cost curve is plotted in the same figure.
 The least cost corresponds to the optimum diameter of
the penstock.
 Optimization of Penstock Diameter

USD
Total Cost

C1 Cost of
penstock

Cost of
C2 energy lose

m
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5

dC2
Note That: dC1 0
0 dD
dD
Differentiating the total cost with respect to time and
setting the result equal to zero will give as the location
of the minimum point or as a break even point:

 d (C1  C2 ) 
 0
 dD 

dC1 dC2

dD dD
Where
C1 Cost of unit length of penstock
C2 Cost of energy produced
D Diameter of penstock
Thickness of steel pipe:

PD ( g  r  h)  D
s  (m)
2  2 

Weight of steel pipe:

G  grS  p  D  s  L
(N)

Where rs – density of steel … 7850 kg/m3

r - density of water …. 1000 kg/m3
h - head acting on the penstock

 - allowable strength of steel

L - length of penstock
 ( g  r  h)  D
s
2 

G  grS  p  D  s  L

p h D  L
2
G  gr  gr S
2
Substituting all appropriate values

p  h  D2  L
G  gr  gr S
2
h  D2  L
G  9.811000 9.81 7850 3.14  0.5 

h  D2  L
G 1187 106 N 

 2
L
G 1187 103 h D
kN 


Adding 20% for water hammer pressure surges

 2
L
G 1424103 h D
kN 

Let co be cost of steel in USD per kN and  (capital
recovery factor) on the penstock including depreciation, the
annual costs of penstock:

C1   c0  G (USD per year)

Substituting the previously defined expression for the

weight of penstock G
h  D2  L
C1   c0 142410  3
(USD per year)


Now that we have derived the expression for C1 let us turn

our attention to the expression for C2.
 Expression for C2, revenue from energy:

The gross power production without considering losses

is given by the following equation:

P0 9.81h  Q  h0 kW

The actual power with consideration of head losses,

where hl stands for losses, is:

P 9.81h  Q  h0  9.81h  Q  hl ( P0  9.81h  Q  hl )

kW
Taking efficiency of say, 77% (this value can be adjusted for particular cases)

P  ( P0  9.81 h  Q  hl )  ( P0  9.81  0.77  Q  hl )  ( P0  7.55  Q  hl )

 Major head loss in the penstock is given as:

L v2 L Q 2 16 f  L  Q2
hl  f    f   2 4 
D 2g D p  D  2 g 12  D 5 (m)

where f is the friction coefficient for the pipe.

For a given load factor of say  given in decimal number
, the total operation hours in a year would be = 8760* .
Therefore, the annual energy generation would amount
to:
E  P  t P0  7.55 Q  hl  8760 
Taking the cost of energy per kWh at the existing tariff to be ce

 7.55  Q  L  f
3

C2  P0  8760   ce
 12  D 5


 Q3  L  f 
C2  P0  0.63 5
8760   ce (USD per year)
 D 
Let’s recall the expression for C1

h  D2  L
C1   c0 1424103 
 (USD per year)
  Q3  L  f 
C2  P0  0.63 5
8760   ce (USD per year)
 D 

h  D2  L
C1   c0 1424103  (USD per year)

Now applying the differentiation:

dC1 dC2

dD dD
      3
 D   0,63   5 
h L c f L Q
2848103  0
 8760   ce
 D 6

h  L    c0 f  L  Q3
2848103   D  27594   ce
 D 6
 h  L    c0 f  L  Q3
2848103   D  27594   ce
 D 6

h  L    c0 f  L Q3
103.2   D   ce
 D 6

f  L  Q 3

D 
7
  ce
103.2  h  L    c0
f  Q 3

D 
7
  ce
103.2  h    c0
f Q  3
D 7   ce
103.2  h    c0
 f Q  3
D 7   ce
103.2  h    c0

