Introduction to Computers

A computer system has three main components: hardware, software, and people. The equipment
associated with a computer system is called hardware. Software is a set of instructions that tells the
hardware what to do. People, however, are the most important component of a computer system - people
use the power of the computer for some purpose. In fact, this course will show you that the computer can
be a tool for just about anyone from a business person, to an artist, to a housekeeper, to a student - an
incredibly powerful and flexible tool.

Software is actually a computer program. To be more specific, a program is a set of step-by-step

instructions that directs the computer to do the tasks you want it to do and to produce the results you
want. A computer programmer is a person who writes programs. Most of us do not write programs, we
use programs written by someone else. This means we are users - people who purchase and use computer
software.

Hardware: Meeting the Machine

What is a computer? A six-year-old called a computer "radio, movies, and television combined!" A ten-
year-old described a computer as "a television set you can talk to." The ten-year-old's definition is closer
but still does not recognize the computer as a machine that has the power to make changes.

A computer is a machine that can be programmed to accept data (input), process it into useful information
(output), and store it away (in a secondary storage device) for safekeeping or later reuse. The processing of
input to output is directed by the software but performed by the hardware.

To function, a computer system requires four main aspects of data handling: input, processing, output, and
storage. The hardware responsible for these four areas operates as follows:

 Input devices accept data in a form that the computer can use; they then send the data to the
processing unit.
 The processor, more formally known as the central processing unit (CPU), has the electronic
circuitry that manipulates input data into the information people want. The central processing unit
executes computer instructions that are specified in the program.
 Output devices show people the processed data-information in a form that they can use.
 Storage usually means secondary storage. Secondary storage consists of devices, such as diskettes,
which can store data and programs outside the computer itself. These devices supplement the
computer's memory, which, as we will see, can hold data and programs only temporarily.

Characteristics of Computers
Basic characteristics about computer are:

1. Speed: – As you know computer can work

very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we take hours to complete. You will be surprised
to know that computer can perform millions (1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second.
Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a second) or
nanosecond (10 to the power -9 part of a second). From this you can imagine how fast your computer
performs work.

2. Accuracy: – The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed with
the same accuracy. The accuracy level is 7. determined on the basis of design of computer. The errors in
computer are due to human and inaccurate data..
3. Diligence: – A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours
without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will perform every
calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of
work.

4. Versatility: – It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use your
computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management or to prepare
electric bills.
5. Power of Remembering: – Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data.
Any information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of years. It depends
entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer and when to lose or retrieve these
data.
6. No IQ: – Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the user. It
performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide what you want to do
and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own decision as you can. 
7. No Feeling: – It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it does not
get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.
 8. Storage: – The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. You can
also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside your computer
and can be carried to other computers.
Block diagram of computer
Computer Block Diagram System: Mainly computer system consists of three parts, that are central
processing unit (CPU), Input Devices, and Output Devices. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is divided into
two parts again: arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the control unit (CU). The set of instruction is in the form of
raw data.
A large amount of data is stored in the computer memory with the help of primary and secondary storage
devices. The CPU is like the heart/brain of the computer. The user does not get the desired output, without
the necessary option taken by the CPU.  The Central processing unit (CPU) is responsible for the processing
of all the instructions which are given by the user to the computer system.

                                       Fig: Block Diagram of the computer.

