Resource material of Ziauddin University Examination board

 Ask questions that can be investigated empirically.

 Develop solutions to problems through reasoning, observation, and investigations.
 Design and conduct scientific investigations.
 Recognize and explain the limitations of measuring devices.
 Gather and synthesize information from books and other sources of information.
 Discuss topics in groups by making clear presentations, restating or summarizing what others have said,
asking for clarification or elaboration, taking alternative perspectives, and defending a position.
 Justify plans or explanations on a theoretical or empirical basis.
 Describe some general limitations of scientific knowledge.
 Show how common themes of science, mathematics, and technology apply in real world contexts.
 Discuss the historical development of the key scientific concepts and principles.
 Explain the social and economical advantages and risks of new technology.
 Develop an awareness and sensitivity to the natural world.
 Describe the historical, political and social factors affecting developments in science.
 Appreciate the ways in which models, theories and laws in physics have been tested and validated
 Assess the impacts of applications of physics on society and the environment.
 Justify the appropriateness of a particular investigation plan.
 Identify ways in which accuracy and reliability could be improved in investigations.
 Use terminology and report styles appropriately and successfully to communicate information.
 Assess the validity of conclusions from gathered data and information.
 Explain events in terms of Newton’s laws and law of conservation of momentum
 Explain the effects of energy transfers and energy transformations.
 Explain mechanical, electrical and magnetic properties of solids and their significance.
 Demonstrate an understanding of the principles related to fluid dynamics and their applications.
 Explain that heat flow and work are two forms of energy transfers between systems and their
significance.
 Understand wave properties, analyze wave interactions and explain the effects of those interactions.
 Demonstrate an understanding of wave model of light as e.m waves and describe how it explains
diffraction patterns, interference and polarization.
 Name of chapter
Unit # 10 Thermodynamic
Unit # 11 Electrostatics

Unit # 12 Current Electricity

Unit # 13 Electromagnetism

Unit # 14 Electromagnetism Induction

Unit # 15 Alternating current

Unit # 16 Physics of solid

Unit # 17 Electronics

Unit # 18 Dawn of Modern Physics

Unit # 19 Atomic Spectra

Unit # 20 Nuclear Physics

Unit#10

Thermodynamics
Topics Understandings Skills
• Thermal equilibrium The students will: The students will:
• Heat and work • Describe that thermal energy is • determine the mechanical equivalent
• Internal energy transferred from a region of higher of heat by electric method.
• First law of thermodynamics temperature to a region of lower • determine the specific heat of solid by
• Molar specific heats of a gas temperature. electrical method.
• Heat engine • Describe that regions of equal
• Second law of temperatures are in thermal
thermodynamics equilibrium .
• Carnot’s cycle • Describe that heat flow and work
• Refrigerator are two forms of energy transfer
• Entropy between systems and calculate heat
being transferred.
• Define thermodynamics and various
terms associated with it.
• Relate a rise in temperature of a
body to an increase in its internal
energy.
• Describe the mechanical equivalent
of heat concept, as it was
historically developed, and solve
problems involving work being done
and temperature change.
• Explain that internal energy is
determined by the state of the
system and that it can be expressed
as the sum of the random
distribution of kinetic and potential
energies associated with the
molecules of the system.
• Calculate work done by a
thermodynamic system during a
volume change.
• Describe the first law of
thermodynamics expressed in terms
of the change in internal energy, the
heating of the system and work
done on the system.
• Explain that first law of
thermodynamics expresses the
conservation of energy.
• Define the terms, specific heat and
molar specific heats of a gas.
• Apply first law of thermodynamics to
derive Cp – Cv = R.
• State the working principle of heat
engine.
• Describe the concept of reversible
and irreversible processes.
• State and explain second law of
thermodynamics.
• Explain the working principle of
Carnot’s engine
• Explain that the efficiency of a
 Carnot engine is independent of the
nature of the working substance and
depends on the temperatures of hot
and cold reservoirs.
• Describe that refrigerator is a heat
engine operating in reverse as that
of an ideal heat engine.
• Derive an expression for the
coefficient of performance of a
refrigerator.
• Describe that change in entropy is
positive when heat is added and
negative when heat is removed from
the system.
• Explain that increase in temperature
increases the disorder of the
system.
• Explain that increase in entropy
means degradation of energy.
• Explain that energy is degraded
during all natural processes.
• Identify that system tend to become
less orderly over time.
Unit overview

Thermal Equilibrium

Two physical systems are in thermal equilibrium if there is no net flow of thermal energy between them when they are
connected by a path permeable to heat. Thermal equilibrium obeys the zeroth law of thermodynamics. A system is said
to be in thermal equilibrium with itself if the temperature within the system is spatially uniform and temporally
constant.

Systems in thermodynamic equilibrium are always in thermal equilibrium, but the converse is not always true. If the
connection between the systems allows transfer of energy as heat but does not allow transfer of matter or transfer of
energy as work, the two systems may reach thermal equilibrium without reaching thermodynamic equilibrium.

Videos

Reference pages
https://images.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search?p=Thermal+equilibrium+byjus&fr=yhs-ima-
002&hspart=ima&hsimp=yhs-002&imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.justscience.in%2Fwp-
content%2Fuploads%2F2017%2F05%2FWHAT-ARE-THE-PRINCIPLES-BEHIND-THERMAL-
EQUILIBRIUM.jpg#id=5&iurl=https%3A%2F%2Fptop.only.wip.la%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fimage.slidesharecdn.com%2Fcapter10-140508160606-
phpapp01%2F95%2Fcapter-10-for-9th-grade-physics-28-638.jpg%3Fcb%3D1399565284&action=click

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_equilibrium

Heat and work

Heat and work are two different ways of transferring energy from one system to another. The the distinction between
Heat and Work is important in the field of thermodynamics. Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between systems,
while work is the transfer of mechanical energy between two systems. This distinction between the microscopic motion
(heat) and macroscopic motion (work) is crucial to how thermodynamic processes work. Heat can be transformed into
work and vice verse (see mechanical equivalent of heat), but they aren't the same thing. The first law of
thermodynamics states that heat and work both contribute to the total internal energy of a system, but the second law of
thermodynamics limits the amount of heat that can be turned into work

Videos
Reference pages
https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Heat_vs_work

Internal Energy
An energy form inherent in every system is the internal energy, which arises from the molecular state of motion of
matter. The symbol U is used for the internal energy and the unit of measurement is the joules (J).

Internal energy increases with rising temperature and with changes of state or phase from solid to liquid and liquid to
gas. Planetary bodies can be thought of as combinations of heat reservoirs and heat engines. The heat reservoirs store
internal energy E, and the heat engines convert some of this thermal energy into various types of mechanical, electrical
and chemical energies.

Internal Energy Explanation

Internal energy U of a system or a body with well defined boundaries is the total of the kinetic energy due to the motion
of molecules and the potential energy associated with the vibrational motion and electric energy of atoms within
molecules. Internal energy also includes the energy in all the chemical bonds. From a microscopic point of view, the
internal energy may be found in many different forms. For any material or repulsion between the individual molecules.

Internal energy is a state function of a system and is an extensive quantity. One can have a corresponding intensive
thermodynamic property called specific internal energy, commonly symbolized by the lowercase letter u, which is
internal energy per mass of the substance in question. As such the SI unit of specific internal energy would be the J/g. If
the internal energy is expressed on an amount of substance basis then it could be referred to as molar internal energy
and the unit would be the J/mol.
Internal Energy of a Closed System
For a closed system the internal energy is essentially defined by

ΔU = q + W

Where

 U is the change in internal energy of a system during a process

 q is the heat
 W is the mechanical work.

If an energy exchange occurs because of temperature difference between a system and its surroundings, this energy
appears as heat otherwise it appears as work. When a force acts on a system through a distance the energy is transferred
as work. The above equation shows that energy is conserved.

Internal Energy Change

Every substance possesses a fixed quantity of energy which depends upon its chemical nature and its state of existence.
This is known as intrinsic energy. Every substance has a definite value of internal energy and is equal to the energies
possessed by all its constituents namely atoms, ions or molecules.

The change in internal energy which occurs during chemical reactions. The change in internal energy of a reaction may
be considered as the difference between the internal energies of the two states.

Let EA and Eb are the initial energies in states A and B respectively. Then the difference between the initial energies in
the two states will be

ΔU = EB – EA

The difference in internal energies has a fixed value and will be independent of the path taken between two states A and
B. For the chemical reaction, the change in internal energy may be considered as the difference between the internal
energies of the products and that of the reactants.

ΔU = Eproducts – Ereactants

Thus, the internal energy, ΔU is a state function. This means that ΔU depends only on the initial and final states and is
independent of the path. In other words, ΔU will be the same even if the change is brought about differently.

What is the significance of internal energy?

Internal energy is important for understanding phase changes, chemical reactions, nuclear reactions, and many other
microscopic phenomena, as the possible energies between molecules and atoms are important. Both objects exhibit
macroscopic and microscopic energy in vacuum.

What factors affect internal energy?

The internal energy can be altered by modifying the object’s temperature or volume without altering the amount of
particles inside the body. Temperature: As a system’s temperature increases, the molecules will move faster, thus have
more kinetic energy and thus the internal energy will increase.

Is internal energy a state function?

A state function defines a system’s equilibrium state, and thus defines the system itself as well. For example, internal
energy, enthalpy, and entropy are state quantities since they quantitatively describe a thermodynamic system’s
equilibrium state, regardless of how the system has arrived in that state.

Videos

Reference pages
https://byjus.com/chemistry/internal-energy/

First law of thermodynamics

A hot gas, when confined in a chamber, exerts pressure on a piston, causing it to move downward. The movement can
be harnessed to do work equal to the total force applied to the top of the piston times the distance that the piston moves.
(Image: © GoodIll | Shutterstock)

The First Law of Thermodynamics states that heat is a form of energy, and thermodynamic processes are therefore
subject to the principle of conservation of energy. This means that heat energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can,
however, be transferred from one location to another and converted to and from other forms of energy.
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy. In
particular, it describes how thermal energy is converted to and from other forms of energy and how it affects matter.
The fundamental principles of thermodynamics are expressed in four laws.

“The First Law says that the internal energy of a system has to be equal to the work that is being done on the system,
plus or minus the heat that flows in or out of the system and any other work that is done on the system," said Saibal
Mitra, a professor of physics at Missouri State University. "So, it’s a restatement of conservation of energy."

Mitra continued, "The change in internal energy of a system is the sum of all the energy inputs and outputs to and from
the system similarly to how all the deposits and withdrawals you make determine the changes in your bank balance.”
This is expressed mathematically as: ΔU = Q – W, where ΔU is the change in the internal energy, Q is the heat added to
the system, and W is the work done by the system.

Videos

Reference pages
https://www.livescience.com/50881-first-law-thermodynamics.html
Molar Specific Heats of Gases
The molar specific heats of ideal monoatomic gases are:

For diatomic molecules, two rotational degrees of freedom are added, corresponding to the rotation about two
perpendicular axes through the center of the molecule. This would be expected to give CV = 5/2 R, which is borne out in
examples like nitrogen and oxygen. A general polyatomic molecule will be able to rotate about three perpendicular
axes, which would be expected to give CV = 3R. The departure from this value which is observed indicates that
vibrational degrees of freedom must also be included for a complete description of specific heats of gases

Videos

Reference pages
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Kinetic/shegas.html

Heat Engine
A heat engine typically uses energy provided in the form of heat to do work and then exhausts the heat which cannot be
used to do work. Thermodynamics is the study of the relationships between heat and work. The first law and second law
of thermodynamics constrain the operation of a heat engine. The first law is the application of conservation of energy to
the system, and the second sets limits on the possible efficiency of the machine and determines the direction of energy
flow.
General heat engines can be described by the reservoir model (left) or by a PV diagram (right)

Videos

Reference pages
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/heaeng.html

Second Law of Thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics is a general principle
which places constraints upon the direction of heat transfer and the attainable efficiencies of heat engines. In so doing,
it goes beyond the limitations imposed by the first law of thermodynamics. Its implications may be visualized in
terms of the waterfall analogy.

The maximum efficiency which can be achieved is the Carnot efficiency.

Second Law: Heat Engines
Second Law of Thermodynamics: It is impossible to extract an amount of heat QH from a hot reservoir and use it all to
do work W. Some amount of heat QC must be exhausted to a cold reservoir. This precludes a perfect heat engine.

This is sometimes called the "first form" of the second law, and is referred to as the Kelvin-Planck statement of the
second law.

Second Law: Refrigerator

Second Law of Thermodynamics: It is not possible for heat to flow from
a colder body to a warmer body without any work having been done to accomplish this flow. Energy will not flow
spontaneously from a low temperature object to a higher temperature object. This precludes a perfect refrigerator. The
statements about refrigerators apply to air conditioners and heat pumps, which embody the same principles.

This is the "second form" or Clausius statement of the second law.

It is important to note that when it is stated that energy will not spontaneously flow from a cold object to a hot object,
that statement is referring to net transfer of energy. Energy can transfer from the cold object to the hot object either by
transfer of energetic particles or electromagnetic radiation, but the net transfer will be from the hot object to the cold
object in any spontaneous process. Work is required to transfer net energy to the hot object.

Second Law: Entropy

Second Law of Thermodynamics: In any cyclic process the entropy will either increase or remain the same.

a state variable whose change is defined for a reversible process at T where Q

Entropy:
is the heat absorbed.

Entropy: a measure of the amount of energy which is unavailable to do work.

Entropy: a measure of the disorder of a system.

Entropy: a measure of the multiplicity of a system.

Since entropy gives information about the evolution of an isolated system with time, it is said to give us the direction
of "time's arrow". If snapshots of a system at two different times shows one state which is more disordered, then it
could be implied that this state came later in time. For an isolated system, the natural course of events takes the system
to a more disordered (higher entropy) state.

Videos
Reference pages
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/seclaw.html#c1

Carnot Cycle
The most efficient heat engine cycle is the Carnot cycle, consisting of two isothermal processes and two adiabatic
processes. The Carnot cycle can be thought of as the most efficient heat engine cycle allowed by physical laws. When
the second law of thermodynamics states that not all the supplied heat in a heat engine can be used to do work, the
Carnot efficiency sets the limiting value on the fraction of the heat which can be so used.

In order to approach the Carnot efficiency, the processes involved in the heat engine cycle must be reversible and
involve no change in entropy. This means that the Carnot cycle is an idealization, since no real engine processes are
reversible and all real physical processes involve some increase in entropy.
 For

= K

= K

the Carnot efficiency is

The temperatures in the Carnot efficiency expression must be expressed in Kelvins. For the other temperature scales,
the following conversions apply:
= K= °C = °F

= K= °C = °F

The conceptual value of the Carnot cycle is that it establishes the maximum possible efficiency for an engine cycle
operating between TH and TC. It is not a practical engine cycle because the heat transfer into the engine in the isothermal
process is too slow to be of practical value. As Schroeder puts it, "So don't bother installing a Carnot engine in your car;
while it would increase your gas mileage, you would be passed on the highway by pedestrians."