f Q  3
D 7 0.0097   ce
h    c0
D - optimum diameter of penstock (m)
f - friction coefficient in pipe
Q - discharge in m3/s
 - allowable strength of steel (N/m2)
 - annual operating charges on the penstock including depreciation
co – unit cost of steel for finished penstock in USD per KN
 - load factor
ce – electric energy tariff in USD per kWh
 Example
• Discharge = Q = 20 m3/s
• Head on penstock = h = 150 m
• Cost of steel pipe per kN = 400 Rs
• Allowable stress in pipe = 15x107 N/m2
• f = 0.02
• Cost of one kWh of energy = ce = 0.20 Rs
• Fixed charge =  = 6% = 0.06
• Load factor =  = 80% =0.80
 Penstock Joints
 Penstock pipes are generally supplied in standard
lengths, and have to be joined together on site.
 There are many ways of doing this, and the following
factors should be considered when choosing the best
jointing system for a particular scheme.
o Relative costs
o Ease of installation
o Suitability for chosen pipe material

o Degree of joint flexibility

 Methods of pipe jointing fall roughly into four categories:
o Flanged joints
o Spigot and socket joints
o Mechanical joints
o Welded joints
 Flanged Joints
 Flanges are fitted to each end of individual pipes during
manufacture, and each flange is then bolted to the next
during installation as shown in Figure below
 A gasket or other packing material is necessary between
each flange of a pair.
 Flange jointed pipes
are easy to install,
but flanges can add to
the cost of the pipe.
 Flanged joints do not allow any flexibility.
 They are generally used to join steel pipes, and
occasionally ductile iron pipes.
 Spigot and Socket Joints: are made by either fitting a
collar to, or increasing the diameter during manufacture
of, one end of each pipe such that the internal diameter
of the collar or increased internal diameter of the pipe is
the same as the external diameter of the pipe.
 The plain end of each pipe can thus be pushed into the
collar or ‘socket’ in the next as shown in Figure below.
 A good seal is
required between
each pipe section,
and this is achieved by either providing a rubber seal or
special glue called solvent cement, depending up on the
material of which the pipes are made.
 Spigot and socket joints are generally used to join ductile
steel, PVC, and concrete pipes.
 Mechanical Joints
 Mechanical joints are rarely used on penstocks
because of their cost.

 One important application of it is for joining pipes of

different material or where a slight deflection in the
penstock is required that does not warrant installing
a bend.
 Welded Joints
 Welded joints are used on penstocks made of steel.

 Steel pipes are brought to the site in standard lengths,

and then welded together on site.

 One advantage of welding on site is that changes in the

direction of the pipe can be accommodated without
preparation of a special bend section.

 It is relatively cheap method, but has the drawback of

needing skilled site personnel.
 Expansion Joints
 A penstock, specially exposed ones, will change in
length depending on temperature fluctuations.
 If it is fixed the thermal expansion forces are substantial.
It is possible to relieve these forces by incorporating
special joints called expansion joints, which allow the
pipe to expand and contract freely.
 For short penstocks, provision of a single expansion joint
may be sufficient, but for long penstocks with a multiple
anchor blocks expansion joints should be placed below
each anchor block.
 Another alternative to take care of thermal expansion is
to take in to account the forces that result from it in
designing anchors.
 Penstock Supports and Anchors
 Slide blocks, anchors, and thrust blocks all serve the
same basic function: to constrain movement of the
penstock.
 Different terms are used with these structures simply to
indicate which specific function they serve (see figure)
 Slide Blocks
 A slide block, also called supporting pier, carries the
weight of pipe and water, and restrains the pipe from
upward and sideway movements, but allows it to move
longitudinally. In most cases the spacing between slide
blocks are assumed equal to the length of each pipe.
 If the penstock is buried, slide blocks are unnecessary;
rather instead the pipe is laid in a trench on a bed of
sand or gravel of consistent quality, with no big stones
which could cut into the pipe or cause stress
concentrations on the pipe wall.
 Forces that act on slide blocks
 Weight of the pipe and enclosed water: As slide
blocks do not resist longitudinal forces, only the
component of the weight perpendicular to the pipe will be
considered.
 Friction forces on the blocks: This is due to the
longitudinal movement of the pipe over the blocks
caused by thermal expansion and contraction.
 Weight of the block
Figure Forces on slide block
 Anchor Blocks
 An anchor block consists of a mass of reinforced
concrete keyed to the penstock so that the penstock
cannot move in any way relative to the block.
 It is designed to withstand any load the penstock may
exert on it.
 Anchors are often used at bends (horizontal and vertical)
and before entrance to the powerhouse.
 They can also be used along long straight sections of
penstock, each one next to expansion joint.
 Because an anchor is keyed to the penstock pipe and is
also frequently located at a bend in the pipe, more forces
act on an anchor than on a slide block.
 The major forces which act on anchor blocks are the
following:
 Weight of the pipe and enclosed water
 Hydrostatic force on a bend
 Friction forces on slide blocks located between the anchor
and expansion joint
 Thermally induced stresses, when expansion joints are not
incorporated
 The weight of the anchor block itself
 Thrust Blocks

 These are a special form of anchor whose sole purpose

is to transmit forces primarily caused by hydrostatic
pressures at horizontal bends along a buried penstock to
undisturbed soil which provides the reaction force.