The data is entered through input devices such as the keyboard, mouse, etc. This set of instruction is
processed by the CPU after getting the input by the user, and then the computer system produces the
output. The computer can show the output with the help of output devices to the user, such as  monitor,
printer, etc.
 CPU (Central Processing Unit)
 Storage Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
 Control Unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The computer system is nothing without the Central processing Unit so, it is also known as the brain or
heat of computer. The CPU is an electronic hardware device which can perform different types of
operations such as arithmetic and logical operation.
The CPU contains two parts: the arithmetic logic unit and control unit. We have discussed briefly the
arithmetic unit, logical unit, and control unit which are given below:
Control Unit
The control unit (CU) controls all the activities or operations which are performed inside the computer
system. It receives instructions or information directly from the main memory of the computer.
When the control unit receives an instruction set or information, it converts the instruction set to control
signals then; these signals are sent to the central processor for further processing. The control unit
understands which operation to execute, accurately, and in which order.
Arithmetic and Logical Unit
The arithmetic and logical unit is the combinational digital electronic circuit that can perform arithmetic
operations on integer binary numbers.It presents the arithmetic and logical operation. The outputs of ALU
will change asynchronously in response to the input. The basic arithmetic and bitwise logic functions are
supported by ALU.
Storage Unit
The information or set of guidelines are stored in the storage unit of the computer system. The storage
unit provides the space to store the data or instruction of processed data. The information or data is saved
or hold in computer memory or storage device. The data storage is the core function and fundamental of
the computer components.  
Components of Computer System
The hardware and software exist on the computer.  The information which is stored through the device is
known as computer software. The hardware components of the computer system are related to electronic
and mechanical parts, and the software component is related to data and computer programs. Many
elements are connected to the main circuit board of the computer system called a “motherboard.”
 Processor.
 Main Memory.
 Secondary Memory.
 Input Devices.
 Output Devices.
These are mainly five components of the computer system. The computer hardware, computer software,
and liveware exist in the element of the computer system.
Processor
The processor is an electric circuitry within the computer system. The Central processing unit is the central
processor or main processor of the computer system. The processor carries out the instructions of the
computer program with the help of basic arithmetic and logic, input/output operations.
Main Memory  
The Random Access Memory is the main memory of the computer system, which is known as RAM.  The
main memory can store the operating system software, application software, and other information.  The
Ram is one of the fastest memory, and it allows the data to be readable and writeable.
Secondary memory
 We can store the data and programs on a long-term basis in the secondary memory. The hard disks and
the optical disks are the common secondary devices. It is slow and cheap memory as compare to primary
memory. This memory is not connected to the processor directly.
It has a large capacity to store the data. The hard disk has a capacity of 500 gigabytes. The data and
programs on the hard disk are organized into files, and the file is the collection of data on the disk. The
secondary storage is direct access by the CPU; that’s why it is different from the primary storage.
The hard disk is about 100 times the capacity of the main memory. The main difference between primary
and secondary storage is speed and capacity. There are several large blocks of data which are copied from
the hard disk into the main memory.
Input Devices
The user provides the set of instruction or information to the computer system with the help of input
devices such as the keyboard, mouse, scanner, etc. The data representation to the computer system is in
the form of binary language after that the processor processes the converted data. The input unit
implements the data which is instructed by the user to the system.
We can enter the data from the outside world into the primary storage as the input through input devices.
The input devices are the medium of communication between the outside world and the computer system.
 There are some important features of input devices which are given below:
1. The input devices receive or accept the data or instruction from the user, who exist in the outside
world.
2. These devices convert the data or instruction into the machine-readable form for further
processing.
3. The input device performs like the connection between the outside world and our computer
system.
4. The keyboard and mouse are common examples of input devices.
5. When the whole procedure is finished, we get the desired output from the output devices such as
monitor, printer, etc.
Output Devices
The output devices produce or generate the desired result according to our input, such as a printer,
monitor, etc. These devices convert the data into a human-readable form from binary code.
The computer system is linked or connected to the outside world with the help of output devices. The
primary examples of output devices are a printer, projector, etc.
These devices have various features which are given below:
1. These devices receive or accept the data in the binary form.
2. The output devices convert the binary code into the human-readable form.
3. These devices produce the converted result and show to the user.

Booting Process

Steps In the Booting Process

Booting is a process of switching on the computer and starting the operating system. Six steps of the
booting process are BIOS and Setup Program, The Power-On-Self-Test (POST), The Operating
System Loads, System Configuration, System Utility Loads and Users Authentication.