Video
Reference
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/carnot.html

Learning Outcomes
The students will:
• Describe that thermal energy is transferred from a region of higher temperature to a
region of lower temperature.
• Describe that regions of equal temperatures are in thermal equilibrium .
• Describe that heat flow and work are two forms of energy transfer between systems
and calculate heat being transferred.
• Define thermodynamics and various terms associated with it.
• Relate a rise in temperature of a body to an increase in its internal energy.
• Describe the mechanical equivalent of heat concept, as it was historically developed, and solve problems involving
work being done and temperature change.
• Explain that internal energy is determined by the state of the system and that it can be expressed as the sum of the
random distribution of kinetic and potential energies associated with the molecules of the system.
• Calculate work done by a thermodynamic system during a volume change.
• Describe the first law of thermodynamics expressed in terms of the change in internal energy, the heating of the
system and work done on the system.
• Explain that first law of thermodynamics expresses the conservation of energy.
• Define the terms, specific heat and molar specific heats of a gas.
• Apply first law of thermodynamics to derive Cp – Cv = R.
• State the working principle of heat engine.
• Describe the concept of reversible and irreversible processes.
• State and explain second law of thermodynamics.
• Explain the working principle of Carnot’s engine
• Explain that the efficiency of a Carnot engine is independent of the nature of the working substance and depends on
the temperatures of hot and cold reservoirs.
• Describe that refrigerator is a heat engine operating in reverse as that of an ideal heat engine.
• Derive an expression for the coefficient of performance of a refrigerator.
• Describe that change in entropy is positive when heat is added and negative when heat is removed from the system.
• Explain that increase in temperature increases the disorder of the system.
• Explain that increase in entropy means degradation of energy.
• Explain that energy is degraded during all natural processes.
• Identify that system tend to become less orderly over time.
 Unit # 11

Topics Understandings Skills

•Force between charges in • state Coulomb’s law and explain that force • draw graphs of charging and
different media between two point charges is reduced in a discharging of a capacitor through a
• Electric field medium other than free space using resistor.
• Electric field of various charge Coulomb’s law. Science, Technology and
configurations • derive the expression E = l/4πεo q/r2 for
• Electric field due to a dipole the magnitude of the electric field at a
Society
Connections The students will:
• Electric flux distance ‘r’ from a point charge ‘q’.
• describe the principle of inkjet printers
• Gauss’s law and its applications • describe the concept of an electric field as
and Photostat copier as an application
• Electric potential an example of a field of force.
of electrostatic phenomenon.
• Capacitors
• Energy stored in a capacitor • define electric field strength as force per • describe the applications of Gauss’s
unit positive charge . law to find the electric force due to
• solve problems and analyze information various charge configurations
using E = F/q. • list the use of capacitors in various
• solve problems involving the use of the household appliances such as in flash
expression . gun of camera, refrigerator, electric fan,
• E = l/4πεo q/r2 Conceptual linkage: ²This rectification circuit etc.
chapter is built on Electrostatics Physics X 35
• calculate the magnitude and direction of
the electric field at a point due to two charges
with the same or opposite signs.
• sketch the electric field lines for two point
charges of equal magnitude with same or
opposite signs.
• describe the concept of electric dipole.
• define and explain electric flux.
• describe electric flux through a surface
enclosing a charge.
• state and explain Gauss’s law.
• describe and draw the electric field due to
an infinite size conducting plate of positive or
negative charge.
• sketch the electric field produced by a
hollow spherical charged conductor.
• sketch the electric field between and near
the edges of two infinite size oppositely
charged parallel plates.
• define electric potential at a point in terms
of the work done in bringing unit positive
charge from infinity to that point.
• define the unit of potential.
• solve problems by using the expression V
=W/q.
• describe that the electric field at a point is
given by the negative of potential gradient at
that point.
• solve problems by using the expression E =
V/d.
• derive an expression for electric potential
at a point due to a point charge.
• calculate the potential in the field of a point
charge using the equation V = l/4πεo q/r.
• define and become familiar with the use of
electron volt.
• define capacitance and the farad and solve
problems by using C=Q/V.
• describe the functions of capacitors in
simple circuits.
• solve problems using formula for capacitors
in series and in parallel.
• explain polarization of dielectric of a
capacitor.
 • demonstrate charging and discharging of a
capacitor through a resistance.
• prove that energy stored in a capacitor is
W=1/2QV and hence W=1/2CV2.

Topics overview

1.Force between charges in

different media
According to Coulomb's law: The electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is
directly proportional to the product of charges. The electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is
inversely proportional to the square of distance between them.

Video Link:

2.Electric field:
A region around a charged particle or object within which a force would be exerted on other charged particles or
objects.
 An electric field (sometimes abbreviated as E-field) surrounds an electric charge, and exerts force on
other charges in the field, attracting or repelling them. Electric fields are created by electric charges, or by time-
varying magnetic fields. Electric fields and magnetic fields are both manifestations of the electromagnetic force, one of
the four fundamental forces (or interactions) of nature.
Electric fields are important in many areas of physics, and are exploited practically in electrical
technology. On an atomic scale, the electric field is responsible for the attractive force between the atomic
nucleus and electrons that holds atoms together, and the forces between atoms that cause chemical bonding.
The electric field is defined mathematically as a vector field that associates to each point in space the
(electrostatic or Coulomb) force per unit of charge exerted on an infinitesimal positive test charge at rest at that
point. The SI unit for electric field is volt per meter (V/m), exactly equivalent to newton per coulomb (N/C) in the SI
system.

Video Link :
3.Electric field of various charge
configurations

Conductors with static charges :

An electrical conductor is an object through which electrons or ions can move
about relatively freely. Metals make good conductors. If a net charge is placed on a conductor and it is then left alone,
the charge very quickly settles down to an equilibrium distribution. There are several interesting things to note about
that situation. (See figure 1.3.)
• The net charge is spread out over the surface of the conductor, but not uniformly.
• There is an electric field in the space around the conductor but not inside it.
• At points just outside the surface of the conductor, the electric field and the electric field lines are perpendicular to the
surface.
4.Electric field due to a dipole

A dipole is a separation of opposite electrical charges and it is quantified by an electric dipole

moment. The electric dipole moment associated with two equal charges of opposite polarity separated by a distance ‘d ’
is defined as the vector quantity having a magnitude equal to the product of the charge and the distance between the
charges and having a direction from the negative to the positive charge along the line between the charges.
It is a useful concept in dielectrics and other applications in solid and liquid materials. These applications
involve the energy of a dipole and the electric field of a dipole.
Consider an electric dipole with charges +q and –q separated by a distance of d. We shall designate components due
to +q and –q using subscripts + and – respectively.
We shall for the sake of simplicity only calculate the fields along symmetry axes, i.e. a point P along the perpendicular
bisector of the dipole and a point Q along the axis of the dipole.

Along perpendicular bisector (Point P)

The electric fields due to the positive and negative charges (Coulomb’s law):
Notice :
That in both cases the electric field tapers quickly as the inverse of the cube of the distance. Compared to a
point charge which only decreases as the inverse of the square of the distance, the dipoles field decreases much faster
because it contains both a positive and negative charge. If they were brought to the same point their electric fields
would cancel out completely but since they have a small distance separating them, they have a feeble electric field.

Video Link:

5.Electric Flux:
 In electromagnetism, electric flux is the measure of the electric field through a given surface, although an
electric field in itself cannot flow. It is a way of describing the electric field strength at any distance from the charge
causing the field.
The electric field E can exert a force on an electric charge at any point in space. The electric field is proportional to
the gradient of the voltage.
In this section, we will discuss the concept of electric flux, its calculation and the analogy between the flux
of an electric field and that of water. Let us imagine the flow of water with a velocity v in a pipe in a fixed direction, say
to the right. If we take the cross-sectional plane of the pipe and consider a small unit area given by ds from that plane,
the volumetric flow of the liquid crossing that plane normal to the flow can be given as vds. When the plane is not
normal to the flow of the fluid but is inclined at an angle Ɵ, the total volume of liquid crossing the plane per unit time is
given as vds.cosƟ. Here, dscosƟ is the projected area in the plane perpendicular to the flow of the liquid.
The electric field is analogous to the flow of liquid in the case shown above. The quantity we are going to deal with
here is not an observable quantity as the liquid we considered above. Let us understand this with the help of the figure
below.

Electric Flux Formula

The total number of electric field lines passing a given area in a unit time is defined as the electric flux. Similar to the
example above, if the plane is normal to the flow of the electric field, the total flux is given as:
Types and properties
1.Maximum Electric Flux

Video Link:
2.Minimum Electric Flux
If the surface is placed parallel to the electric field then no electric lines of
force will pass through the surface. Consequently no electric flux will pass through the surface.

Unit of Electric Flux

6.Gauss’s law and its applications

Gauss’s law:
The total of the electric flux out of a closed surface is equal to the charge enclosed divided by the permittivity.

The electric flux through an area is defined as the electric field multiplied by the area of the surface projected in a
plane perpendicular to the field. Gauss's Law is a general law applying to any closed surface. It is an important tool
since it permits the assessment of the amount of enclosed charge by mapping the field on a surface outside the charge
distribution. For geometries of sufficient symmetry, it simplifies the calculation of the electric field.

Another way of visualizing this is to consider a probe of area A which can measure the electric field perpendicular to
that area. If it picks any closed surface and steps over that surface, measuring the perpendicular field times its area, it
will obtain a measure of the net electric charge within the surface, no matter how that internal charge is configured.

Applications of Gauss’s Law

Gauss’s Law can be used to solve complex electrostatic problems involving unique symmetries like cylindrical,
spherical or planar symmetry. Also, there are some cases in which calculation of electric field is quite complex and
involves tough integration. Gauss’s Law can be used to simplify evaluation of electric field in a simple way.
We apply Gauss’s Law in following way:
 Choose a Gaussian surface, such that evaluation of electric field becomes easy
 Make use of symmetry to make problems easier
 Remember, it is not necessary that Gaussian surface to coincide with real surface that is, it can be inside or outside the
Gaussian surface

Electric Field due to Infinite Wire

Consider an infinitely long wire with linear charge density λ and length L. To
calculate electric field, we assume a cylindrical Gaussian surface due to the symmetry of wire. As the electric field E is
radial in direction; flux through the end of the cylindrical surface will be zero, as electric field and area vector are
perpendicular to each other. The only flowing electric flux will be through the curved Gaussian surface. As the electric
field is perpendicular to every point of the curved surface, its magnitude will be constant.

Image 1: We consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r and length l

The surface area of the curved cylindrical surface will be 2πrl. The electric flux through the curve will be

E × 2πrl

and

According to Gauss’s Law

, the above relation is

where is radial unit vector pointing the direction of electric field .

 Image 2: Direction of Electric field is radially outward in case of positive linear charge density
Note 1: Direction of the electric field will be radially outward if linear charge density is positive and it will be radially
inward if linear charge density is negative.
Note 2: We considered only the enclosed charge inside the Gaussian surface
Note 3: The assumption that the wire is infinitely long is important because, without this assumption, the electric field
will not be perpendicular to the curved cylindrical Gaussian surface and will at some angle with the surface.

Electric Field due to Infinite Plate Sheet

Imagine an infinite plane sheet, with surface charge density σ and cross-
sectional area A. The position of the infinite plane sheet is given in the figure below:

The direction of the electric field due to infinite charge sheet will be perpendicular to the plane of the sheet.

Let’s consider cylindrical Gaussian surface, whose axis is normal to the plane of the sheet. The electric field can be
evaluated from Gauss’s Law as
According to Gauss’s Law:

From continuous charge distribution charge q will be σ A. Talking about net electric flux, we will consider electric flux
only from the two ends of the assumed Gaussian surface. This is because the curved surface area and an electric field are
normal to each other, thereby producing zero electric flux. So the net electric flux will be
 Φ = EA – (– EA)
Φ = 2EA
Then we can write

The term A cancel out which means electric field due to infinite plane sheet is independent of cross section area A and
equals to

In vector form, the above equation can be written as

where is a unit vector depicting direction of electric field perpendicular and away from the infinite sheet.
Note 1: The direction of electric field is away from the infinite sheet if the surface charge density is positive and towards
the infinite sheet if the surface charge density is negative.
Note 2: Electric field due to the infinite sheet is independent of its position.

Electric Field due thin Spherical Shell

Consider a thin spherical shell of surface charge density σ and radius “R”. By observation, it’s obvious that shell has
spherical symmetry. The electric field due to the spherical shell can be evaluated in two different positions:
 Electric Field Outside the Spherical Shell
 Electric Field Inside the Spherical Shell

Electric Field Outside the Spherical Shell

Image 4: Diagram of spherical shell with point P outside

To find electric field outside the spherical shell, we take a point P outside the shell at a distance r from the center of the
spherical shell. By symmetry, we take Gaussian spherical surface with radius r and center O. The Gaussian surface will
pass through P, and experience a constant electric field all around as all points is equally distanced “r’’ from the center
of the sphere. Then,
According to Gauss’s Law

The enclosed charge inside the Gaussian surface q will be σ × 4 πR2. The total electric flux through the Gaussian surface
will be
Φ = E × 4 πr2
Then by Gauss’s Law, we can write

Putting the value of surface charge density σ as q/4 πR2, we can rewrite the electric field as

In vector form, electric field is

where is radius vector, depicting the direction of electric field.

Note: If the surface charge density σ is negative, the direction of the electric field will be radially inward.

Electric Field Inside the Spherical Shell

Image 5: Diagram of Spherical shell with point P inside

To evaluate electric field inside the spherical shell, let’s take a point P inside the spherical shell. By symmetry, we again
take a spherical Gaussian surface passing through P, centered at O and with radius r. Now according to Gauss’s Law
The net electric flux will be E × 4 π r2. But the enclosed charge q will be zero, as we know that surface charge density is
dispersed outside the surface, therefore there is no charge inside the spherical shell. Then by Gauss’s Law

Note: There is no electric field inside spherical shell because of absence of enclosed charge

7.Electric potential

An electric potential is the amount of work needed to move a unit of charge from a reference
point to a specific point inside the field without producing an acceleration. Typically, the reference point is the Earth or
a point at infinity, although any point can be used.

The concept of electric potential was introduced. Electric potential is a location-dependent

quantity that expresses the amount of potential energy per unit of charge at a specified location. When a Coulomb of
charge (or any given amount of charge) possesses a relatively large quantity of potential energy at a given location, then
that location is said to be a location of high electric potential. And similarly, if a Coulomb of charge (or any given
amount of charge) possesses a relatively small quantity of potential energy at a given location, then that location is said
to be a location of low electric potential. As we begin to apply our concepts of potential energy and electric potential to
circuits, we will begin to refer to the difference in electric potential between two points. This part of Lesson 1 will be
devoted to an understanding of electric potential difference and its application to the movement of charge in electric
circuits.
 Consider the task of moving a positive test charge within a uniform electric field from location A
to location B as shown in the diagram at the right. In moving the charge against the electric field from location A to
location B, work will have to be done on the charge by an external force. The work done on the charge changes its
potential energy to a higher value; and the amount of work that is done is equal to the change in the potential energy. As
a result of this change in potential energy, there is also a difference in electric potential between locations A and B. This
difference in electric potential is represented by the symbol ΔV and is formally referred to as the electric potential
difference. By definition, the electric potential difference is the difference in electric potential (V) between the final and
the initial location when work is done upon a charge to change its potential energy. In equation form, the electric
potential difference is

The standard metric unit on electric potential difference is the volt, abbreviated V and named in honor of
Alessandro Volta. One Volt is equivalent to one Joule per Coulomb. If the electric potential difference between two
locations is 1 volt, then one Coulomb of charge will gain 1 joule of potential energy when moved between those two
locations. If the electric potential difference between two locations is 3 volts, then one coulomb of charge will gain 3
joules of potential energy when moved between those two locations. And finally, if the electric potential difference
between two locations is 12 volts, then one coulomb of charge will gain 12 joules of potential energy when moved
between those two locations. Because electric potential difference is expressed in units of volts, it is sometimes referred
to as the voltage.

Video Link:

7.Capacitor
A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in an electric field. It is a passive electronic
component with two terminals.
The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. While some capacitance exists between any two electrical conductors
in proximity in a circuit, a capacitor is a component designed to add capacitance to a circuit. The capacitor was
originally known as a condenser or condensator.[1] This name and its cognates are still widely used in many languages,
but rarely in English, one notable exception being condenser microphones, also called capacitor microphones.
Capacitance

The capacitance (C) of the capacitor is equal to the electric charge (Q) divided by the voltage (V):

C is the capacitance in farad (F)

Q is the electric charge in coulombs (C), that is stored on the capacitor
V is the voltage between the capacitor's plates in volts (V)

Capacitance of plates capacitor

The capacitance (C) of the plates capacitor is equal to the permittivity (ε) times the plate area (A) divided by the gap or
distance between the plates (d):

C is the capacitance of the capacitor, in farad (F).

ε is the permittivity of the capacitor's dialectic material, in farad per meter (F/m).
A is the area of the capacitor's plate in square meters (m2].
d is the distance between the capacitor's plates, in meters (m).
Capacitors in series

The total capacitance of capacitors in series, C1,C2,C3,.. :

Capacitors in parallel

The total capacitance of capacitors in parallel, C1,C2,C3,.. :

CTotal = C1+C2+C3+...

Compound Capacitor
CAPACITANCE IN THE PRESENCE OF DIELECTRIC
1-When dielectric is completely filled between the plates
Let the space between the plates of capacitor is filled with a dielectric of relative permittivity r.
The presence of dielectric reduces the electric intensity by r times and thus the capacitance increases
by r times.

C'= C x r
1-When dielectric is partially filled between the plates
Video Link:
8.Energy stored in a capacitor

The capacitor's stored energy EC in joules (J) is equal to the capacitance C in farad (F)
times the square capacitor's voltage VC in volts (V) divided by 2:

EC = C × VC 2 / 2
AC circuits
Angular frequency
ω = 2π f

ω - angular velocity measured in radians per second (rad/s)

f - frequency measured in hertz (Hz).

Assessment:

01.An oil drop having a mass of 0.002kg and charge equal to 6 electron’s charge is suspended stationary in a uniform
electric field. Find the intensity of electric field.
(Charge of electron = 1.6 x 10–19C)

02. Calculate the potential difference between two plates when they are separated by a distance of a 0.005m and are able
to hold an electron motionless between them.
(Mass of electron = 9.1x10–31 Kg)

03.Two horizontal parallel metallic plates, separated by a distance of 0.5cm are connected with a battery of 10 volts.
Find:
1. The electric field intensity between the plates.
2. The force on a proton placed between the plates.
04.A thin sheet of positive charge attracts a light charged sphere having a charge –5x10–6 C with a force 1.69N.
Calculate the surface charge density of the sheet.
(Єo = 8.85x 10–12 C2/Nm2)

05.A capacitor of 200 pF is charged to a P.D. of 100 volts. Its plates are then connected in parallel to another capacitor
and are found that the P.D. between the plates falls to 60 volts. What is the capacitance of the second capacitor?

06.A charged particle of –17.7 μC is close to a positively charged thin sheet having surface charge density
2 x 10–8Coul/m2. Find the magnitude and direction of force acting on the charged particle.

