14 Safety factors, loads and pressures

2.8 RETAINED AND CONTAINED MATERIALS (level fill) and k3 (maximum negative slope) for various angles
of internal friction (in degrees and gradients) are given in
2.8.1 Active pressures of retained and Table 18; the values of such angles for various granular
contained materials materials are given in Tables 17 and 21. For a wall retaining
ordinary earth with level filling k2 is often assumed to be
The value of the horizontal pressure exerted by a contained 0.3 and, with the average weight of earth as 16 kN/m3 or
material or by earth or other material retained by a wall is 100 lb/ft3, the intensity of horizontal pressure is 4.8 kN/m2
uncertain, except when the contained or retained material per metre of height or 30 lb/ft2 per foot of height. The
is a liquid. The formulae, rules and other data in Tables formulae assume dry materials. If ground-water occurs in
16—20 are given as practical bases for the calculation of such the filling behind the wall, the modified formula given in
pressures. Reference should also be made to Code no. 2, section 10.1.1 applies. The intensity of pressure normal to
'Earth-retaining structures' (see ref. 1). the slope of an inclined surface is considered in section 10.1.2
structures in accordance with BS811O it and in Table 18.
should be remembered that all pressures etc. calculated by
using the characteristic dead weights of materials represent Effect of surcharge (granular materials). The effects of
service loads. Consequently, when designing sections accord- various types of surcharge on the ground behind a retaining
ing to limit-state considerations, the pressures etc. must be wall are evaluated in Table 20, and comments are given in
multiplied by the appropriate partial safety factors for loads section 10.1.3.
to obtain ultimate bending moments and shearing forces.
Theoretical and actual pressures of granular
Liquids. At any h below the free surface of a liquid, materials. In general practice, horizontal pressures due to
the intensity of pressure q per unit area normal to a surface granular materials can be determined by the purely theoret-
subject to pressure from the liquid is equal to the intensity ical formulae of Rankine, Cain and Coulomb. Many inves-
of vertical pressure, which is given by the simple hydrostatic tigators have made experiments to determine what relation
expression q = Dh, where D is the Weight per unit volume actual pressures bear to the theoretical pressures, and it
of the liquid. appears that the Rankine formula for a filling with a level
surface and neglecting friction between the filling and the
Granular materials. When the contained material is back of the wall gives too great a value for the pressure. Thus
granular, for example dry sand, grain, small coal, gravel or retaining walls designed on this theory should be on the side
crushed stone, the pressure normal to a retaining surface of safety. The theory assumes that the angle of internal
can be expressed conveniently as a fraction of the equivalent friction of the material and the surface angle of repose are
fluid pressure; thus q = kDh, where k is a measure of the identical, whereas some investigations find that the interhal
'fluidity' of the contained or retained matérial and varies angle of friction is less than the angle of repose and depends
from unity for perfect fluids to zero for materials that stand on the consolidation of the material. The ratio between the
unretained with a vertical face. The value of k also depends internal angle of friction and the angle of repose has been
on the physical characteristics, water content, angle of found to be between 0.9 and I approximately. For a filling
angle of internal friction and slope of the surface of with a level surface the horizontal pressure given by
the material, on the slope of the wall Or other retaining (1 —sinO
surface, on the material of which the wall is made, and on q=DhI
the surcharge on the contained material. The value of k is \l +sin0
determined graphically or by calculation, both methods agrees very closely with the actual pressure if 0 is the angle
being usually based on the wedge theory or the developments of internal friction and not the angle of repose. The
of Rankine or Cain. The total pressure normal to the back maximum pressure seems to occur immediately after the
of a sloping or v&rtical wall can be calculated from the filling has been deposited, and the pressure decreases as
formulae in Table 16 for various conditions. settling proceeds. The vertical component of the pressure on
Friction between the wall and the material is usually the back of the wall appears to conform to the theoretical
neglected, resulting in a higher calculated normal pressure relationship F,, = Fh tan p. A rise in temperature produces
which is safe. Friction must be neglected if the material in an increase in pressure of about 2% per 10°C.
contact with the wall can become saturated and thereby The point of application of the resultant thrust on a wall
reduce the friction by an uncertain amount or to zero. Only with a filling with a level surface would appear theoretically
where dry materials of well-known properties are being to be at one-third of the total height for shallow walls, and
stored may this friction be included. Values of the coefficient rises in the course of time and with increased heights of wall.
of friction p can be determined from Table 17. When friction According to some investigators, where the surface of the
is neglected (i.e. p = 0), the pressure normal to the back of fill slopes downward away from the wall, the point of
the wall is equal to the total pressure and there is, theoretical-
application is at one-third of the height, but this rises as the
ly, no force acting parallel to the back of the wall. slope increases upwards.
Generally, in the case of retaining walls and walls of Loads imposed on the ground behind the wall and within
bunkers and other containers, the back face of the wall is the plane of rupture increase the pressure on the wall, but
vertical (or nearly so) and the substitution of /3 = 90° in the generally loads outside the wedge ordinarily considered can
general formulae for k gives the simplified formulae in Table be neglected. The increase of pressure due to transient
16. Values of k1 (maximum positive slope or surcharge), k2 imposed loads remains temporarily after the load is re-

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