 1: BIOS and Setup Program

 2: The Power-On-Self-Test (POST)
 3: The Operating System (OS) Loads
 4: System Configuration
 5: System Utility Loads
 6: Users Authentication
Step 1: BIOS and Setup Program
 ROM (read-only memory): it is a permanent and unchanging memory also
 BIOS (basic input/output system ): the part of the system software that includes the instructions
that the computer uses to accept input and output
 Load: to transfer from a storage device to memory. The ROM loads BIOS into the computer’s
memory
 Setup program: a special program containing settings to control hardware.  Furthermore, 
the program can only be accessed while the BIOS information is visible
Step 2: The Power-On-Self-Test (POST)
 POST (Power-On Self-Test): a series of tests conducted on the computer’s main
memory, input/output devices, disk drives, and the hard disk.
 BIOS conducts Power-On-Self-Test to check the input/ output system for operability.
 The computer will produce a beeping sound if any problem occurs. An error message will also
appear on the monitor
Step 3: The Operating System (OS) Loads
BIOS  searches for the operating system.
 Setting in CMOS: complementary metal oxide semiconductor determines where to look for the
operating system.
 In this step, the operating system’s kernel is also loaded into the computer’s memory.
 The operating system takes control of the computer and begins loading system configuration
information.
Step 4: System Configuration
 Registry: a database to store information about peripherals and software
 Peripheral: a device connected to a computer
 Drive: a utility program that makes peripheral devices function properly
 The operating system’s registry configures the system.
 In this step, drivers are also loaded into memory.
Step 5: System Utility Loads
 System utilities are loaded into memory.
 Volume control
 Antivirus software
 PC card unplugging utility
Step 6: Users Authentication
 Authentication or user login occurs
 Username
 Password
After all this process, the user interface starts, enabling user interaction with the computer and its
programs also.

Types of Programming Languages- Machine Languages, Assembly Languages, High Level Languages

Machine-level language
The machine-level language is a language that consists of a set of instructions that are in the binary form 0
or 1. As we know that computers can understand only machine instructions, which are in binary digits, i.e.,
0 and 1, so the instructions given to the computer can be only in binary codes. Creating a program in a
machine-level language is a very difficult task as it is not easy for the programmers to write the program in
machine instructions. It is error-prone as it is not easy to understand, and its maintenance is also very high.
A machine-level language is not portable as each computer has its machine instructions, so if we write a
program in one computer will no longer be valid in another computer.

The different processor architectures use different machine codes, for example, a PowerPC processor
contains RISC architecture, which requires different code than intel x86 processor, which has a CISC
architecture.

Assembly Language

The assembly language contains some human-readable commands such as mov, add, sub, etc. The
problems which we were facing in machine-level language are reduced to some extent by using an
extended form of machine-level language known as assembly language. Since assembly language
instructions are written in English words like mov, add, sub, so it is easier to write and understand.

As we know that computers can only understand the machine-level instructions, so we require a translator
that converts the assembly code into machine code. The translator used for translating the code is known
as an assembler.

The assembly language code is not portable because the data is stored in computer registers, and the
computer has to know the different sets of registers.

The assembly code is not faster than machine code because the assembly language comes above the
machine language in the hierarchy, so it means that assembly language has some abstraction from the
hardware while machine language has zero abstraction.

High-Level Language

The high-level language is a programming language that allows a programmer to write the programs which
are independent of a particular type of computer. The high-level languages are considered as high-level
because they are closer to human languages than machine-level languages.

When writing a program in a high-level language, then the whole attention needs to be paid to the logic of
the problem.

A compiler is required to translate a high-level language into a low-level language.

Advantages of a high-level language

o The high-level language is easy to read, write, and maintain as it is written in English like words.
o The high-level languages are designed to overcome the limitation of low-level language, i.e.,
portability. The high-level language is portable; i.e., these languages are machine-independent.

Data Organization- Drives, Files, Directories

Drive
Updated: 04/30/2020 by Computer Hope

A drive is a location (medium) that is capable of storing and reading

information that is not easily removed, like a disk or disc. All drives
store files and programs used by your computer. For example, when you
write a letter in a word processor, the program is loaded from the hard
drive. When you save the document, it's saved to the hard drive or other
disk or drive. The picture is an example of different drives listed in
Microsoft Windows My Computer.

In the picture, drive A: is the floppy drive, C: is the primary hard drive, D:

and E: are partitions, and F: is the CD-ROM drive. The CD-ROM drive is
usually the last drive letter. In most situations, the hard drive is the C:
drive, and a CD-ROM or other disc drive is the D: drive.

Types of computer drives

Below are examples of different drives you could have in a computer or
are accessible by the computer.