07.A proton of mass 1.67 x 10–27 kg and a charge of 1.6 x 10–19C is to be held motionless between two horizontal
parallel plates 10cm apart: find the voltage required to be applied between the plates.

08.How many electrons should be removed from each of the two similar spheres, each of 10 gm, so that electrostatic
repulsion is balanced by the gravitational force?

09.A capacitor of 12 F is charged to a potential difference 100V. Its plates are hen disconnected from the source and
are connected parallel to another capacitor. The potential difference in this combination comes down to 60V.
What is the capacitance of the second capacitance?

10.Two point charges of +2 x 10- 4 C and -2 x 10- 4 C are placed at a distance of 40 cm from each other. A charge of
+5 x 10- 5 C is placed midway between them. What is the magnitude and direction of force on it?

Reference pages
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_field

https://www.google.com/search?q=Electric+field&source=lmns&bih=657&biw=1366&hl=en&ved=2ahUKEwjon7_H6PvpAhUW_
BoKHYviCRwQ_AUoAHoECAEQAA

https://www.google.com/search?q=Electric+field+due+to+a+dipole&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjCmKTm8f3p
AhXE-6QKHfPbBl0Q_AUoAXoECBAQAw&biw=1366&bih=608#imgrc=kdniOJlB2AkzqM
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_flux

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/gaulaw.html
https://www.askiitians.com/iit-jee-electrostatics/application-of-gausss-
law/#:~:text=Applications%20of%20Gauss's%20Law,cylindrical%2C%20spherical%20or%20planar%20symmetry.&text=Gauss's%2
0Law%20can%20be%20used%20to%20simplify%20evaluation,field%20in%20a%20simple%20way.
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circuits/Lesson-1/Electric-Potential-Difference
https://www.rapidtables.com/electric/capacitor.html
https://www.citycollegiate.com/capacitorXIIc.htm
Learning Objectives
• state Coulomb’s law and explain that force between two point charges is reduced in a medium other than free space using
Coulomb’s law.
• derive the expression E = l/4πεo q/r2 for the magnitude of the electric field at a distance ‘r’ from a point charge ‘q’.
• describe the concept of an electric field as an example of a field of force.
• define electric field strength as force per unit positive charge .
• solve problems and analyze information using E = F/q.
• solve problems involving the use of the expression .
• E = l/4πεo q/r2 Conceptual linkage: ²This chapter is built on Electrostatics Physics X 35
• calculate the magnitude and direction of the electric field at a point due to two charges with the same or opposite signs.
• sketch the electric field lines for two point charges of equal magnitude with same or opposite signs.
• describe the concept of electric dipole.
• define and explain electric flux.
• describe electric flux through a surface enclosing a charge.
• state and explain Gauss’s law.
• describe and draw the electric field due to an infinite size conducting plate of positive or negative charge.
• sketch the electric field produced by a hollow spherical charged conductor.
• sketch the electric field between and near the edges of two infinite size oppositely charged parallel plates.
• define electric potential at a point in terms of the work done in bringing unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
• define the unit of potential.
• solve problems by using the expression V =W/q.
• describe that the electric field at a point is given by the negative of potential gradient at that point.
• solve problems by using the expression E = V/d.
• derive an expression for electric potential at a point due to a point charge.
• calculate the potential in the field of a point charge using the equation V = l/4πεo q/r.
• define and become familiar with the use of electron volt.
• define capacitance and the farad and solve problems by using C=Q/V.
• describe the functions of capacitors in simple circuits.
• solve problems using formula for capacitors in series and in parallel.
• explain polarization of dielectric of a capacitor.
• demonstrate charging and discharging of a capacitor through a resistance.
• prove that energy stored in a capacitor is W=1/2QV and hence W=1/2CV2.

Length
120-150 minutes depending on age group/prior knowledge
Unit-12
Current Electricity

Topics Understandings Skills

Steady current • describe the concept of steady current. • indicate the value of resistance by
• Electric potential difference • state Ohm’s law. reading colour code on it.
• Resistivity and its • define resistivity and explain its • determine resistance of wire by
dependence dependence upon temperature. slide wire bridge.
• define conductance and conductivity of
upon temperature conductor. • determine resistance of voltmeter
• Internal resistance • state the characteristics of a thermistor by drawing graph between R and I/V.
• power dissipation in and its use to measure low temperatures. • determine resistance of voltmeter
resistance • distinguish between e.m.f and p.d. using by discharging a capacitor through it.
• Thermoelectricity the energy considerations. • analyze the variation of resistance
• explain the internal resistance of sources of thermistor with temperature.
• Kirchhoff’s Laws and its consequences for external circuits. • determine internal resistance of a
• The potential divider • describe some sources of e.m.f. cell using potentiometer.
• describe the conditions for maximum
• Balanced potentials • determine e.m.f of a cell using
power transfer.
(Wheatstone bridge and • describe thermocouple and its function. potentiometer.
potentiometer • explain variation of thermoelectric e.m.f. • determine the e.m.f. and internal
with temperature. resistance of a cell by plotting V
Conceptual linkage: against I graph.
²This chapter is built on • investigate the relationship
Current Electricity Physics X between current passing through a
37 tungsten filament
• apply Kirchhoff’s first law as
lamp and the potential applied across
conservation of charge to solve problem.
• apply Kirchhoff’s second law as it.
conservation of energy to solve problem.
• describe the working of rheostat in the
potential divider circuit.
• describe what is a Wheatstone bridge
and how it is used to find unknown
resistance.
 • describe the function of potentiometer to
measure and compare potentials without
drawing any current from the circuit.

Let us start with the very first theory of current Electricity

1.Steady current
A constant current (steady current, time-independent current, stationary current) is a
type of Direct Current (DC) that does not change its intensity with time.
Why does a steady current only produce a magnetic
field, not an electric field? An electric field causes the steady current. For an electric current to flow
through a conductor, there must be an electric field (ie, voltage) causing that current across the conductor.

Most electrical devices are not electrostatic devices. Most electrical devices require the
flow of a current. A current requires moving charges.
Let
ρ+ = n+q+ be the density of the positive charges in some region, i.e. the amount of positive charge per
unit volume, and let ρ- = n-q- be the density of the negative charges. Here n+ and n- are the number of
positively and negatively charged particles per unit volume and q+ and q- are the charge of each positively
and negatively charged particle, respectively.
(n+ and n- are positive numbers q+ is a positive number with units and q- is a negative number with units.
Therefore ρ+ is a positive number with units and ρ- is a negative number with units.)

In neutral ordinary matter ρ+ + ρ- = 0, i.e. the net charge per unit volume is zero.
 Steady currents can only flow in continuous loops. At any point, just as much charge has to flow
out of a small volume surrounding the point as flows into the volume. If this were not so, charge would
accumulate at the point, setting up its own electric field. This field would exert an additional force on the
moving charges, disrupting the steady current. The electric field in a homogeneous wire with constant
cross-sectional area carrying a steady current is the same everywhere. If it were not, electrons would move
with different velocities in different sections, and charges would accumulate in certain regions. The field
produced by these charges would disrupt the steady current. The diagram on the right shows the field in a
wire carrying a steady current.

Module 1: Question 1
Which diagram below does not represent an electrical current?

*Discuss this with your fellow students on Piazza!

*Discuss different ways one can produce a steady current.

Problem:
A annealed copper wire has a length of 160 m and a diameter of 1.00 mm. If the wire is
connected to a 1.5 V battery, how much current flows through the wire?

Solution:

Reasoning:
The current can be found from Ohm's Law, V = IR. V is the battery voltage, so if R can be
determined, the current can be calculated.
The resistance of the wire is R = ρl/A.
For copper ρ = 1.72*10-8 Ωm.
Details of the calculation:
The cross-sectional area of the wire is A = πr2 = π(0.0005)2 = 7.85*0-7 m2.
The resistance of the wire then is ((1.72*10-8)*160/(7.85*10-7))Ω = 3.5 Ω.
The current is I = V/R = (1.5/3.5)A = 0.428 A.

Video Link:
2.Electric potential difference

The electrical potential difference is defined as the amount of work done to carrying a unit
charge from one point to another in an electric field. In other words, the potential difference is defined as
the difference in the electric potential of the two charged bodies.

When a body is charged to a different electric potential as compared to the other charged body, the two
bodies are said to a potential difference. Both the bodies are under stress and strain and try to attain
minimum potential

Unit: The unit of potential difference is volt.

Consider the task of moving a positive test charge within a uniform electric field from
location A to location B as shown in the diagram at the right. In moving the charge against the electric
field from location A to location B, work will have to be done on the charge by an external force. The
work done on the charge changes its potential energy to a higher value; and the amount of work that is
done is equal to the change in the potential energy. As a result of this change in potential energy, there is
also a difference in electric potential between locations A and B. This difference in electric potential is
represented by the symbol ΔV and is formally referred to as the electric potential difference. By definition,
the electric potential difference is the difference in electric potential (V) between the final and the initial
location when work is done upon a charge to change its potential energy. In equation form, the electric
potential difference is
 The standard metric unit on electric potential difference is the volt, abbreviated V and
named in honor of Alessandro Volta. One Volt is equivalent to one Joule per Coulomb. If the electric
potential difference between two locations is 1 volt, then one Coulomb of charge will gain 1 joule of
potential energy when moved between those two locations. If the electric potential difference between two
locations is 3 volts, then one coulomb of charge will gain 3 joules of potential energy when moved
between those two locations. And finally, if the electric potential difference between two locations is 12
volts, then one coulomb of charge will gain 12 joules of potential energy when moved between those two
locations. Because electric potential difference is expressed in units of volts, it is sometimes referred to as
the voltage.

Electric Potential Difference and Simple Circuits

Electric circuits, as we shall see, are all about the movement
of charge between varying locations and the corresponding loss and gain of energy that accompanies this
movement. In the previous part of Lesson 1, the concept of electric potential was applied to a simple
battery-powered electric circuit. In that discussion, it was explained that work must be done on a positive
test charge to move it through the cells from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. This work
would increase the potential energy of the charge and thus increase its electric potential. As the positive
test charge moves through the external circuit from the positive terminal to the negative terminal, it
decreases its electric potential energy and thus is at low potential by the time it returns to the negative
terminal. If a 12 volt battery is used in the circuit, then every coulomb of charge is gaining 12 joules of
potential energy as it moves through the battery. And similarly, every coulomb of charge loses 12 joules of
electric potential energy as it passes through the external circuit. The loss of this electric potential energy
in the external circuit results in a gain in light energy, thermal energy and other forms of non-electrical
energy.

With a clear understanding of electric potential difference, the role of an

electrochemical cell or collection of cells (i.e., a battery) in a simple circuit can be correctly understood.
The cells simply supply the energy to do work upon the charge to move it from the negative terminal to the
positive terminal. By providing energy to the charge, the cell is capable of maintaining an electric potential
difference across the two ends of the external circuit. Once the charge has reached the high potential
terminal, it will naturally flow through the wires to the low potential terminal. The movement of charge
through an electric circuit is analogous to the movement of water at a water park or the movement of roller
coaster cars at an amusement park. In each analogy, work must be done on the water or the roller coaster
cars to move it from a location of low gravitational potential to a location of high gravitational potential.
Once the water or the roller coaster cars reach high gravitational potential, they naturally move downward
back to the low potential location. For a water ride or a roller coaster ride, the task of lifting the water or
coaster cars to high potential requires energy. The energy is supplied by a motor-driven water pump or a
motor-driven chain. In a battery-powered electric circuit, the cells serve the role of the charge pump to
supply energy to the charge to lift it from the low potential position through the cell to the high potential
position.

It is often convenient to speak of an electric circuit such as the simple circuit

discussed here as having two parts - an internal circuit and an external circuit. The internal circuit is the
part of the circuit where energy is being supplied to the charge. For the simple battery-powered circuit that
we have been referring to, the portion of the circuit containing the electrochemical cells is the internal
circuit. The external circuit is the part of the circuit where charge is moving outside the cells through the
wires on its path from the high potential terminal to the low potential terminal. The movement of charge
through the internal circuit requires energy since it is an uphill movement in a direction that is against the
electric field. The movement of charge through the external circuit is natural since it is a movement in the
direction of the electric field. When at the positive terminal of an electrochemical cell, a positive test
charge is at a high electric pressure in the same manner that water at a water park is at a high water
pressure after being pumped to the top of a water slide. Being under high electric pressure, a positive test
charge spontaneously and naturally moves through the external circuit to the low pressure, low potential
location.

As a positive test charge moves through the external circuit, it encounters a variety
of types of circuit elements. Each circuit element serves as an energy-transforming device. Light bulbs,
motors, and heating elements (such as in toasters and hair dryers) are examples of energy-transforming
devices. In each of these devices, the electrical potential energy of the charge is transformed into other
useful (and non-useful) forms. For instance, in a light bulb, the electric potential energy of the charge is
transformed into light energy (a useful form) and thermal energy (a non-useful form). The moving charge
is doing work upon the light bulb to produce two different forms of energy. By doing so, the moving
charge is losing its electric potential energy. Upon leaving the circuit element, the charge is less energized.
The location just prior to entering the light bulb (or any circuit element) is a high electric potential
location; and the location just after leaving the light bulb (or any circuit element) is a low electric potential
location. Referring to the diagram above, locations A and B are high potential locations and locations C
and D are low potential locations. The loss in electric potential while passing through a circuit element is
often referred to as a voltage drop. By the time that the positive test charge has returned to the negative
terminal, it is at 0 volts and is ready to be re-energized and pumped back up to the high voltage, positive
terminal.
Electric Potential Diagrams
An electric potential diagram is a convenient tool for representing the electric potential differences
between various locations in an electric circuit. Two simple circuits and their corresponding electric
potential diagrams are shown below.

In Circuit A, there is a 1.5-volt D-cell and a single light bulb. In Circuit B, there is a 6-
volt battery (four 1.5-volt D-cells) and two light bulbs. In each case, the negative terminal of the battery is
the 0 volt location. The positive terminal of the battery has an electric potential that is equal to the voltage
rating of the battery. The battery energizes the charge to pump it from the low voltage terminal to the high
voltage terminal. By so doing the battery establishes an electric potential difference across the two ends of
the external circuit. Being under electric pressure, the charge will now move through the external circuit.
As its electric potential energy is transformed into light energy and heat energy at the light bulb locations,
the charge decreases its electric potential. The total voltage drop across the external circuit equals the
battery voltage as the charge moves from the positive terminal back to 0 volts at the negative terminal. In
the case of Circuit B, there are two voltage drops in the external circuit, one for each light bulb. While the
amount of voltage drop in an individual bulb depends upon various factors (to be discussed later), the
cumulative amount of drop must equal the 6 volts gained when moving through the battery.

Investigate!
1. Moving an electron within an electric field would change the ____ the electron.

a. mass of
b. amount of charge on
c. potential energy of

2. If an electrical circuit were analogous to a water circuit at a water park, then the battery voltage would
be comparable to

a. the rate at which water flows through the circuit

b. the speed at which water flows through the circuit
c. the distance that water flows through the circuit
d. the water pressure between the top and bottom of the circuit
e. the hindrance caused by obstacles in the path of the moving water

3. If the electrical circuit in your Walkman were analogous to a water circuit at a water park, then the
battery would be comparable to _____.

a. the people that slide from the elevated positions to the ground
b. the obstacles that stand in the path of the moving water
c. the pump that moves water from the ground to the elevated positions
d. the pipes through which water flows
e. the distance that water flows through the circuit

4. Which of the following is true about the electrical circuit in your flashlight?

a. Charge moves around the circuit very fast - nearly as fast as the speed of light.
b. The battery supplies the charge (electrons) that moves through the wires.
c. The battery supplies the charge (protons) that moves through the wires.
d. The charge becomes used up as it passes through the light bulb.
e. The battery supplies energy that raises charge from low to high voltage.
f. ... nonsense! None of these are true.

5. If a battery provides a high voltage, it can ____.

a. do a lot of work over the course of its lifetime

b. do a lot of work on each charge it encounters
c. push a lot of charge through a circuit
d. last a long time

The diagram below at the right shows a light bulb connected by wires to the + and - terminals of a car
battery. Use the diagram in answering the next four questions.

6. Compared to point D, point A is _____ electric potential.

a. 12 V higher in
b. 12 V lower in
c. exactly the same
d. ... impossible to tell

7. The electric potential energy of a charge is zero at point _____.

8. Energy is required to force a positive test charge to move ___.

a. through the wire from point A to point B

b. through the light bulb from point B to point C
c. through the wire from point C to point D
d. through the battery from point D to point A

9. The energy required to move +2 C of charge between points D and A is ____ J.

a. 0.167 b. 2.0 c. 6.0 d. 12 e. 24

10. The following circuit consists of a D-cell and a light bulb. Use >, <, and = symbols to compare the
electric potential at A
to B and at C to D. Indicate whether the devices add energy to or remove energy from the charge.

Video Link:

3.Resistivity and its dependence upon temperature

Restivity is affected by temperature - for most materials the resistivity increases with
temperature. An exception is semiconductors (e.g. silicon) in which the resistivity decreases with
temperature. The ease with which a material conducts heat is measured by thermal conductivity.
Resitivity is a measure of the resistance to electrical conduction for a given size of material. Its opposite is
electrial conductivity (=1/resistivity).