 However, if the bend is vertical, an anchor block is still

used if the back filled soil is not able to resist this force.
 Penstock Valves
 Valves are usually installed at two places in a penstock.
 One valve is provided at the upstream end of the
penstock, i.e., at the forebay or immediately after the
surge tank, and is called penstock inlet valve, while the
second is provided at the downstream end of the
conduit, immediately ahead of the turbine, and is named
as turbine inlet valve.
 The upper valve is sometimes replaced by a gate.
 The main purpose of penstock inlet valve is for
dewatering of the penstock in case maintenance of the
penstock is required.
 But, it can be omitted for short penstocks where the
closure of the power canal or power tunnel is possible
from the intake.
 The main purpose of turbine inlet valve is to close the
penstock while the turbine is inoperative.

 It can also act as an emergency shut-off device.

 This valve cannot be omitted except under special case

where the penstock supplies a single unit having installed
the penstock inlet valve.

 The number of turbine inlet valves required at a power

station is governed by the number of turbine units
installed, but not by the number of penstocks, as a single
penstock can serve a number of units through a manifold
at the end.
 There are various types of valves for use in hydropower
installations. The most frequently applied include:

o Butterfly valves

o Spherical valves

o Needle valves

o etc

 The type to be applied should be determined individually

for each case after considering the various factors
involved.
 Power House
 The power house structure can be divided in two
sections,
o a substructure supporting the hydraulic and electrical
equipment, and
o a superstructure housing the equipment.
 The substructure is usually a concrete block with all the
necessary waterways formed within it.
 The scroll case and draft tube are usually cast integrally
(especially in large low-head plants) with the
substructure with steel linings.
 The superstructure usually houses the generating units
and exciters, the switch board and operating room.
 Vertical-axis units (whose turbines are placed just below the
floor level) generally require less floor space than those
mounted on horizontal axes.
 The cost of the superstructure can be reduced considerably
by housing individual generators only (outdoor power house),
although it has the disadvantage that maintenance works
have to be restricted to good weather conditions only.
 Under certain topographic conditions, particularly when the
power plant is situated in narrow canyons with no convenient
site for a conventional type of power house, this may be
located underground.
 It is essential to equip a power house with a crane to lift
and move equipment for installation and maintenance
purposes.

 Travelling cranes spanning the width of the building and

capable of traversing its entire length is normally used.

 The crane rail elevation depends on the maximum

clearance required when the crane is in operation which,
in turn, determines the overall height of the
superstructure.
Section through a power station
 Tail Race
 The tail race is the waterway into which the water from
the turbine units is discharged (through draft tubes if
reaction-type units are used).
 It may be very short and if the power house is close to
the stream the outflow may be discharged directly into it.
 On the other hand, if the power house is situated at a
distance from the stream the tail race may be of
considerable length.
 Proper tail race design ensures, especially in low-head
plants, that more of the plant gross head is available for
power development.
 The tail race in the vicinity of the draft tube exit (head of tail
race) must be properly lined, as it may otherwise degrade and
cause lowering of the tailwater elevation of scouring of the
channel bottom.
 Should this be allowed to progress the designed turbine
setting level would alter, thus causing reduced efficiency of
the turbine (cavitation in the turbine runner), and remedial
measures (artificial raising of the water level) would have to
be taken.
 The tail race channel may sometimes aggrade, in which case
the gross head at the plant decreases, with a resulting
reduction in power output.
 This situation may arise if the main spillway outflow is close to
the tail race without an adequate separating wall.
 Gates, with an appropriate hoisting mechanism, must be
provided at the draft tube outlet (between the piers and tail
race) to isolate the draft tube for maintenance works.
 The tail race of the underground power house is invariably a
horizontal tunnel into which the turbine units discharge the
water.
 Such tunnel flow could sometimes take place under pressure