Tip

Today, most of the drives listed below are obsolete. The most common drives used with home computers
are hard drives, SSDs (solid-state drives), disc drives, and USB drives.

 Bernoulli drive (obsolete)
 Disc drives: Blu-ray, CD-R, CD-ROM, CD-RW, and DVD.
 Flash drive.
 Floppy disk drive (obsolete)
 Hard drive
 Local drive
 LS-120 (obsolete)
 Network drive
 RAM disk
 SSD
 SuperDisk (obsolete)
 Tape drive
 USB drive
 Virtual drive
 Zip drive (obsolete)
File
Updated: 08/02/2020 by Computer Hope
A file may refer to any of the following:
1. A file is an object on a computer that stores data, information, settings, or
commands used with a computer program. In a GUI (graphical user
interface), such as Microsoft Windows, files display as icons that relate
to the program that opens the file. For example, the picture is an icon
associated with Adobe Acrobat PDF files. If this file was on your
computer, double-clicking the icon opens it in Adobe Acrobat or the PDF
reader installed on the computer.

 How are files created?

 Where are files stored?
 File management
 File extensions and file types
 Why do files have different icons?
 Illegal file characters
 How are files different than a directory or folder?
 Related file pages
 File help and support
How are files created?
A file is created using a computer software program. For example, to
create a text file you would use a text editor, to create an image file you
would use an image editor, and to create a document you would use
a word processor.

 How do I create a computer file?

 How to open, view, and edit the contents of a file on a computer.
Where are files stored?
Computer files are stored on a drive (e.g., the hard
drive), disc (e.g., DVD), and a diskette (e.g., floppy disk) and may be in
a folder (directory) on that medium.

Directory
Updated: 05/21/2018 by Computer Hope
A directory is a location for storing files on your computer. Directories
are found in a hierarchical file system, such as Linux, MS-DOS, OS/2,
and Unix.

Pictured is an example of output from the Windows/DOS tree

command. It shows all the local and subdirectories (e.g., the "big"
directory in the "cdn" directory). When looking at this overview,
the current directory is the root directory of the C: drive. It's called the
"root" directory because there is nothing beneath it, and the other
directories "branch" from it. If you are using an operating system with
multiple user accounts, the directory may also be referred to as a home
directory.

Storage Devices

Types of Computer Storage

The computer storage devices can be classified into various parts, but the computer storage unit is also
divided into three parts. Given below are details about the three types of computer storage:

 Primary Storage: This is the direct memory which is accessible to the Central Processing Unit
(CPU). 

o This is also known as the main memory and is volatile. 

o This is temporary. As soon as the device turns off or is rebooted, the memory is erased
o It is smaller in size
o Primary storage comprises only of Internal memory
o Examples of primary storage include RAM, cache memory, etc.

 Secondary Storage: This type of storage does not have direct accessibility to the Central Processing
Unit.

o The input and output channels are used to connect such storage devices to the computer, as
they are mainly external
o It is non-volatile and larger storage capacity in comparison to primary storage
o This type of storage is permanent until removed by an external factor
o It comprises of both internal and external memory
o Examples of secondary storage are USB drives, floppy disks, etc.
I/O Devices
Input/output device
Updated: 08/02/2020 by Computer Hope
Alternatively referred to as an IO device, an input/output device is
any hardware used by a human operator or other systems to
communicate with a computer. As the name suggests, input/output
devices are capable of sending data (output) to a computer and
receiving data from a computer (input).

 Examples of input/output devices

 What are I/O device errors?
 What can fix I/O errors?
 Related I/O device pages.
Examples of input/output devices
 CD-R/RW, DVD, and Blu-ray drive
 Digital camera
 Floppy diskette drive
 Hard drives
 Modem
 Network adapter
 SD Card
 Touch screen
 USB thumb drives
Tip

See our input device and output device definitions for a list of each type of device.

What are I/O device errors?

Because most hardware devices do not require an input and output
communication with the computer, most IO devices are storage devices.
So, when you encounter an I/O error or I/O device error it's an indication
that the operating system cannot read or write to a device.