Metals are good electrical conductors (high conductivity and low resistivity), while non-metals are mostly
poor conductors (low conductivity and high resistivity).

The more familiar term electrical resistance measures how difficult it is for a piece of material to conduct
electricity - this depends on the size of the piece: the resistance is higher for a longer or narrower section
of material.

To remove the effect of size from resistance, resistivity is used - this is a material property which does not
depend on size.

Restivity is affected by temperature - for most materials the resistivity increases with temperature. An
exception is semiconductors (e.g. silicon) in which the resistivity decreases with temperature.

The ease with which a material conducts heat is measured by thermal conductivity. As a first estimate,
good electrical conductors are also good thermal conductors.
Video Link:

4.Internal resistance

Internal resistance refers to the opposition to the flow of current offered by the cells and
batteries themselves resulting in the generation of heat. Internal resistance is measured in Ohms. The
relationship between internal resistance (r) and emf (e) of cell s given by.
e = I (r + R)
Where, e = EMF i.e. electromotive force (Volts), I = current (A), R = Load resistance, and r is the internal
resistance of cell measured in ohms.

On rearranging the above equation we get;

e = IR + Ir or, e = V + Ir

In the above equation, V is the potential difference (terminal) across the cell when the current (I) is
flowing through the circuit.

Note: The emf (e) of a cell is always greater than the potential difference (terminal) across the cell

Example: 1 The potential difference across the cell when no current flows through the circuit is 3 V. When
the current I = 0.37 Ampere is flowing, the terminal potential difference falls to 2.8 Volts. Determine the
internal resistance (r) of the cell?

Solution:
e = V + Ir

Or, e – V = Ir

Or, (e – V)/I = r

Therefore,
r = (3.0 – 2.8)/0.37 = 0.54 Ohm.

Due to the Internal Resistance of the cell, the electrons moving through the cell turns some of the electrical
energy to heat energy. Therefore, the potential difference available to the rest of the circuit is:

V = E (EMF of cell) – I r (the p.d. across the internal resistor)

Video Link:

5.power dissipation in resistance

 The definition of power dissipation is the process by which an electronic or electrical
device produces heat (energy loss or waste) as an undesirable derivative of its primary action. Such as the
case with central processing units, power dissipation is a principal concern in computer architecture.

Furthermore, power dissipation in resistors is considered a naturally occurring

phenomenon. The fact remains that all resistors that are part of a circuit and has a voltage drop across it
will dissipate electrical power. Moreover, this electrical power converts into heat energy, and therefore all
resistors have a (power) rating. Also, a resistor’s power rating is a classification that parameterizes the
maximum power that it can dissipate before it reaches critical failure.

As you may know, the unit Watt (W) is how we express power, and the formula for
power is P (power) = I (current) x E (voltage). In regards to the laws of physics, if there is an increase in
voltage (E), then the current (I) will also increase, and the power dissipation of a resistor, will, in turn,
increase as well. However, if you increase the value of the resistor, current will decrease, and the resistor’s
power dissipation will decrease as well. This correlation follows Ohm's law, which states the formula for
current as I (current) = V (voltage) ÷ R (resistance).

Calculating the Power Dissipated by a Resistor

In the field of electronics, power dissipation is also a measurement parameter
that quantifies the releasing of heat within a circuit due to inefficiencies. In other words, power dissipation
is a measure of how much power (P = I x E) in a circuit is converted into heat. As I mentioned earlier, each
resistor has a power rating, and in terms of design, this allows designers to assess whether or not a
particular resistor will meet their design needs within a circuit. So, now, let’s take a closer look at how to
calculate this critical design parameter.

Firstly, according to Ohm's law,

V (voltage) = I (current) × R (resistance)

I (current) = V (voltage) ÷ R (resistance)

P (power) = I (current) × V (voltage)

Therefore, to calculate the power dissipated by the resistor, the formulas are as
follows:
P (power dissipated) = I2 (current) × R (resistance)
or
P (power dissipated) = V2 (voltage) ÷ R (resistance)

So, using the above circuit diagram as our reference, we can apply these formulas to
determine the power dissipated by the resistor.
Voltage = 9V

Resistance = 100Ω

I (current) = 9V ÷ 100Ω or I (current) = 90 mA

P (power) = 90 mA × 9V or P (power) = .81 W or 810 mW

P (power dissipated) = V2 (voltage) ÷ R (resistance)

or
P (power dissipated) = 92 ÷ 100

or
P (power dissipated) = 81 ÷ 100 or P (power dissipated) = 810 mW

Video Link:
6.Thermoelectricity

Thermoelectricity, also called Peltier-Seebeck effect, direct conversion of heat into

electricity or electricity into heat through two related mechanisms, the Seebeck effect and the Peltier
effect.

Thermoelectricity is a two-way process. It can refer either to the way a temperature

difference between one side of a material and the other can produce electricity, or to the reverse: the way
applying an electric current through a material can create a temperature difference between its two sides,
which can be used to heat or cool things without combustion or moving parts.
The first part of the thermoelectric effect, the conversion of heat to electricity,
was discovered in 1821 by the Estonian physicist Thomas Seebeck and was explored in more detail by
French physicist Jean Peltier, and it is sometimes referred to as the Peltier-Seebeck effect.

The reverse phenomenon, where heating or cooling can be produced by running an electric
current through a material, was discovered in 1851 by William Thomson, also known as Lord Kelvin (for
whom the absolute Kelvin temperature scale is named), and is called the Thomson effect. The effect is
caused by charge carriers within the material (either electrons, or places where an electron is missing,
known as “holes”) diffusing from the hotter side to the cooler side, similarly to the way gas expands when
it is heated. The thermoelectric property of a material is measured in volts per Kelvin.

The fundamental problem in creating efficient thermoelectric materials is that they need to be good at
conducting electricity, but not at conducting thermal energy. That way, one side can get hot while the other
gets cold, instead of the material quickly equalizing the temperature. But in most materials, electrical and
thermal conductivity go hand in hand. New nano-engineered materials provide a way around that, making
 it possible to fine-tune the thermal and electrical properties of the material. Some MIT groups, including
ones led by professors Gang Chen and Michael Strano, have been developing such materials.

Such systems are produced for the heating and cooling of a variety of things, such as car seats,
food and beverage carriers, and computer chips. Also under development by researchers including MIT’s
Anantha Chandrakasan are systems that use the Peltier-Seebeck effect to harvest waste heat, for everything
from electronic devices to cars and powerplants, in order to produce usable electricity and thus improve
overall efficiency.

7.Kirchhoff’s Laws

We saw in the Resistors tutorial that a single equivalent resistance, ( RT ) can be

found when two or more resistors are connected together in either series, parallel or combinations of both,
and that these circuits obey Ohm’s Law.
However, sometimes in complex circuits such as bridge or T networks, we can not simply use Ohm’s Law
alone to find the voltages or currents circulating within the circuit. For these types of calculations we need
certain rules which allow us to obtain the circuit equations and for this we can use Kirchhoffs Circuit Law.
In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff developed a pair or set of rules or laws which deal with the
conservation of current and energy within electrical circuits. These two rules are commonly known
as: Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws with one of Kirchhoffs laws dealing with the current flowing around a closed
circuit, Kirchhoffs Current Law, (KCL) while the other law deals with the voltage sources present in a
closed circuit, Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, (KVL).

Kirchhoffs First Law – The Current Law, (KCL)

Kirchhoffs Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge entering a junction or node is
exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as it has no other place to go except to leave, as no charge is
lost within the node“. In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and leaving a node
must be equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0. This idea by Kirchhoff is commonly known as
the Conservation of Charge.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Here, the three currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the two
currents leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means we can also rewrite the equation
as;
 I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or junction of two or more current
carrying paths or elements such as cables and components. Also for current to flow either in or out of a node
a closed circuit path must exist. We can use Kirchhoff’s current law when analysing parallel circuits.

Kirchhoffs Second Law – The Voltage Law, (KVL)

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed loop network, the total voltage around the loop
is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop” which is also equal to zero. In other words
the algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be equal to zero. This idea by Kirchhoff is known as
the Conservation of Energy.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the direction of all the
voltage drops, either positive or negative, and returning back to the same starting point. It is important to
maintain the same direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage sum will not be equal to
zero. We can use Kirchhoff’s voltage law when analysing series circuits.
When analysing either DC circuits or AC circuits using Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws a number of definitions
and terminologies are used to describe the parts of the circuit being analysed such as: node, paths, branches,
loops and meshes. These terms are used frequently in circuit analysis so it is important to understand them.

Common DC Circuit Theory Terms:

 Circuit – a circuit is a closed loop conducting path in which an electrical current flows.
 Path – a single line of connecting elements or sources.
 Node – a node is a junction, connection or terminal within a circuit were two or more circuit elements
are connected or joined together giving a connection point between two or more branches. A node is
indicated by a dot.
 Branch – a branch is a single or group of components such as resistors or a source which are
connected between two nodes.
 Loop – a loop is a simple closed path in a circuit in which no circuit element or node is encountered
more than once.
 Mesh – a mesh is a single closed loop series path that does not contain any other paths. There are no
loops inside a mesh.
Note that:
Components are said to be connected together in Series if the same current value flows through all the
components.
Components are said to be connected together in Parallel if they have the same voltage applied across
them.

A Typical DC Circuit

Kirchhoffs Circuit Law Example No1

Find the current flowing in the 40Ω Resistor, R3

The circuit has 3 branches, 2 nodes (A and B) and 2 independent loops.

Using Kirchhoffs Current Law, KCL the equations are given as:
At node A : I1 + I2 = I3
At node B : I3 = I1 + I2
Using Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, KVL the equations are given as:
Loop 1 is given as : 10 = R1 I1 + R3 I3 = 10I1 + 40I3
Loop 2 is given as : 20 = R2 I2 + R3 I3 = 20I2 + 40I3
Loop 3 is given as : 10 – 20 = 10I1 – 20I2
As I3 is the sum of I1 + I2 we can rewrite the equations as;
Eq. No 1 : 10 = 10I1 + 40(I1 + I2) = 50I1 + 40I2
Eq. No 2 : 20 = 20I2 + 40(I1 + I2) = 40I1 + 60I2
We now have two “Simultaneous Equations” that can be reduced to give us the values of I1 and I2
Substitution of I1 in terms of I2 gives us the value of I1 as -0.143 Amps
Substitution of I2 in terms of I1 gives us the value of I2 as +0.429 Amps
As : I3 = I1 + I2
The current flowing in resistor R3 is given as : -0.143 + 0.429 = 0.286 Amps
and the voltage across the resistor R3 is given as : 0.286 x 40 = 11.44 volts
The negative sign for I1 means that the direction of current flow initially chosen was wrong, but never the
less still valid. In fact, the 20v battery is charging the 10v battery.

Application of Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws

These two laws enable the Currents and Voltages in a circuit to be found, ie, the circuit is said to be
“Analysed”, and the basic procedure for using Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws is as follows:
 1. Assume all voltages and resistances are given. ( If not label them V1, V2,… R1, R2, etc. )
 2. Assigns a current to each branch or mesh (clockwise or
anticlockwise)
 3. Label each branch with a branch current. ( I1, I2, I3 etc. )
 4. Find Kirchhoff’s first law equations for each node.
 5. Find Kirchhoff’s second law equations for each of the independent loops of the circuit.
 6. Use Linear simultaneous equations as required to find the unknown currents.
As well as using Kirchhoffs Circuit Law to calculate the various voltages and currents
circulating around a linear circuit, we can also use loop analysis to calculate the currents in each independent
loop which helps to reduce the amount of mathematics required by using just Kirchhoff’s laws. In the next
tutorial about DC circuits, we will look at Mesh Current Analysis to do just that.
8.The potential divider
A potential divider is a simple circuit that uses resisters(or thermistors / LDR’s) to supply a variable
potential difference.
They can be used as audio volume controls, to control the temperature in a freezer or monitor changes in
light in a room.

Two resistors divide up the potential difference supplied to them from a cell. The proportion of the available
p.d. that the two resistors get depends on there resistance values.

 Vin = p.d. supplied by the cell

 Vout = p.d. across the resistor of interest
 R1 = resistance of resistor of interest R1
 R2= resistance of resistor R2

How does it work?

A potential divider is a simple circuit which takes advantage of the way voltages
drop across resistors in series. It is a very useful and common circuit and is widely used in our range of
electronic kits. The idea is that by using two resistors in series it is possible to divide a voltage and create
a different voltage between them. In the example below two identical resistors are in series with a power
supply. The total voltage across the circuit is ‘Vin’ however this total voltage is split between our two
resistors meaning ‘Vout’ is at a different voltage. The amount by which the voltage drops over across
each resistor depends on the relative values of each resistor and the total resistance.

Example:

This is a worked example of using the formula above to calculate the missing Vout value for a circuit. Look
at the circuit below and take note of the values that are known. Vin is 5V, R1 is 1KΩ and R2 is 10KΩ
Next, substitute the known values into the formula:

Assessment :

Example Questions:

Now try finding the missing values in these three examples. Question 1:

Question 2:
9.Balanced potentials (Wheatstone bridge and potentiometer

A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical

resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component. The
primary benefit of the circuit is its ability to provide extremely accurate measurements (in contrast with
something like a simple voltage divider). Its operation is similar to the original potentiometer.
The Wheatstone bridge was invented by Samuel Hunter Christie (sometimes spelled "Christy") in 1833 and
improved and popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. One of the Wheatstone bridge's initial uses
was for soils analysis and comparison.
Working of Galvanometer
The bridge is in balance condition when no current flows through the coil or the potential difference across
the galvanometer is zero. This condition occurs when the potential difference across the a to b and a to d are
equal, and the potential differences across the b to c and c to d remain same.

The current enters into the galvanometer divides into I1 and I2, and their magnitude remains same. The
following condition exists when the current through the galvanometer is zero.
 The bridge in a balanced condition is expressed as

Where E – emf of the battery.

By substituting the value of I1 and 12 in equation (1) we get.

The equation (2) shows the balance condition of the Wheatstone bridge.

The value of unknown resistance is determined by the help of the equation (3). The R is the unknown
resistance, and the S is the standard arm of the bridge and the P and Q are the ratio arm of the bridge.

Errors in Wheatstone Bridge

The following are the errors in the Wheatstone bridge.

1. The difference between the true and the mark value of the three resistances can cause the error in
measurement.
2. The galvanometer is less sensitive. Thus, inaccuracy occurs in the balance point.
3. The resistance of the bridge changes because of the self-heating which generates an error.
4. The thermal emf cause serious trouble in the measurement of low-value resistance.
5. The personal error occurs in the galvanometer by taking the reading or by finding the null point.

The above mention error can be reduced by using the best qualities resistor and galvanometer. The error
because of self-heating of resistance can minimise by measuring the resistance within the short time. The
thermal effect can also be reduced by connecting the reversing switch between the battery and the bridge.

Video Link:

What is a Potentiometer?
A potentiometer (also known as a pot or potmeter) is defined as a 3 terminal variable resistor in which
the resistance is manually varied to control the flow of electric current. A potentiometer acts as an
adjustable voltage divider.

How Does a Potentiometer Work?

A potentiometer is a passive electronic component. Potentiometers work by varying the position of a
sliding contact across a uniform resistance. In a potentiometer, the entire input voltage is applied across the
whole length of the resistor, and the output voltage is the voltage drop between the fixed and sliding
contact as shown below.

A potentiometer has the two terminals of the input source fixed to the end of the resistor. To
adjust the output voltage the sliding contact gets moved along the resistor on the output side.
 This is different to a rheostat, where here one end is fixed and the sliding terminal is connected to
the circuit, as shown below.

This is a very basic instrument used for comparing the emf of two cells and for calibrating
ammeter, voltmeter, and watt-meter. The basic working principle of a potentiometer is quite simple.
Suppose we have connected two batteries in parallel through a galvanometer. The negative battery
terminals are connected together and positive battery terminals are also connected together through a
galvanometer as shown in the figure below.

Here, if the electric potential of both battery cells is exactly the same, there is no circulating current in the
circuit and hence the galvanometer shows null deflection. The working principle of potentiometer
depends upon this phenomenon.
 Now let’s think about another circuit, where a battery is connected across a resistor via a
switch and a rheostat as shown in the figure below.

The resistor has the uniform electrical resistance per unit length throughout its length.
Hence, the voltage drop per unit length of the resistor is equal throughout its length. Suppose, by adjusting
the rheostat we get v volt voltage drop appearing per unit length of the resistor.
Now, the positive terminal of a standard cell is connected to point A on the resistor and the negative terminal
of the same is connected with a galvanometer. The other end of the galvanometer is in contact with the
resistor via a sliding contact as shown in the figure above. By adjusting this sliding end, a point like B is
found where there is no current through the galvanometer, hence no deflection in the galvanometer.

That means, emf of the standard cell is just balanced by the voltage appearing in the resistor
across points A and B. Now if the distance between points A and B is L, then we can write emf of standard
cell E = Lv volt.