Reasons why you may get an IO device error

 Write protection is enabled. For example, if write-protection on

an SD card.
  Trying to write to a disc that is not writable. For example, trying
to burn to a CD and not a CD-R disc.
 No more disk space.
 The file is used by another user or computer program.
 Not enough rights or permissions to read or write.
 No physical or virtual connection.
 Bad or missing drivers preventing the drive from being accessed.
 Failing or bad hardware.
What can fix I/O errors?
Depending on what device is giving you the I/O error can change how to
troubleshoot these errors. If you are not certain what device is giving
you the error, follow the general troubleshooting steps. Otherwise, try
following the specific steps for the device giving you the error.

Monitor and types of monitor

Types of computer monitors
By EDITOR  | Published: SEPTEMBER 4, 2014

Most people use computer monitors daily at work and at home. And while these
come in a variety of shapes, designs, and colors, they can also be broadly categorized into three types. If
you are not sure what these are and would like an introduction to the different types of computer
monitors then here we explain the three main types, as well as the pros and cons of each.

CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors

These monitors employ CRT technology, which was used most commonly in the manufacturing of
television screens. With these monitors, a stream of intense high energy electrons is used to form images
on a fluorescent screen. A cathode ray tube is basically a vacuum tube containing an electron gun at one
end and a fluorescent screen at another end.

While CRT monitors can still be found in some organizations, many offices have stopped using them largely
because they are heavy, bulky, and costly to replace should they break. While they are still in use, it would
be a good idea to phase these monitors out for cheaper, lighter, and more reliable monitors.

LCD (liquid crystal display) monitors

The LCD monitor incorporates one of the most advanced technologies available today. Typically, it consists
of a layer of color or monochrome pixels arranged schematically between a couple of transparent
electrodes and two polarizing filters. Optical effect is made possible by polarizing the light in varied
amounts and making it pass through the liquid crystal layer. The two types of LCD technology available are
the active matrix of TFT and a passive matrix technology. TFT generates better picture quality and is more
secure and reliable. Passive matrix, on the other hand, has a slow response time and is slowly becoming
outdated.
 The advantages of LCD monitors include their compact size which makes them lightweight. They also don’t
consume much electricity as CRT monitors, and can be run off of batteries which makes them ideal for
laptops.

Images transmitted by these monitors don’t get geometrically distorted and have little flicker. However,
this type of monitor does have disadvantages, such as its relatively high price, an image quality which is not
constant when viewed from different angles, and a monitor resolution that is not always constant,
meaning any alterations can result in reduced performance.

LED (light-emitting diodes) monitors

LED monitors are the latest types of monitors on the market today. These are flat panel, or slightly curved
displays which make use of light-emitting diodes for back-lighting, instead of cold cathode fluorescent
(CCFL) back-lighting used in LCDs. LED monitors are said to use much lesser power than CRT and LCD and
are considered far more environmentally friendly.

The advantages of LED monitors are that they produce images with higher contrast, have less negative
environmental impact when disposed, are more durable than CRT or LCD monitors, and features a very
thin design. They also don’t produce much heat while running. The only downside is that they can be more
expensive, especially for the high-end monitors like the new curved displays that are being released.

Being aware of the different types of computer monitors available should help you choose one that’s most
suited to your needs. Looking to learn more about hardware in today’s world? Contact us and see how we
can help.

Monitor
Updated: 05/16/2020 by Computer Hope
A monitor may refer to any of the following:

1. Alternatively referred to as a VDT (video display terminal) and VDU (video

display unit), a monitor is an output device that displays video images
and text. A monitor is made up of circuitry, a screen, a power supply,
buttons to adjust screen settings, and casing that holds all of these
components.

Tip
 When used as a noun, the term "monitor" is synonymous with a computer "screen" and "display."

Like most early TVs, the first computer monitors were comprised of
a CRT (cathode ray tube) and a fluorescent screen. Today, all monitors
are created using flat-panel display technology, usually backlit
with LEDs (light-emitting diode). The image is an example of an
ASUS LCD (liquid-crystal display) monitor.

Definition of operating system

An operating system, or "OS," is software that communicates with the hardware and allows
other programs to run. It is comprised of system software, or the fundamental files your computer needs
to boot up and function. Every desktop computer, tablet, and smartphone includes an operating system
that provides basic functionality for the device.
Common desktop operating systems include Windows, OS X, and Linux. While each OS is different, most
provide a graphical user interface, or GUI, that includes a desktop and the ability to manage files and
folders. They also allow you to install and run programs written for the operating system. Windows and
Linux can be installed on standard PC hardware, while OS X is designed to run on Apple systems. Therefore,
the hardware you choose affects what operating system(s) you can run.
Mobile devices, such as tablets and smartphones also include operating systems that provide a GUI and
can run applications. Common mobile OSes include Android, iOS, and Windows Phone. These OSes are
developed specifically for portable devices and therefore are designed around touchscreen input. While
early mobile operating systems lacked many features found in desktop OSes, they now include advanced
capabilities, such as the ability to run third-party apps and run multiple apps at once.

Services provided by OS
Here is a list of common services offered by an almost all operating systems:

 User Interface
 Program Execution
 File system manipulation
 Input / Output Operations
 Communication
 Resource Allocation
 Error Detection
 Accounting
 Security and protection

User Interface

Usually Operating system comes in three forms or types. Depending on the interface their types have been
further subdivided. These are:

 Command line interface

 Batch based interface
 Graphical User Interface
Let's get to know in brief about each of them.
The command line interface (CLI) usually deals with using text commands and a technique for entering
those commands. The batch interface (BI): commands and directives are used to manage those commands
that are entered into files and those files get executed. Another type is the graphical user interface (GUI):
which is a window system with a pointing device (like mouse or trackball) to point to the I/O, choose from
menus driven interface and to make choices viewing from a number of lists and a keyboard to entry the
texts.

Program Execution

The operating system must have the capability to load a program into memory and execute that program.
Furthermore, the program must be able to end its execution, either normally or abnormally / forcefully.

File System Manipulation in Operating System

Programs need has to be read and then write them as files and directories. File handling portion of
operating system also allows users to create and delete files by specific name along with extension, search
for a given file and / or list file information. Some programs comprise of permissions management for
allowing or denying access to files or directories based on file ownership.

I/O operations in Operating System

A program which is currently executing may require I/O, which may involve file or other I/O device. For
efficiency and protection, users cannot directly govern the I/O devices. So, the OS provide a means to do
I/O Input / Output operation which means read or write operation with any file.

Communication System of Operating System

Process needs to swap over information with other process. Processes executing on same computer
system or on different computer systems can communicate using operating system support.
Communication between two processes can be done using shared memory or via message passing.

Resource Allocation of Operating System

When multiple jobs running concurrently,  resources must need to be allocated to each of them. Resources
can be CPU cycles, main memory storage, file storage and I/O devices. CPU scheduling routines are used
here to establish how best the CPU can be used.

Error Detection
Errors may occur within CPU, memory hardware, I/O devices and in the user program. For each type of
error, the OS takes adequate action for ensuring correct and consistent computing.

Accounting
This service of the operating system keeps track of which users are using how much and what kinds of
computer resources have been used for accounting or simply to accumulate usage statistics.
Protection and Security
Protection includes in ensuring all access to system resources in a controlled manner. For making a system
secure, the user needs to authenticate him or her to the system before using (usually via login ID and
password).
Types of O.S
Following are some of the most widely used types of Operating system.

1. Simple Batch System

2. Multiprogramming Batch System
3. Multiprocessor System
4. Desktop System
5. Distributed Operating System
6. Clustered System
7. Realtime Operating System
8. Handheld System

Simple Batch Systems

 In this type of system, there is no direct interaction between user and the computer.
 The user has to submit a job (written on cards or tape) to a computer operator.
 Then computer operator places a batch of several jobs on an input device.
 Jobs are batched together by type of languages and requirement.
 Then a special program, the monitor, manages the execution of each program in the batch.
 The monitor is always in the main memory and available for execution.

Multiprogramming Batch Systems

 In this the operating system picks up and begins to execute one of the jobs from memory.
 Once this job needs an I/O operation operating system switches to another job (CPU and OS always
busy).
 Jobs in the memory are always less than the number of jobs on disk(Job Pool).
 If several jobs are ready to run at the same time, then the system chooses which one to run
through the process of CPU Scheduling.
 In Non-multiprogrammed system, there are moments when CPU sits idle and does not do any work.
 In Multiprogramming system, CPU will never be idle and keeps on processing.