Length
150-250 minutes depending on age group/prior knowledge

Reference Page:

https://www.google.com/search?q=Steady+current&source=lmns&bih=625&biw=1366&rlz=1C1CAFB_en
PK904PK905&hl=en&ved=2ahUKEwivnIze8vjpAhXROewKHWSTBJUQ_AUoAHoECAEQAA
http://www-materials.eng.cam.ac.uk/mpsite/properties/non-
IE/resistivity.html#:~:text=Restivity%20is%20affected%20by%20temperature,is%20measured%20b
y%20thermal%20conductivity.

https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circuits/Lesson-1/Electric-Potential-Difference

https://resources.pcb.cadence.com/blog/2020-power-dissipated-by-a-resistor-circuit-reliability-and-
calculation-examples
CgZwc3ktYWIQAzICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAA6BAgAE
EdQgoUxWIKFMWDIkzFoAXAFeACAAfYCiAH2ApIBAzMtMZgBAKABAaABAqoBB2d3cy13aXqw
AQA
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_4.html
https://kitronik.co.uk/blogs/resources/potential-divider-voltage-divider
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheatstone_bridge#:~:text=A%20Wheatstone%20bridge%20is%20an,which%20includ
es%20the%20unknown%20component.

https://circuitglobe.com/wheatstone-bridge.html

https://www.electrical4u.com/potentiometer/
Unit - 13
Electromagnetism

Topics Understandings Skills

• Magnetic field of current –carrying The students will: • construct a simple electromagnet
conductor • explain that magnetic field is an and investigate the factors which
• Magnetic force on a current- example of a field of force produced influence the strength of an
carrying conductor either by current-carrying conductors electromagnet.
• Magnetic flux density or by permanent magnets. • convert a galvanometer into
• Ampere’s law and its application in • describe magnetic effect of voltmeter of range zero to 3 V.
solenoid current. • interpret and illustrate on the basis
• Force on a moving charged particle • describe and sketch field lines of experimental data, the magnetic
in a magnetic field pattern due to a long straight wire. field produced by a current flowing in
• e/m of an electron • explain that a force might act on a a coil is stronger than a straight
• Torque on a current carrying coil in current-carrying conductor placed in conductor.
a magnetic field a magnetic field. • examine the motion of electrons in
• Electro-mechanical instruments • Investigate the factors affecting the an electric field using a Cathode Ray
force on a current carrying conductor tube.
in a magnetic field. • examine the motion of electrons in
• solve problems involving the use of a magnetic field using a Cathode Ray
F = BIL sin θ. tube.
• define magnetic flux density and its
units.
• describe the concept of magnetic
flux (Ø) as scalar product of magnetic
field (B) and area (A) using the
relation ØB = B┴ A=B.A.
• state Ampere’s law.
• apply Ampere’s law to find
magnetic flux density around a wire
and inside a solenoid. Conceptual
linkage: ²This chapter is built on
Electromagnetism Physics X 39
 • describe quantitatively the path
followed by a charged particle shot
into a magnetic field in a direction
perpendicular to the field.
• explain that a force may act on a
charged particle in a uniform
magnetic field.
• describe a method to measure the
e/m of an electron by applying
magnetic field and electric field on a
beam of electrons.
• predict the turning effect on a
current carrying coil in a magnetic
field and use this principle to
understand the construction and
working of a galvanometer.
• explain how a given galvanometer
can be converted into a voltmeter or
ammeter of a specified range.
• describe the use of a vometer /
multimeter (analogue and digital).

Let us start with the very first theory of Electromagnetism

01.Magnetic field of current –carrying conductor

Current is generally defined as the rate of flow of charge. We already know that stationary
charges produce an electric field which is proportional to the magnitude of the charge. The same principle can
be applied here, moving charges produce magnetic fields which are proportional to the current and hence a
current carrying conductor produces magnetic effect around it. This magnetic field is generally attributed to
the sub-atomic particles in the conductor, for e.g. the moving electrons in the atomic orbitals.

Magnetic field has both magnitude and direction. Hence it is a vector quantity and is
denoted by B (in the diagram given below). Magnetic field due to a current carrying conductor depends on the
current in the conductor and distance of the point from the conductor. The direction of the magnetic field is
perpendicular to the wire. If you wrap your right hand’s fingers around the wire with your thumb pointing in the
direction of the current, then the direction in which the fingers would curl will give the direction of the magnetic
field. This will be clearer with the diagram shown below where the red lines represent the magnetic field lines.
Characteristics Of Magnetic Field Due To Current Carrying Conductor
The magnetic field produced due to a current carrying conductor has the following characteristics:

 It encircles the conductor.

 It lies in a plane perpendicular to the conductor.
 Reversal in direction of current flow reverses the direction of the field.
 Strength of the field is directly proportional to the magnitude of current.
 Strength of the field at any point is inversely proportional to the distance of the point from the wire.
It’s difficult to comprehend the role of magnetism in our lives as we can’t see them. Take a look around and the realization of
its importance will not be as difficult. The motors that are used so extensively around the world whether it’s a toy car or a bullet
train or an aircraft or a spaceship they all use the same magnetic effect.

Figure 1. The magnetic field exerts a force on a current-carrying wire in a direction given by the right hand rule 1 (the
same direction as that on the individual moving charges). This force can easily be large enough to move the wire, since
typical currents consist of very large numbers of moving charges.

We can derive an expression for the magnetic force on a current by taking a sum of the magnetic forces on
individual charges. (The forces add because they are in the same direction.) The force on an individual charge
moving at the drift velocity vd is given by F = qvdB sin θ. Taking B to be uniform over a length of wire l and
zero elsewhere, the total magnetic force on the wire is then F = (qvdB sin θ)(N), where N is the number of
charge carriers in the section of wire of length l. Now, N = nV, where n is the number of charge carriers per unit
volume and V is the volume of wire in the field. Noting that V = Al, where A is the cross-sectional area of the
wire, then the force on the wire is F = (qvdB sin θ) (nAl). Gathering terms,

F = (nqAvd) lBsinθF = (nqAvd) lB sinθ.

Because nqAvd = I (see Current),

F = IlBsinθ F = IlBsinθ

is the equation for magnetic force on a length l of wire carrying a current I in a uniform magnetic field B, as
shown in Figure 2. If we divide both sides of this expression by l, we find that the magnetic force per unit length
of wire in a uniform field is Fl=IBsinθFl=IBsinθ. The direction of this force is given by RHR-1, with the thumb
in the direction of the current I. Then, with the fingers in the direction of B, a perpendicular to the palm points
in the direction of F, as in Figure 2.

Figure 2. The force on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field is F = IlB sin θ. Its direction is given by RHR-1.

EXAMPLE 1. CALCULATING MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE: A STRONG

MAGNETIC FIELD

Calculate the force on the wire shown in Figure 1, given B = 1.50 T, l = 5.00 cm, and I = 20.0 A.

Strategy
The force can be found with the given information by using F=IlBsinθF=IlBsin⁡θ and noting that the
angle θ between I and B is 90º, so that sin θ = 1.

Solution
Entering the given values into F = IlB sin θ yields
F = IlB sin θ = (20.0 A)(0.0500 m)(1.50 T)(1).

The units for tesla are 1 T=NA⋅m1 T=NA⋅m; thus,

F = 1.50 N.

Discussion

This large magnetic field creates a significant force on a small length of wire.

Magnetic force on current-carrying conductors is used to convert electric energy to work. (Motors are a prime
example—they employ loops of wire and are considered in the next section.) Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) is
the technical name given to a clever application where magnetic force pumps fluids without moving mechanical
parts. (See Figure 3.)
 Figure 3. Magneto hydrodynamics. The magnetic force on the current passed through this fluid can be used as a no
mechanical pump.
A strong magnetic field is applied across a tube and a current is passed through the
fluid at right angles to the field, resulting in a force on the fluid parallel to the tube axis as shown. The absence
of moving parts makes this attractive for moving a hot, chemically active substance, such as the liquid sodium
employed in some nuclear reactors. Experimental artificial hearts are testing with this technique for pumping
blood, perhaps circumventing the adverse effects of mechanical pumps. (Cell membranes, however, are affected
by the large fields needed in MHD, delaying its practical application in humans.) MHD propulsion for nuclear
submarines has been proposed, because it could be considerably quieter than conventional propeller drives. The
deterrent value of nuclear submarines is based on their ability to hide and survive a first or second nuclear
strike. As we slowly disassemble our nuclear weapons arsenals, the submarine branch will be the last to be
decommissioned because of this ability (See Figure 4.) Existing MHD drives are heavy and inefficient—much
development work is needed.

Section Summary
 The magnetic force on current-carrying conductors is given by
F=IlBsinθF=IlBsin⁡θ
 where I is the current, l is the length of a straight conductor in a uniform magnetic field B, and θ is the
angle between I and B. The force follows RHR-1 with the thumb in the direction of I.

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS

1. Draw a sketch of the situation in Figure 1 showing the direction of electrons carrying the current, and use
RHR-1 to verify the direction of the force on the wire.
2. Verify that the direction of the force in an MHD drive, such as that in Figure 3, does not depend on the
sign of the charges carrying the current across the fluid.
3. Why would a magnetohydrodynamic drive work better in ocean water than in fresh water? Also, why
would superconducting magnets be desirable?
4. Which is more likely to interfere with compass readings, AC current in your refrigerator or DC current
when you start your car? Explain.

Assessment :

PROBLEMS & EXERCISES

1. What is the direction of the magnetic force on the current in each of the six cases in Figure 5?

Figure 5.

2. What is the direction of a current that experiences the magnetic force shown in each of the three cases in
Figure 6, assuming the current runs perpendicular to B?
Figure 6.

03.Magnetic flux density

Magnetic flux is a measurement of the total magnetic field which passes through a given area. It is a
useful tool for helping describe the effects of the magnetic force on something occupying a given area. The
measurement of magnetic flux is tied to the particular area chosen. We can choose to make the area any size we
want and orient it in any way relative to the magnetic field.

If we use the field-line picture of a magnetic field then every field line passing through the given area
contributes some magnetic flux. The angle at which the field line intersects the area is also important. A field
line passing through at a glancing angle will only contribute a small component of the field to the magnetic flux.
When calculating the magnetic flux we include only the component of the magnetic field vector which
is normal to our test area.

If we choose a simple flat surface with area AAA as our test area and there is an angle \thetaθtheta between the
normal to the surface and a magnetic field vector (magnitude BBB) then the magnetic flux is,
[Explain]

In the case that the surface is perpendicular to the field then the angle is zero and the magnetic flux is simply B
ABAB, A. Figure 1 shows an example of a flat test area at two different angles to a magnetic field and the
resulting magnetic flux.
 Video Link:

04.Ampere’s law and its application in solenoid:

Ampere's law can be applied to find the magnetic field inside of a long solenoid as a function of the number of
turns per length N/L and the current I. ... The magnetic field inside a solenoid is proportional to both the applied
current and the number of turns per unit length.
Video link:

05.Force on a moving charged particle in a magnetic field

Right Hand Rule 1

The magnetic force on a moving charge is one of the most fundamental known. Magnetic force is as important
as the electrostatic or Coulomb force. Yet the magnetic force is more complex, in both the number of factors
that affects it and in its direction, than the relatively simple Coulomb force. The magnitude of the magnetic
force F on a charge q moving at a speed v in a magnetic field of strength B is given by

F = qvB sin θ,

where θ is the angle between the directions of v and B. This force is often called the Lorentz force. In fact, this
is how we define the magnetic field strength B—in terms of the force on a charged particle moving in a
magnetic field. The SI unit for magnetic field strength B is called the tesla (T) after the eccentric but brilliant
inventor Nikola Tesla (1856–1943). To determine how the tesla relates to other SI units, we
solve F = qvB sin θ for B.

Because sin θ is unitless, the tesla is

(note that C/s = A). Another smaller unit, called the gauss (G), where 1 G = 10−4 T, is sometimes used. The
strongest permanent magnets have fields near 2 T; superconducting electromagnets may attain 10 T or more.
The Earth’s magnetic field on its surface is only about 5 × 10−5 T, or 0.5 G.

The direction of the magnetic force F is perpendicular to the plane formed by v and B, as determined by
the right hand rule 1 (or RHR-1), which is illustrated in Figure 1. RHR-1 states that, to determine the direction
of the magnetic force on a positive moving charge, you point the thumb of the right hand in the direction of v,
the fingers in the direction of B, and a perpendicular to the palm points in the direction of F. One way to
remember this is that there is one velocity, and so the thumb represents it. There are many field lines, and so the
fingers represent them. The force is in the direction you would push with your palm. The force on a negative
charge is in exactly the opposite direction to that on a positive charge.
 MAKING CONNECTIONS: CHARGES AND MAGNETS
There is no magnetic force on static charges. However, there is a magnetic force on moving charges. When
charges are stationary, their electric fields do not affect magnets. But, when charges move, they produce
magnetic fields that exert forces on other magnets. When there is relative motion, a connection between electric
and magnetic fields emerges—each affects the other.

EXAMPLE 1. CALCULATING MAGNETIC FORCE: EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD ON

A CHARGED GLASS ROD

With the exception of compasses, you seldom see or personally experience forces due to the Earth’s small magnetic field.
To illustrate this, suppose that in a physics lab you rub a glass rod with silk, placing a 20-nC positive charge on it.
Calculate the force on the rod due to the Earth’s magnetic field, if you throw it with a horizontal velocity of 10 m/s due
west in a place where the Earth’s field is due north parallel to the ground. (The direction of the force is determined with
right hand rule 1 as shown in Figure 2.)
Strategy
We are given the charge, its velocity, and the magnetic field strength and direction. We can thus use the
equation F = qvB sin θ to find the force.
Solution
The magnetic force is
F = qvB sin θ
We see that sin θ = 1, since the angle between the velocity and the direction of the field is 90º. Entering the
other given quantities yields
F=(20×10−9 C)(10 m/s)(5×10−5 T)=1×10−11(C⋅ m/s)(N C⋅ m/s)=1×10−11 NF=(20×10−9 C)(10 m/s)(5×10−5
T)=1×10−11(C⋅ m/s)(N C⋅ m/s)=1×10−11 N.
Discussion
This force is completely negligible on any macroscopic object, consistent with experience. (It is calculated to
only one digit, since the Earth’s field varies with location and is given to only one digit.) The Earth’s magnetic
field, however, does produce very important effects, particularly on submicroscopic particles. Some of these are
explored in Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field: Examples and Applications.

Section Summary
 Magnetic fields exert a force on a moving charge q, the magnitude of which is
F = qvB sin θ,

where θ is the angle between the directions of v and B.

 The SI unit for magnetic field strength B is the tesla (T), which is related to other units by
1 T=1 N C⋅ m/s=1 NA⋅ m1 T=1 N C⋅ m/s=1 NA⋅ m
 The direction of the force on a moving charge is given by right hand rule 1 (RHR-1): Point the thumb of
the right hand in the direction of v, the fingers in the direction of B, and a perpendicular to the palm points
in the direction of F.
  The force is perpendicular to the plane formed by v and B. Since the force is zero if v is parallel to B,
charged particles often follow magnetic field lines rather than cross them.

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS

1. If a charged particle moves in a straight line through some region of space, can you say that the magnetic field in
that region is necessarily zero?

Assessment :

PROBLEMS & EXERCISES

1. What is the direction of the magnetic force on a positive charge that moves as shown in each of the six cases shown in
Figure 3?

Figure 3.

. Repeat Exercise 1 for a negative charge.

3. What is the direction of the velocity of a negative charge that experiences the magnetic force shown in each
of the three cases in Figure 4, assuming it moves perpendicular to B?

Figure 4.

4. Repeat Figure 4 for a positive charge.

5. What is the direction of the magnetic field that produces the magnetic force on a positive charge as shown in
each of the three cases in the figure below, assuming B is perpendicular to v?

Figure 5.

6. Repeat Exercise 5 for a negative charge.

7. What is the maximum force on an aluminum rod with a 0.100-μC charge that you pass between the poles of a
1.50-T permanent magnet at a speed of 5.00 m/s? In what direction is the force?
8. (a) Aircraft sometimes acquire small static charges. Suppose a supersonic jet has a0.500-μC charge and flies
due west at a speed of 660 m/s over the Earth’s south magnetic pole, where the 8.00 × 10−5-T magnetic field
points straight up. What are the direction and the magnitude of the magnetic force on the plane? (b) Discuss
whether the value obtained in part (a) implies this is a significant or negligible effect.
9. (a) A cosmic ray proton moving toward the Earth at 5.00 × 107 experiences a magnetic force of 1.70 ×
10−16 N. What is the strength of the magnetic field if there is a 45º angle between it and the proton’s velocity?
(b) Is the value obtained in part (a) consistent with the known strength of the Earth’s magnetic field on its
surface? Discuss.
10. An electron moving at 4.00 × 103 m/s in a 1.25-T magnetic field experiences a magnetic force of 1.40 ×
10−16 N. What angle does the velocity of the electron make with the magnetic field? There are two answers.
11. (a) A physicist performing a sensitive measurement wants to limit the magnetic force on a moving charge in
her equipment to less than 1.00 × 10−12 N. What is the greatest the charge can be if it moves at a maximum
speed of 30.0 m/s in the Earth’s field? (b) Discuss whether it would be difficult to limit the charge to less than
the value found in (a) by comparing it with typical static electricity and noting that static is often absen

Video Link:
06.e/m of an electron
Video Link:
07.Torque on a current carrying coil in a magnetic field
CALCULATING THE TORQ UE ON A CURRENT CARR YING LOOP IN A
MAGNETIC FIELD:

We can derive a formula for the torque on a current carrying loop in a magnetic field, which is free to turn about
an axis, as shown in the diagram, by using the formulas for the force on a current carrying conductor in a
magnetic field, and the formula for torque.

The ends of the loop, marked ab and cd, make no contribution to the torque, so we need only concern ourselves
with the torque generated by the forces on the sides of the loop, marked ac and bd.

Let the sides ab and cd be equal to w, the width of the loop.

Let the sides ac and bd be equal to l, the length of the loop.

The magnitude of the forces acting on sides ac and bd will be equal, and are given by the formula:
As sides of the loop, ac and bd, are held at right angles to the magnetic field as the coil rotates, the magnitude of
the forces are given by:

These forces will be equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction and therefore sign, however as the forces act
on opposite sides of the axis of rotation they will both tend to turn the coil in the same direction. Therefore, we
need only concern ourselves with the magnitude, or absolute value, of these forces.

The formula for torque is:

Where θ is the angle between the normal to the straight line distance from the centre of rotation and the
direction in which the force is acting, and is equal to the angle between the plane of the loop and the magnetic
field direction.
The magnitude of the torque will therefore be given by the equation:

The straight line distance from the axis of rotation to the point of action of the force for both of the sides ac and
bd will be equal to w/2, half the width of the coil, substituting this for d we get:

The length of the loop multiplied by its width is equal to the area, A, of the loop, so that we can rewrite our
equation as:

The torque on a coil made up of a number of loops, n, is simply the torque generated by a single current
carrying loop in a magnetic field, multiplied by the number of loops making up the coil:

Where:
Video Link:

08.Electro-mechanical instruments
Introduction
PMMC instrument consists basically of a lightweight coil of copper wire suspended in the
field of a permanent magnet. Current in the wire causes the coil to produce a magnetic field that interacts with
the field from the Introduction magnet, resulting in partial rotation of the coil. A pointer connected to the coil
deflects over a calibrated scale, indicating the level of current flowing in the wire.
Electromechanical devices are ones which have both electrical and mechanical processes. Strictly speaking, a
manually operated switch is an electromechanical component due to the mechanical movement causing an
electrical output.
The PMMC instrument is essentially a low-level dc ammeter.
Learning Outcomes:
• explain that magnetic field is an example of a field of force produced either by current-carrying conductors or
by permanent magnets.
• describe magnetic effect of current.
• describe and sketch field lines pattern due to a long straight wire.
• explain that a force might act on a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field.
• Investigate the factors affecting the force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field. • solve
problems involving the use of F = BIL sin θ.
• define magnetic flux density and its units.
• describe the concept of magnetic flux (Ø) as scalar product of magnetic field (B) and area (A) using the
relation ØB = B┴ A=B.A.
• state Ampere’s law.
• apply Ampere’s law to find magnetic flux density around a wire and inside a solenoid. Conceptual linkage:
²This chapter is built on Electromagnetism Physics X 39
• describe quantitatively the path followed by a charged particle shot into a magnetic field in a direction
perpendicular to the field.
• explain that a force may act on a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field.
• describe a method to measure the e/m of an electron by applying magnetic field and electric field on a beam of
electrons.
• predict the turning effect on a current carrying coil in a magnetic field and use this principle to understand the
construction and working of a galvanometer.
• explain how a given galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter or ammeter of a specified range.
• describe the use of avometer / multimeter (analogue and digital).

Reference Page:
https://byjus.com/physics/magnetic-field-current-
conductor/#:~:text=Magnetic%20field%20due%20to%20a,is%20perpendicular%20to%20the%20wire.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/22-7-magnetic-force-on-a-current-carrying-
conductor/#:~:text=The%20magnetic%20field%20exerts%20a,on%20the%20individual%20moving%20charges).&text=T
he%20force%20on%20an%20individual,qvdB%20sin%20%CE%B8.

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/magnetic-forces-and-magnetic-fields/magnetic-flux-faradays-
law/a/what-is-magnetic-flux

https://www.google.com/search?sxsrf=ALeKk00dOYAkZ2QZ0ZNBrPmffLwmYYDoEg:1593495970624&q=ampere%27s+la
w:+solenoid&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi4rp6K66jqAhVLxKYKHRgDAtcQ1QIoAnoECA8QAw

http://hydrogen.physik.uni-wuppertal.de/hyperphysics/hyperphysics/hbase/magnetic/solenoid.html

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/22-4-magnetic-field-strength-force-on-a-moving-charge-in-a-
magnetic-
field/#:~:text=Magnetic%20fields%20exert%20forces%20on%20moving%20charges.&text=most%20basic%20known.-
,The%20direction%20of%20the%20magnetic%20force%20on%20a%20moving%20charge,angle%20between%20v%20an
d%20B.

http://www.citycollegiate.com/xii_chpxiv1.htm

http://quantumhertz.com/index.php/higher-school-certificate-physics/motors-and-generators/calculating-the-torque-
on-a-current-carrying-loop-in-a-magnetic-field/

file:///C:/Users/CoreCom/Downloads/Documents/Chapter%202_gamal.pdf
Unit#14
Electromagnetic Induction

Topics Understanding Skill

• Induced Emf • describe the production of • perform an investigation to predict
• Faraday’s law electricity by magnetism. and verify the effect on an electric
• Lenz’s law • explain that induced emf’s can be current generated when:
• Eddy currents generated in two ways. (i) by relative • the distance between the coil and
• Mutual inductance movement (the generator effect). (ii) magnet is varied.
• Self-inductance by changing a magnetic field (the • the strength of the magnet is varied.
• Energy stored by an inductor transformer effect). • demonstrate electromagnetic
• Motional emf,s • infer the factors affecting the induction by a permanent magnet,
• A.C. Generator magnitude of the induced emf. coil and demonstration galvanometer.
• A.C. motor and Back emf • state Faraday’s law of • conduct a demonstration of step-up
• Transformer electromagnetic induction. and step-down transformer by
• account for Lenz’s law to predict the dissectible transformer.
direction of an induced current and • demonstrate an improvised electric
relate to the principle of conservation motor.
of energy. • demonstrate the action of an
• apply Faraday’s law of induction coil by producing spark.
electromagnetic induction and Lenz’s • gather information and choose
law to solve problems. equipment to investigate “multiplier “
• explain the production of eddy effect (a small magnetic field created
currents and identify their magnetic by current carrying loops of wire
and heating effects. (wrapped around a piece of iron core
• explain the need for laminated iron lead to a large observed magnetic
cores in electric motors, generators field)
and transformers.
• explain what is meant by motional
emf. Given a rod or wire moving
through a magnetic field in a simple
way, compute the potential difference
across its ends.
• define mutual inductance (M) and
self-inductance (L), and their unit
henry. Conceptual linkage: ²This
chapter is built on Electromagnetism
Physics X 41
 • describe the main components of an
A.C generator and explain how it
works.
• describe the main features of an A.C
electric motor and the role of each
feature.
• explain the production of back emf
in electric motors.
• describe the construction of a
transformer and explain how it works.
• identify the relationship between
the ratio of the number of turns in the
primary and secondary coils and the
ratio of primary to secondary
voltages.
• describe how set-up and step-down
transformers can be used to ensure
efficient transfer of electricity along
cables.

Unit Overview
01.Induced Emf
An Electromotive Force or EMF is said to be induced when the flux linking with a conductor or coil changes.

This change in flux can be obtained in two different ways; that is by statically or by dynamically induced emf.
They are explained below

Contents:
 Statically Induced Electromotive Force
 Dynamically Induced Electromotive Force

1. STATICALLY INDUCED EMF

This type of EMF is generated by keeping the coil and the magnetic field system, stationary at the same time;
that means the change in flux linking with the coil takes place without either moving the conductor (coil) or the
field system.

This change of flux produced by the field system linking with the coil is obtained by changing the electric
current in the field system.

It is further divided in two ways

(i)Self-induced electromotive force (emf which is induced in the coil due to the change of flux produced
by it

linking with its own turns.)

(ii)Mutually induced electromotive force(emf which is induced in the coil due to the change of flux
produced

by another coil, linking with it.)

2. DYNAMICALLY INDUCED EMF

In dynamically induced electromotive force the magnetic field system is kept stationary, and the
conductor is moving, or the magnetic field system is moving, and the conductor is stationary. Thus by
following either of the two process the conductor cuts across the magnetic field and the emf is induced
in the coil.

This phenomenon takes place in electric generators and back emf of motors and also in transformers.

Video Link:
 02.Fraday’s Law

Faraday's Law
Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause a voltage (emf) to be "induced" in the coil.
No matter how the change is produced, the voltage will be generated. The change could be produced by
changing the magnetic field strength, moving a magnet toward or away from the coil, moving the coil into or
out of the magnetic field, rotating the coil relative to the magnet, etc.

Faraday's law is a fundamental relationship which comes from Maxwell's equations. It serves as a succinct
summary of the ways a voltage (or emf) may be generated by a changing magnetic environment. The induced
emf in a coil is equal to the negative of the rate of change of magnetic flux times the number of turns in the coil.
It involves the interaction of charge with magnetic field.

Video Link:

03.Lenz’s Law

Lenz's Law
When an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux according to Faraday's Law, the polarity of the induced
emf is such that it produces a current whose magnetic field opposes the change which produces it. The induced
magnetic field inside any loop of wire always acts to keep the magnetic flux in the loop constant. In the
examples below, if the B field is increasing, the induced field acts in opposition to it. If it is decreasing, the
induced field acts in the direction of the applied field to try to keep it constant.
Video Link:

04.Eddy currents
 An eddy current is a current set up in a conductor in response to a changing magnetic field. They flow
in closed loops in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic field. By Lenz law, the current swirls in such a way as to
create a magnetic field opposing the change; for this to occur in a conductor, electrons swirl in a plane
perpendicular to the magnetic field.

Because of the tendency of eddy currents to oppose, eddy currents cause a loss of energy. Eddy currents transform
more useful forms of energy, such as kinetic energy, into heat, which isn’t generally useful.

Video Link:
05.Mutual inductance

Mutual Inductance

When an emf is produced in a coil because of the change in current in

a coupled coil , the effect is called mutual inductance. The emf is
described by Faraday's law and it's direction is always opposed the
change in the magnetic field produced in it by the coupled coil
(Lenz's law ). The induced emf in coil 1 is due to self inductance L.

The induced emf in coil #2 caused by the change in current I1 can be

expressed as

The mutual inductance M can be defined as the proportionalitiy between the emf generated in coil 2 to the
change in current in coil 1 which produced it.

The most common application of mutual inductance is the transformer.

Video Link:

06.Self-inductance
Definition: Self-inductance or in other words inductance of the coil is defined as the property of the coil
due to which it opposes the change of current flowing through it. Inductance is attained by a coil due to the self-
induced emf produced in the coil itself by changing the current flowing through it.
 If the current in the coil is increasing, the self-induced emf produced in the coil will oppose the rise of
current, that means the direction of the induced emf is opposite to the applied voltage.

If the current in the coil is decreasing, the emf induced in the coil is in such a direction as to oppose
the fall of current; this means that the direction of the self-induced emf is same as that of the applied voltage.
Self-inductance does not prevent the change of current, but it delays the change of current flowing through it.

This property of the coil only opposes the changing current (alternating current) and does not affect the steady
current that is (direct current) when flows through it. The unit of inductance is Henry (H).

Expression For Self Inductance

You can determine the self-inductance of a coil by the following expression

The above expression is used when the magnitude of self-induced emf (e) in the coil and the rate of change of
current (dI/dt) is known.

Putting the following values in the above equations as e = 1 V, and dI/dt = 1 A/s then the value of Inductance
will be L = 1 H.

Hence, from the above derivation, a statement can be given that a coil is said to have an inductance of 1 Henry
if an emf of 1 volt is induced in it when the current flowing through it changes at the rate of 1 Ampere/second.

The expression for Self Inductance can also be given as:

 where,
N – number of turns in the coil
Φ – magnetic flux
I – current flowing through the coil

From the above discussion, the following points can be drawn about Self Inductance

 The value of the inductance will be high if the magnetic flux is stronger for the given value of current.
 The value of the Inductance also depends upon the material of the core and the number of turns in the coil or
solenoid.
 The higher will be the value of the inductance in Henry, the rate of change of current will be lower.
 1 Henry is also equal to 1 Weber/ampere

The solenoid has large self-inductance.

07. Energy stored by an inductor

Video Link:
08.Motional emf
As we have seen, any change in magnetic flux induces an emf opposing that
change—a process known as induction. Motion is one of the major causes of induction. For example, a magnet
moved toward a coil induces an emf, and a coil moved toward a magnet produces a similar emf. In this section,
we concentrate on motion in a magnetic field that is stationary relative to the Earth, producing what is loosely
called motional emf. One situation where motional emf occurs is known as the Hall effect and has already been
examined. Charges moving in a magnetic field experience the magnetic force F = qvB sin θ, which moves
opposite charges in opposite directions and produces an em f = Bℓv. We saw that the Hall effect has
applications, including measurements of B and v. We will now see that the Hall effect is one aspect of the
broader phenomenon of induction, and we will find that motional emf can be used as a power source. Consider
the situation shown in Figure 1. A rod is moved at a speed v along a pair of conducting rails separated by a
distance ℓ in a uniform magnetic field B. The rails are stationary relative to B and are connected to a stationary
resistor R. The resistor could be anything from a light bulb to a voltmeter. Consider the area enclosed by the
moving rod, rails, and resistor. B is perpendicular to this area, and the area is increasing as the rod moves. Thus
the magnetic flux enclosed by the rails, rod, and resistor is increasing. When flux changes, an emf is induced
according to Faraday’s law of induction.

To find the magnitude of emf induced along the moving rod, we use Faraday’s law of induction without the sign:
Here and below, “emf” implies the magnitude of the emf. In this equation, N = 1 and the flux Φ = BA cos θ. We
have θ = 0º and cos θ = 1, since B is perpendicular to A . Now ΔΦ = Δ(BA) = BΔA, since B is uniform. Note that
the area swept out by the rod is ΔA = ℓΔx. Entering these quantities into the expression for emf yields

Finally, note that Δx/Δt = v, the velocity of the rod. Entering this into the last expression shows that

emf = Bℓv (B,ℓ, and v perpendicular)

the motional emf. This is the same expression given for the Hall effect previously.

MAKING CONNECTIONS: UNIFICATION OF FORCES

There are many connections between the electric force and the magnetic force. The fact that
a moving electric field produces a magnetic field and, conversely, a moving magnetic field produces an electric
field is part of why electric and magnetic forces are now considered to be different manifestations of the same
force. This classic unification of electric and magnetic forces into what is called the electromagnetic force is the
inspiration for contemporary efforts to unify other basic forces.

To find the direction of the induced field, the direction of the current, and the polarity of the
induced emf, we apply Lenz’s law as explained in Faraday’s Law of Induction: Lenz’s Law. (See Figure
1(b).) Flux is increasing, since the area enclosed is increasing. Thus the induced field must oppose the existing
one and be out of the page. And so the RHR-2 requires that I be counterclockwise, which in turn means the top
of the rod is positive as shown.

Motional emf also occurs if the magnetic field moves and the rod (or other object) is stationary relative to the
Earth (or some observer). We have seen an example of this in the situation where a moving magnet induces an
emf in a stationary coil. It is the relative motion that is important. What is emerging in these observations is a
connection between magnetic and electric fields. A moving magnetic field produces an electric field through its
induced emf. We already have seen that a moving electric field produces a magnetic field—moving charge
implies moving electric field and moving charge produces a magnetic field.

Motional emfs in the Earth’s weak magnetic field are not ordinarily very large, or we would notice voltage
along metal rods, such as a screwdriver, during ordinary motions. For example, a simple calculation of the
motional emf of a 1 m rod moving at 3.0 m/s perpendicular to the Earth’s field gives emf = Bℓv = (5.0 ×
10−5 T)(1.0 m)(3.0 m/s) = 150 μV. This small value is consistent with experience. There is a spectacular
exception, however. In 1992 and 1996, attempts were made with the space shuttle to create large motional emfs.
The Tethered Satellite was to be let out on a 20 km length of wire as shown in Figure 2, to create a 5 kV emf by
moving at orbital speed through the Earth’s field. This emf could be used to convert some of the shuttle’s
kinetic and potential energy into electrical energy if a complete circuit could be made. To complete the circuit,
the stationary ionosphere was to supply a return path for the current to flow. (The ionosphere is the rarefied and
partially ionized atmosphere at orbital altitudes. It conducts because of the ionization. The ionosphere serves the
same function as the stationary rails and connecting resistor in Figure 1, without which there would not be a
complete circuit.) Drag on the current in the cable due to the magnetic force F = IℓB sin θ does the work that
reduces the shuttle’s kinetic and potential energy and allows it to be converted to electrical energessy. The tests
were both unsuccessful. In the first, the cable hung up and could only be extended a couple of hundred meters;
in the second, the cable broke when almost fully extended. The following example indicates feasibility in
principle.