Multiprocessor Systems
A Multiprocessor system consists of several processors that share a common physical memory.
Multiprocessor system provides higher computing power and speed. In multiprocessor system all
processors operate under single operating system. Multiplicity of the processors and how they do act
together are transparent to the others.

Desktop Systems
Earlier, CPUs and PCs lacked the features needed to protect an operating system from user programs. PC
operating systems therefore were neither multiuser nor multitasking. However, the goals of these
operating systems have changed with time; instead of maximizing CPU and peripheral utilization, the
systems opt for maximizing user convenience and responsiveness. These systems are called Desktop
Systems and include PCs running Microsoft Windows and the Apple Macintosh. Operating systems for
these computers have benefited in several ways from the development of operating systems
for mainframes.
Microcomputers were immediately able to adopt some of the technology developed for larger operating
systems. On the other hand, the hardware costs for microcomputers are sufficiently low that individuals
have sole use of the computer, and CPU utilization is no longer a prime concern. Thus, some of the design
decisions made in operating systems for mainframes may not be appropriate for smaller systems.

Distributed Operating System

The motivation behind developing distributed operating systems is the availability of powerful and
inexpensive microprocessors and advances in communication technology.
These advancements in technology have made it possible to design and develop distributed systems
comprising of many computers that are inter connected by communication networks. The main benefit of
distributed systems is its low price/performance ratio.

Advantages Distributed Operating System

1. As there are multiple systems involved, user at one site can utilize the resources of systems at other
sites for resource-intensive tasks.
2. Fast processing.
3. Less load on the Host Machine.

Types of Distributed Operating Systems

Following are the two types of distributed operating systems used:

1. Client-Server Systems
2. Peer-to-Peer Systems

Client-Server Systems
Centralized systems today act as server systems to satisfy requests generated by client systems. The
general structure of a client-server system is depicted in the figure below:

Server Systems can be broadly categorized as: Compute Servers and File Servers.

  Compute Server systems, provide an interface to which clients can send requests to perform an
action, in response to which they execute the action and send back results to the client.
 File Server systems, provide a file-system interface where clients can create, update, read, and
delete files.

Peer-to-Peer Systems
The growth of computer networks - especially the Internet and World Wide Web (WWW) – has had a
profound influence on the recent development of operating systems. When PCs were introduced in the
1970s, they were designed for personal use and were generally considered standalone computers. With
the beginning of widespread public use of the Internet in the 1990s for electronic mail and FTP, many PCs
became connected to computer networks.
In contrast to the Tightly Coupled systems, the computer networks used in these applications consist of a
collection of processors that do not share memory or a clock. Instead, each processor has its own local
memory. The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines, such as
high-speed buses or telephone lines. These systems are usually referred to as loosely coupled systems ( or
distributed systems). The general structure of a client-server system is depicted in the figure below:

Clustered Systems

 Like parallel systems, clustered systems gather together multiple CPUs to accomplish
computational work.
 Clustered systems differ from parallel systems, however, in that they are composed of two or more
individual systems coupled together.
 The definition of the term clustered is not concrete; the general accepted definition is that
clustered computers share storage and are closely linked via LAN networking.
 Clustering is usually performed to provide high availability.
 A layer of cluster software runs on the cluster nodes. Each node can monitor one or more of the
others. If the monitored machine fails, the monitoring machine can take ownership of its storage,
and restart the application(s) that were running on the failed machine. The failed machine can
remain down, but the users and clients of the application would only see a brief interruption of
service.
 Asymmetric Clustering - In this, one machine is in hot standby mode while the other is running the
applications. The hot standby host (machine) does nothing but monitor the active server. If that
server fails, the hot standby host becomes the active server.
  Symmetric Clustering - In this, two or more hosts are running applications, and they are monitoring
each other. This mode is obviously more efficient, as it uses all of the available hardware.
 Parallel Clustering - Parallel clusters allow multiple hosts to access the same data on the shared
storage. Because most operating systems lack support for this simultaneous data access by multiple
hosts, parallel clusters are usually accomplished by special versions of software and special releases
of applications.