Assessment :

EXAMPLE 1. CALCULATING THE LARGE MOTIONAL EMF OF AN OBJECT IN ORBIT

Figure 2. Motional emf as electrical power conversion for the space shuttle is the motivation for the Tethered
Satellite experiment. A 5 kV emf was predicted to be induced in the 20 km long tether while moving at orbital
speed in the Earth’s magnetic field. The circuit is completed by a return path through the stationary ionosphere.
Calculate the motional emf induced along a 20.0 km long conductor moving at an orbital speed of 7.80 km/s
perpendicular to the Earth’s 5.00 × 10−5 T magnetic field.
Strategy
This is a straightforward application of the expression for motional emf — emf = Bℓv.
Solution
Entering the given values into emf = Bℓv gives
emf=Bℓv=(5.00×10−5 T)(2.0×104 m)(7.80×103 m/s)=7.80×103 Vemf=Bℓv=(5.00×10−5 T)(2.0×104 m)(7.80×
103 m/s)=7.80×103 V.
Discussion
The value obtained is greater than the 5 kV measured voltage for the shuttle experiment, since the actual orbital
motion of the tether is not perpendicular to the Earth’s field. The 7.80 kV value is the maximum emf obtained
when θ = 90º and sin θ = 1.
 CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS

1. Why must part of the circuit be moving relative to other parts, to have usable motional emf? Consider, for
example, that the rails in Figure 1 are stationary relative to the magnetic field, while the rod moves.
2. A powerful induction cannon can be made by placing a metal cylinder inside a solenoid coil. The cylinder
is forcefully expelled when solenoid current is turned on rapidly. Use Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws to
explain how this works. Why might the cylinder get live/hot when the cannon is fired?
3. An induction stove heats a pot with a coil carrying an alternating current located beneath the pot (and
without a hot surface). Can the stove surface be a conductor? Why won’t a coil carrying a direct current
work?
4. Explain how you could thaw out a frozen water pipe by wrapping a coil carrying an alternating current
around it. Does it matter whether or not the pipe is a conductor? Explain.

PROBLEMS & EXERCISES

1. Use Faraday’s law, Lenz’s law, and RHR-1 to show that the magnetic force on the current in the moving rod
in Figure 1 is in the opposite direction of its velocity.
2. If a current flows in the Satellite Tether shown in Figure 2, use Faraday’s law, Lenz’s law, and RHR-1 to
show that there is a magnetic force on the tether in the direction opposite to its velocity.
3. (a) A jet airplane with a 75.0 m wingspan is flying at 280 m/s. What emf is induced between wing tips if the
vertical component of the Earth’s field is 3.00 × 10−5 T? (b) Is an emf of this magnitude likely to have any
consequences? Explain.
4. (a) A nonferrous screwdriver is being used in a 2.00 T magnetic field. What maximum emf can be induced
along its 12.0 cm length when it moves at 6.00 m/s? (b) Is it likely that this emf will have any consequences or
even be noticed?
5. At what speed must the sliding rod in Figure 1 move to produce an emf of 1.00 V in a 1.50 T field, given the
rod’s length is 30.0 cm?
6. The 12.0 cm long rod in Figure 1 moves at 4.00 m/s. What is the strength of the magnetic field if a 95.0 V
emf is induced?
7. Prove that when B, ℓ, and v are not mutually perpendicular, motional emf is given by emf = Bℓv sin θ. If v is
perpendicular to B, then θ is the angle between ℓ and B. If ℓ is perpendicular to B, then θ is the angle
between v and B.
8. In the August 1992 space shuttle flight, only 250 m of the conducting tether considered in Example 1
(above) could be let out. A 40.0 V motional emf was generated in the Earth’s 5.00 × 10−5 T field, while moving
at 7.80 × 103 m/s. What was the angle between the shuttle’s velocity and the Earth’s field, assuming the
conductor was perpendicular to the field?
9. Integrated Concepts Derive an expression for the current in a system like that in Figure 1, under the following
conditions. The resistance between the rails is R, the rails and the moving rod are identical in cross
section A and have the same resistivity ρ. The distance between the rails is l, and the rod moves at constant
speed v perpendicular to the uniform field B. At time zero, the moving rod is next to the resistance R.
10. Integrated Concepts The Tethered Satellite in Figure 2 has a mass of 525 kg and is at the end of a 20.0 km
long, 2.50 mm diameter cable with the tensile strength of steel. (a) How much does the cable stretch if a 100 N
force is exerted to pull the satellite in? (Assume the satellite and shuttle are at the same altitude above the
Earth.) (b) What is the effective force constant of the cable? (c) How much energy is stored in it when stretched
by the 100 N force?
11. Integrated Concepts The Tethered Satellite discussed in this module is producing 5.00 kV, and a current of
10.0 A flows. (a) What magnetic drag force does this produce if the system is moving at 7.80 km/s? (b) How
much kinetic energy is removed from the system in 1.00 h, neglecting any change in altitude or velocity during
that time? (c) What is the change in velocity if the mass of the system is 100,000 kg? (d) Discuss the long term
consequences (say, a week-long mission) on the space shuttle’s orbit, noting what effect a decrease in velocity
has and assessing the magnitude of the effect.

SELECTED SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS & EXERCISES

1. (a) 0.630 V (b) No, this is a very small e m f.

5. 2.22 m/s
11.(a) 10.0 N (b) 2.81 × 108 J (c) 0.36 m/s (d) For a week-long mission (168 hours), the change in velocity will
be 60 m/s, or approximately 1%. In general, a decrease in velocity would cause the orbit to start spiraling
inward because the velocity would no longer be sufficient to keep the circular orbit. The long-term
consequences are that the shuttle would require a little more fuel to maintain the desired speed, otherwise the
orbit would spiral slightly inward.

09.A.C. Generator

DEFINITION
A Generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
A.C Generator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction (motional e m f). In generator an induced emf is produced by
rotating a coil in a magnetic field. The flux linking the coil changes continuously hence a continuous fluctuating emf is obtained.
CONSTRUCTION
A.C Generator consists of the following parts.
Powerful field magnet with concave poles.

Armature:
It is a rectangular coil of large number of turns of wire wound on laminated soft-iron core of high permeability
and low hysteresis loss.

Slip rings:

The ends of the coil are joined to two separate copper rings fixed on the axle (S1 & S2).

Carbon brushes:

Two carbon brushes remain pressed against each of the rings which form the terminals of the external circuit.

Diagram.
WORKING
In order to determine the magnitude and direction of induced e.m.f, let us consider the different
positions of the coil which has ‘N’ turns of wire. In one revolution following positions can be
considered.

When initially coil is vertical, the length arms AC and BD are moving parallel to the lines of
force maximum number of lines link the coil, but rate of change of flux is zero, hence emf is
zero.

As the coil moves from this position, sides AC and BD begin to cut the lines of force and
induced emf is setup till it is maximum when the coil is horizontal. It has rotated 90o, 1st quarter
is completed.

Further rotation decreases the value of emf, until at the end of 2nd quarter, when coil is vertical, it
has rotated 180o, the emf is again zero.

As the coil rotates further from position 3 to position 4, an emf is again induced, but in reverse
direction, because AC and BD are cutting the magnetic lines in opposite direction. The reverse
emf reaches to –ve peak value at the end of 3rd quarter. The coil is horizontal and angle of
rotation is 270o.

On further rotation, the emf again decreases and becomes zero when the coil returns back to its
original position after rotating 360o.
This shows that the coil of generator produces induced emf which reverse its direction 2*f times
in one cycle. Where f = frequency of rotation of coil.

EXPRESSION FOR EMF IN A.C. GENERATOR

Consider a coil ABCDA of ‘N’ turns rotating in a uniform magnetic field B with a constant
angular speed ‘’. Let the length of the coil is ‘l’ and its breadth is ‘b’.
To calculate emf in sides AC and BD we proceed as follows:
Motional emf = B v l Sin

Emf in side AC = B v l Sin

Emf in side BD = B v l Sin

Emf induced in the coil = 1 + 2

= B v l SinB v l Sin

 = 2 B v l Sin

If coil has ‘N’ turns, emf will increase N times

 = 2 B v l N Sin
If angular velocity of coil is ‘’ and it takes time ‘t’ to cover angle  then
 = t also

V = r and r = b/2

V = b/2

Putting the value of q and V in eq. (1)

= 2B (b/2l N sin(t)

B(b*l)sin(t)

 = NB(b.l) sin t

N B A sin t –(2)

For latest information , free computer courses and high impact notes visit
: www.citycollegiate.com
 this is the expression for the induced emf in the coil of an A.C generator at any instant.

If f = no. of rotation per sec. Then we have =2f

V = N B A sin(2ft) – (3)

for maximum emf  = 90o or 270o

or 2ft = /2 or 3/2

and sin90o = sin/2 = +1

sin270o = sin3/2 = -1

o Vo

o = Vo = +-

+- = shows direction of induced current

Relation b/w and o

N B A sin (2ft)

o sin (2ft)

Video Link:

10. A.C. motor and Back emf

When something like a refrigerator or an air conditioner (anything with a motor) first
turns on in your house, the lights often dim momentarily. To understand this, realize that a spinning motor also
acts like a generator. A motor has coils turning inside magnetic fields, and a coil turning inside a magnetic field
induces an emf. This emf, known as the back emf, acts against the applied voltage that's causing the motor to
spin in the first place, and reduces the current flowing through the coils of the motor.
At the motor's operating speed, enough current flows to overcome any losses due to friction and other sources
and to provide the necessary energy required for the motor to do work. This is generally much less current than
is required to get the motor spinning in the first place.

If the applied voltage is DV, then the initial current flowing through a motor with coils of resistance R is:

Assessment:
120 V
For example, I = = 20 A
6

A device drawing that much current reduces the voltage and current provided to other electrical equipment in
your house, causing lights to dim.

When the motor is spinning and generating a back emf , the current is reduced to:

(V - )
I =
R

If the back emf is  = 108 V, we get:

(120 - 108) 12
I = = = 2A
6 6

It takes very little time for the motor to reach operating speed and for the current to drop from its high initial
value. This is why the lights dim only briefly.

Video Link:
11.Transformer

A transformer is a device which is use to convert high

alternatic voltage to a low alternatic voltage and vice versa.

WORKING PRINCIPLE
Transformer works on the principle of mutual
induction of two coils. When current in the
primary coil is changed the flux linked to the
secondary coil also changes. Consequently an
EMF is induced in the secondary coil.

CONSTRUCTION

A transformer consists of a rectangular core of

soft iron in the form of sheets insulated from
one another. Two separate coils of insulated
wires, a primary coil and a secondary coil are
wound on the core. These coils are well
insulated from one another and from the core.
The coil on the input side is called Primary coil
and the coil on the output side is called
Secondary coil.

WORKING
Suppose an alternatic voltage source Vp is connected to primary coil. Current in primary will
produce magnetic flux which is linked to secondary. When current in primary changes, flux in
secondary also changes which results an EMF Vs in secondary. According to Faradays law EMF
induced in a coil depends upon the rate of change of magnetic flux in the coil. If resistance of the
coil is small then the induced EMF will be equal to voltage applied.
According to Faradays law

Where Np = Number of turns in primary coil.

Similarly, for secondary coil.

Dividing equation (1) by equation (2)

Vp /Vs = Np /Ns

This expression shows that the magnitude of EMF depends upon the number of turns in the coil

TYPES OF
TRANSFORMER
There are two types of transformer:
Step up transformer
Step down transformer
STEP UP
TRANSFORMER
A transformer in which Ns>Np is called a step up transformer. A step up transformer is a
transformer which converts low alternate voltage to high alternate voltage.
STEP DOWN
TRANSFORMER
A transformer in which Np>Ns is called a step down transformer. A step down transformer
is a transformer which converts high alternate voltage to low alternate voltage.

Learning Outcomes

• describe the production of electricity by magnetism.

• explain that induced e m f can be generated in two ways. (i) by relative movement (the generator effect). (ii)
by changing a magnetic field (the transformer effect).
• infer the factors affecting the magnitude of the induced emf.
• state Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
• account for Lenz’s law to predict the direction of an induced current and relate to the principle of conservation
of energy.
• apply Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and Lenz’s law to solve problems.
• explain the production of eddy currents and identify their magnetic and heating effects.
• explain the need for laminated iron cores in electric motors, generators and transformers.
• explain what is meant by motional emf. Given a rod or wire moving through a magnetic field in a simple way,
compute the potential difference across its ends.
• define mutual inductance (M) and self-inductance (L), and their unit henry. Conceptual linkage: This chapter
is built on Electromagnetism Physics
 • describe the main components of an A.C generator and explain how it works.
• describe the main features of an A.C electric motor and the role of each feature.
• explain the production of back emf in electric motors.
• describe the construction of a transformer and explain how it works.
• identify the relationship between the ratio of the number of turns in the primary and secondary coils and the
ratio of primary to secondary voltages.
• describe how set-up and step-down transformers can be used to ensure efficient transfer of electricity along
cables.

Reference Page:
01.https://circuitglobe.com/what-is-induced-emf-and-its-types.html#:~:text=CircuitInduced%20EMF-

,Induced%20EMF,They%20are%20explained%20below

02.http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/farlaw.html

03.https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/electromagnetic-induction/eddy-currents/

04.http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/indmut.html#:~:text=Go%20Back-

,Mutual%20Inductance,coupled%20coil%20(Lenz's%20law%20).

05. https://circuitglobe.com/what-is-self-inductance.html.

06http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/indeng.html .

07. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/23-3-motional-emf/
08. https://www.citycollegiate.com/xii_chpxiv9.htm

09. https://www.citycollegiate.com/transformers.htm
 Unit # 15 ALTERNATING CURRENT

Chapter Skills Understanding

ALTERNATING CURRENT : The students will: The students will:
• determine the relation between • describe the terms time period,
Topics according to national current and capacitance when frequency, instantaneous peak
curriculum. different capacitors are used in AC value and root mean square value
• Alternating current (AC) circuit using series and parallel of an alternating current and
• Instantaneous, peak and rms combinations. voltage.
values of AC • measure DC and AC voltages by • represent a sinusoidally
• Phase, phase lag and phase lead a CRO. alternating current or voltage by an
in AC • determine the impedance of RL equation of the form x = xo sin wt.
• AC through a resistor circuit at 50Hz and hence find • describe the phase of A.0 and
• AC through a capacitor inductance. how phase lags and leads in A.0
• AC through an inductor • determine the impedance of RC Circuits.
• Impedance circuit at 50Hz and hence find • identify inductors as important
• RC series circuit capacitance. components of A.0 circuits termed
• RL series circuit as chokes (devices which present a
• Power in AC circuits high resistance to alternating
• Resonant circuits current).
• Electrocardiography • explain the flow of A.0 through
• Principle of metal detectors resistors, capacitors and inductors.
• Maxwell's equations and • apply the knowledge to calculate
electromagnetic waves the reactance’s of capacitors and
inductors.
• describe impedance as vector
summation of resistances and
reactance’s.
• construct phasor diagrams and
carry out calculations on circuits
including resistive and reactive
components in series.
• solve the problems using the
formulae of A.0 Power.
• explain resonance in an A.0
circuit and carry out calculations
using the resonant frequency
formulae.
 • describe that maximum power is
transferred when the impedances
of source and load match to each
other.
• describe the qualitative treatment
of Maxwell's equations and
production of electromagnetic
waves.
• become familiar with
electromagnetic spectrum (ranging
from radio waves to y-rays).
• identify that light is a part of a
continuous spectrum of
electromagnetic waves all of
which travel in vacuum with same
speed.
• describe that the information can
be transmitted by radio waves.
• identify that the microwaves of a
certain frequency cause heating
when absorbed by water and cause
burns when absorbed by body
tissues.
• describe that ultra violet radiation
can be produced by special lamps
and that prolonged exposure to the
Sun may cause skin cancer from
ultra violet radiation.

VIDEOS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LLtVunPU8nQ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2r_UearkUUg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OKsmqzRFFsk https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v4NdFh_ij1A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mXu806LradM https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tPJ9g4YeMi4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WmTlioVfS78 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OIpHPsnLlNU

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_A6fCgQdS2Q https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_BKY2xexGWs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mq-PF1vo9QA https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xIZQRjkwV9Q
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=onQPzAjLhZI https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K40lNL3KsJ4

Chapter overview
Alternating Current (AC)
Definition: The current that changes its magnitude and polarity at regular intervals of time is called an
alternating current .The major advantage of using the alternating current instead of direct current is that the
alternating current is easily transformed from higher voltage level to lower voltage level.

When the resistive load R is connected across the alternating source shown in the figure below, the current
flows through it. The alternating current flows in one direction and then in the opposite direction when the

polarity is reversed.