Clustered technology is rapidly changing. Clustered system's usage and it's features should expand greatly
as Storage Area Networks(SANs). SANs allow easy attachment of multiple hosts to multiple storage units.
Current clusters are usually limited to two or four hosts due to the complexity of connecting the hosts to
shared storage.

Real Time Operating System

It is defined as an operating system known to give maximum time for each of the critical operations that it
performs, like OS calls and interrupt handling.
The Real-Time Operating system which guarantees the maximum time for critical operations and complete
them on time are referred to as Hard Real-Time Operating Systems.
While the real-time operating systems that can only guarantee a maximum of the time, i.e. the critical task
will get priority over other tasks, but no assurity of completeing it in a defined time. These systems are
referred to as Soft Real-Time Operating Systems.

Handheld Systems
Handheld systems include Personal Digital Assistants(PDAs), such as Palm-Pilots or Cellular
Telephones with connectivity to a network such as the Internet. They are usually of limited size due to
which most handheld devices have a small amount of memory, include slow processors, and feature small
display screens.

 Many handheld devices have between 512 KB and 8 MB of memory. As a result, the operating
system and applications must manage memory efficiently. This includes returning all allocated
memory back to the memory manager once the memory is no longer being used.
 Currently, many handheld devices do not use virtual memory techniques, thus forcing program
developers to work within the confines of limited physical memory.
 Processors for most handheld devices often run at a fraction of the speed of a processor in a PC.
Faster processors require more power. To include a faster processor in a handheld device would
require a larger battery that would have to be replaced more frequently.
 The last issue confronting program designers for handheld devices is the small display screens
typically available. One approach for displaying the content in web pages is web clipping, where
only a small subset of a web page is delivered and displayed on the handheld device.

Some handheld devices may use wireless technology such as BlueTooth, allowing remote access to e-mail
and web browsing. Cellular telephones with connectivity to the Internet fall into this category. Their use
continues to expand as network connections become more available and other options such
as cameras and MP3 players, expand their utility.
Features of Windows and Linux
Difference between Linux and Windows
 Last Updated : 13 May, 2020
Linux:
Linux could be a free and open supply OS supported operating system standards. It provides programming
interface still as programme compatible with operating system primarily based systems and provides giant
selection applications. A UNIX operating system system additionally contains several severally developed
parts, leading to UNIX operating system that is totally compatible and free from proprietary code.
Windows:
Windows may be a commissioned OS within which ASCII text file is inaccessible. it’s designed for the
people with the angle of getting no programming information and for business and alternative industrial
users. it’s terribly straightforward and simple to use.
The distinction between Linux and Windows package is that Linux is completely freed from price whereas
windows is marketable package and is expensive. Associate operating system could be a program meant to
regulate the pc or computer hardware Associate behave as an treater between user and hardware.
Let’s see that the difference between Linux and windows:

S.NO Linux Windows

While windows are the not the open

1. Linux is a open source operating system. source operating system.

2. Linux is free of cost. While it is costly.

3. It’s file name case-sensitive. While it’s file name is case-insensitive.

4. In linux, monolithic kernel is used. While in this, micro kernel is used.

Linux is more efficient in comparison of

5. windows. While windows are less efficient.

There is forward slash is used for While there is back slash is used for
6. Separating the directories. Separating the directories.

Linux provides more security than

7. windows. While it provides less security than linux.

Linux is widely used in hacking purpose While windows does not provide much
8. based systems. efficiency in hacking.

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Internal and External Commands of DOS, Batch Files.

In MS-DOS, there are two ways commands are executed: internally and
externally. An internal command is embedded into
the command.com file, and an external command is not and requires a
separate file to operate.
For example, if your computer does not have the fdisk.exe file and you
try using the fdisk command, you will receive a "Bad command or file
name" error message. Fdisk is an external command that only works if
fdisk.exe, or in some cases, fdisk.com, is present.

However, as long as MS-DOS is running, internal commands, such as

the cd command, are available and do not require other files to run.
Each of the commands listed on the MS-DOS help page denote if they're
external or internal.