The wave shape of the source voltage and the current flow through the circuit (i.e., load resistor) is shown in the
figure below.
 The graph which represents the manner in which an alternating current changes with respect to time is known as
wave shape or waveform. Usually, the alternating value is taken along the y-axis and the time taken to the x-
axis.

The alternating current varies in a different manner as shown in the figure below. Accordingly, their wave
shapes are named in different ways, such as irregular wave, a triangular wave, square wave, periodic wave,
sawtooth wave, the sine wave.

An alternating current which varies according to the sine of angle θ is known as sinusoidal alternating current.
The alternating current is generated in the power station because of the following reasons.

1. The alternating current produces low iron and copper losses in AC rotating machine and transformer because it
improves the efficiency of AC machines.
2. The alternating current offer less interference to the nearby communication system (telephone lines etc.).
3. They produce the least disturbance in the electrical circuits

The alternating supply is always used for domestic and industrial applications.
Instantaneous, Average, And Rms Values

INSTANTANEOUS VALUE
The instantaneous value is “the value of an alternating quantity (it may ac voltage or ac current or ac power) at a
particular instant of time in the cycle”. There are uncountable number of instantaneous values that exist in a
cycle.

AVERAGE VALUE:
The average value is defined as “the average of all instantaneous values during one alternation”. That is, the
ratio of the sum of all considered instantaneous values to the number of instantaneous values in one alternation
period.
Whereas the average value for the entire cycle of alternating quantity is zero. Because the average value
obtained for one alteration is a positive value and for another alternation is a negative value. The average values
of these two alternations (for entire cycle) cancel each other and the resultant average value is zero.
Consider the single cycle alternating current wave in Figure 1

The instantaneous value at t=1 is i1

At t = n is, in
The average value for one alternation (0 to π) is

RMS (ROOT MEAN SQUARE) VALUE:

The Root Mean Square (RMS) value is “the square root of the sum of squares of means of an alternating
quantity”.
It can also express as “the effect that produced by a certain input of AC quantity which is equivalent to an effect
produced by the equal input of DC quantity”.
Consider one example, the heat produced by a resistor when one ampere direct current (DC) passed through it,
is not an equal amount of heat produced when one ampere of alternating current (AC) passed through the same
resistor. Since the AC current is not constant value rather than it is varying with the time. The heat produced by
AC quantity (equal amount of DC quantity) is nothing but RMS value of an alternating parameter or quantity.
Here, i1,i2,…in are mean values

Home / AC Circuits / Phase Difference and Phase Shift

Phase Difference and Phase Shift

Phase Difference is used to describe the difference in degrees or radians when two or more alternating
quantities reach their maximum or zero values

The phase difference or phase shift as it is also called of a Sinusoidal Waveform is the angle Φ (Greek letter
Phi), in degrees or radians that the waveform has shifted from a certain reference point along the horizontal zero
axis. In other words phase shift is the lateral difference between two or more waveforms along a common axis
and sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency can have a phase difference.
The phase difference, Φ of an alternating waveform can vary from between 0 to its maximum time period, T of
the waveform during one complete cycle and this can be anywhere along the horizontal axis between, Φ = 0 to
2π (radians) or Φ = 0 to 360o depending upon the angular units used.
Phase difference can also be expressed as a time shift of τ in seconds representing a fraction of the time
period, T for example, +10mS or – 50uS but generally it is more common to express phase difference as an
angular measurement.
Then the equation for the instantaneous value of a sinusoidal voltage or current waveform we developed in the
previous Sinusoidal Waveform will need to be modified to take account of the phase angle of the waveform and
this new general expression becomes.

Phase Difference Equation

 Where:
 Am – is the amplitude of the waveform.
 ωt – is the angular frequency of the waveform in radian/sec.
 Φ (phi) – is the phase angle in degrees or radians that the waveform has shifted either left or right from
the reference point.
If the positive slope of the sinusoidal waveform passes through the horizontal axis “before” t = 0 then the
waveform has shifted to the left so Φ >0, and the phase angle will be positive in nature, +Φ giving a leading
phase angle. In other words it appears earlier in time than 0o producing an anticlockwise rotation of the vector.
Likewise, if the positive slope of the sinusoidal waveform passes through the horizontal x-axis some time
“after” t = 0 then the waveform has shifted to the right so Φ <0, and the phase angle will be negative in nature -
Φ producing a lagging phase angle as it appears later in time than 0o producing a clockwise rotation of the
vector. Both cases are shown below.

Phase Relationship of a Sinusoidal Waveform

Firstly, lets consider that two alternating quantities such as a voltage, v and a current, i have the same
frequency ƒ in Hertz. As the frequency of the two quantities is the same the angular velocity, ω must also be the
same. So at any instant in time we can say that the phase of voltage, v will be the same as the phase of the
current, i.
Then the angle of rotation within a particular time period will always be the same and the phase difference
between the two quantities of v and i will therefore be zero and Φ = 0. As the frequency of the voltage, v and
the current, i are the same they must both reach their maximum positive, negative and zero values during one
complete cycle at the same time (although their amplitudes may be different). Then the two alternating
quantities, v and i are said to be “in-phase”.

Two Sinusoidal Waveforms – “in-phase”

Now lets consider that the voltage, v and the current, i have a phase difference between themselves of 30o, so
(Φ = 30o or π/6 radians). As both alternating quantities rotate at the same speed, i.e. they have the same frequency, this
phase difference will remain constant for all instants in time, then the phase difference of 30o between the two quantities
is represented by phi, Φ as shown below.
Phase Difference of a Sinusoidal Waveform

The voltage waveform above starts at zero along the horizontal reference axis, but at that same instant of time
the current waveform is still negative in value and does not cross this reference axis until 30o later. Then there
exists a Phase difference between the two waveforms as the current cross the horizontal reference axis reaching
its maximum peak and zero values after the voltage waveform.
As the two waveforms are no longer “in-phase”, they must therefore be “out-of-phase” by an amount
determined by phi, Φ and in our example this is 30o. So we can say that the two waveforms are now 30o out-of
phase. The current waveform can also be said to be “lagging” behind the voltage waveform by the phase
angle, Φ. Then in our example above the two waveforms have a Lagging Phase Difference so the expression
for both the voltage and current above will be given as.

where, i lags v by angle Φ

Likewise, if the current, i has a positive value and crosses the reference axis reaching its maximum peak and
zero values at some time before the voltage, v then the current waveform will be “leading” the voltage by some
phase angle. Then the two waveforms are said to have a Leading Phase Difference and the expression for both
the voltage and the current will be.

where, i leads v by angle Φ

The phase angle of a sine wave can be used to describe the relationship of one sine wave to another by using the
terms “Leading” and “Lagging” to indicate the relationship between two sinusoidal waveforms of the same
frequency, plotted onto the same reference axis. In our example above the two waveforms are out-of-
phase by 30o. So we can correctly say that i lags v or we can say that v leads i by 30o depending upon which one
we choose as our reference.
The relationship between the two waveforms and the resulting phase angle can be measured anywhere along the
horizontal zero axis through which each waveform passes with the “same slope” direction either positive or
negative.
In AC power circuits this ability to describe the relationship between a voltage and a current sine wave within
the same circuit is very important and forms the bases of AC circuit analysis.

The Cosine Waveform

So we now know that if a waveform is “shifted” to the right or left of 0o when compared to another sine wave
the expression for this waveform becomes Am sin(ωt ± Φ). But if the waveform crosses the horizontal zero axis
with a positive going slope 90o or π/2 radians before the reference waveform, the waveform is called a Cosine
Waveform and the expression becomes.

Cosine Expression

The Cosine Wave, simply called “cos”, is as important as the sine wave in electrical engineering. The cosine
wave has the same shape as its sine wave counterpart that is it is a sinusoidal function, but is shifted by +90o or
one full quarter of a period ahead of it.

Phase Difference between a Sine wave and a Cosine wave

Alternatively, we can also say that a sine wave is a cosine wave that has been shifted in the other direction by -
90o. Either way when dealing with sine waves or cosine waves with an angle the following rules will always
apply.

Sine and Cosine Wave Relationships

When comparing two sinusoidal waveforms it more common to express their relationship as either a sine or
cosine with positive going amplitudes and this is achieved using the following mathematical identities.

By using these relationships above we can convert any sinusoidal waveform with or without an angular or phase
difference from either a sine wave into a cosine wave or vice versa.

Ac through Resistor

Ad by Value impression

Let an alternating emf be applied to a circuit containing resistor R only such type of circuit is called resistive
circuit.
Let the emf applied to the circuit is Let I be the current in the circuit
then potential difference across the resistor is

Comparing with ohm’s law, we see that current is equal to voltage/resistance

This means the resistance R is resistance for ac which is in fact the resistance for dc. Therefore the behavior of
R is same for ac and dc.

Ac through Capacitor

Ad by Value impression

Let an alternating emf be applied to a circuit containing capacitor only such type of circuit is called capacitive
circuit.

Let the emf applied to the circuit is

Let q be the charge in the capacitor of capacitance C then the potential developed in the capacitor is
Equation ii is the type of current developed in the purely capacitive circuit.
Comparing equation i and ii we see that the alternating current leads to the alternating emf by π/2 as shown in
fig.

Ac through inductor only

Ad by Value impression

Let an alternating emf be applied to a circuit containing inductor only such type of circuit is called inductive
circuit.
Let the emf applied to the circuit is

then the induced emf across the inductor is

This emf opposes the growth of current in the circuit.

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the loop of fig a
 integrating above expression we get

This is the form of alternating current developed in the purely inductive circuit. equation i and ii shows that in a
purely inductive circuit alternating emf leads the alternating current by π/2

What is Impedance?

Impedance is the amount of resistance that a component offers to current flow in a circuit at a specific
frequency.
How to Calculate Impedance
Now we will go over how to calculate the impedance of the 2 main reactive components, capacitors and
inductor.
The impedance of capacitors and inductors each have separate formulas, so the correct formula needs to be
applied for each one.

Capacitor Impedance
To calculate the impedance of a capacitor, the formula to do so is:

where XC is the impedance in unit ohms, f is the frequency of the signal passing through the capacitor, and C is
the capacitance of the capacitor.
To use our online calculator that will calculate capacitor impedance automatically for you, visit the
resource Capacitor Impedance Calculator.

Inductor Impedance
To calculate the impedance of an inductor, the formula to do so is:

where XL is the impedance in unit ohms, f is the frequency of the signal passing through the inductor, and L is
the inductance of the inductor.
To use our online calculator that will calculate inductor impedance automatically for you, visit the
resource Inductor Impedance Calculator.

If there are both capacitors and inductors present in a circuit, the total amount of impedance can be calculated
by adding all of the individual impedances:
XTotal= XC + XL

Resistors and Capacitors in Series

An RC circuit has a resistor and a capacitor and when connected to a DC voltage source, and the capacitor is
charged exponentially in time.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the components and function of an RC circuit, noting especially the time-dependence of the
capacitor’s charge
 KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 In an RC circuit connected to a DC voltage source, the current decreases from its initial value of I0=emf/R
to zero as the voltage on the capacitor reaches the same value as the emf.
 In an RC circuit connected to a DC voltage source, voltage on the capacitor is initially zero and rises
rapidly at first since the initial current is a maximum: V(t)=emf(1−et/RC)V(t)=emf(1−et/RC).
 The time constant τ for an RC circuit is defined to be RC. It’s unit is in seconds and shows how quickly
the circuit charges or discharges.

Key Terms

 DC: Direct current; the unidirectional flow of electric charge.

 capacitor: An electronic component capable of storing an electric charge, especially one consisting of
two conductors separated by a dielectric.
 differential equation: An equation involving the derivatives of a function.

An RC circuit is one containing a resistor R and a capacitor C. The capacitor is an electrical component that
houses electric charge. In this Atom, we will study how a series RC circuit behaves when connected to a DC
voltage source. (In subsequent Atoms, we will study its AC behavior. )

Charging

Fig 1 shows a simple RC circuit that employs a DC voltage source. The capacitor is initially uncharged. As
soon as the switch is closed, current flows to and from the initially uncharged capacitor. As charge increases on
the capacitor plates, there is increasing opposition to the flow of charge by the repulsion of like charges on each
plate.

Charging an RC Circuit: (a) An RC circuit with an initially uncharged capacitor. Current flows in the direction
shown as soon as the switch is closed. Mutual repulsion of like charges in the capacitor progressively slows the
flow as the capacitor is charged, stopping the current when the capacitor is fully charged and Q=C⋅emf. (b) A
graph of voltage across the capacitor versus time, with the switch closing at time t=0. (Note that in the two parts
of the figure, the capital script E stands for emf, q stands for the charge stored on the capacitor, and τ is the RC
time constant. )

In terms of voltage, across the capacitor voltage is given by Vc=Q/C, where Q is the amount of charge stored on
each plate and C is the capacitance. This voltage opposes the battery, growing from zero to the maximum emf
when fully charged. Thus, the current decreases from its initial value of I0=emf/R to zero as the voltage on the
capacitor reaches the same value as the emf. When there is no current, there is no IR drop, so the voltage on the
capacitor must then equal the emf of the voltage source.

Initially, voltage on the capacitor is zero and rises rapidly at first since the initial current is a maximum. Fig 1
(b) shows a graph of capacitor voltage versus time (t) starting when the switch is closed at t=0. The voltage
approaches emf asymptotically since the closer it gets to emf the less current flows. The equation for voltage
versus time when charging a capacitor C through a resistor R, is:

V(t)=emf(1−et/RC)V(t)=emf(1−et/RC),

where V(t) is the voltage across the capacitor and emf is equal to the emf of the DC voltage source. (The exact
form can be derived by solving a linear differential equation describing the RC circuit, but this is slightly
beyond the scope of this Atom. ) Note that the unit of RC is second. We define the time constant τ for an RC
circuit as τ=RCτ=RC. τ shows how quickly the circuit charges or discharges.

Discharging

Discharging a capacitor through a resistor proceeds in a similar fashion, as illustrates. Initially, the current is
I0=V0/R, driven by the initial voltage V0 on the capacitor. As the voltage decreases, the current and hence the
rate of discharge decreases, implying another exponential formula for V. Using calculus, the voltage V on a
capacitor C being discharged through a resistor R is found to be

V(t)=V0e−t/RCV(t)=V0e−t/RC.

Impedance
Impedance is the measure of the opposition that a circuit presents to the passage of a current when a voltage is
applied.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Express the relationship between the impedance, the resistance, and the capacitance of a series RC circuit in a
form of equation

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The advantage of assuming that sources have complex exponential form is that all voltages and currents
in the circuit are also complex exponentials, having the same frequency as the source.
 The major consequence of assuming complex exponential voltage and currents is that the ratio (Z = V/I)
for each element does not depend on time, but does depend on source frequency.
 For a series RC circuit, the impedance is given as Z=√R2+(1ωC)2Z=R2+(1ωC)2.
 Key Terms

 impedance: A measure of the opposition to the flow of an alternating current in a circuit; the aggregation
of its resistance, inductive and capacitive reactance. Represented by the symbol Z.
 AC: Alternating current.
 capacitor: An electronic component capable of storing an electric charge, especially one consisting of
two conductors separated by a dielectric.
 resistor: An electric component that transmits current in direct proportion to the voltage across it.

Rather than solving the differential equation relating to circuits that contain resistors and capacitors, we can
imagine all sources in the circuit are complex exponentials having the same frequency. This technique is useful
in solving problems in which phase relationship is important. The phase of the complex impedance is the phase
shift by which the current is ahead of the voltage.

Complex Analysis

For an RC circuit in, the AC source driving the circuit is given as:

Series RC Circuit: Series RC circuit.

sin(t)= sin (ω t ), sin(t)=sin(ω t),

where V is the amplitude of the AC voltage, j is the imaginary unit (j2=-1), and ω ω is the angular frequency of
the AC source. Two things to note:

1. We use lower case alphabets for voltages and sources to represent that they are alternating (i.e., we use
vin(t) instead of Vin(t)).
2. The imaginary unit is given the symbol “j”, not the usual “i”. “i” is reserved for alternating currents.

Complex Impedance

The major consequence of assuming complex exponential voltage and currents is that the ratio Z=VIZ=VI for
rather than depending on time each element depends on source frequency. This quantity is known as the
element’s (complex) impedance. The magnitude of the complex impedance is the ratio of the voltage amplitude
to the current amplitude. Just like resistance in DC cases, impedance is the measure of the opposition that a
circuit presents to the passage of a current when a voltage is applied. The impedance of a resistor is R, while
that of a capacitor (C) is 1jωC1jωC. In the case of the circuit in, to find the complex impedance of the RC
circuit, we add the impedance of the two components, just as with two resistors in
series: Z=R+1jωCZ=R+1jωC.

• Power in AC circuits

Learning Objectives
By the end of the section, you will be able to:

 Describe how average power from an ac circuit can be written in terms of peak current and voltage and of rms
current and voltage
 Determine the relationship between the phase angle of the current and voltage and the average power, known
as the power factor

A circuit element dissipates or produces power according to where I is the current through the element
and V is the voltage across it. Since the current and the voltage both depend on time in an ac circuit, the
instantaneous power is also time dependent. A plot of p(t) for various circuit elements is shown in . For a
resistor, i(t) and v(t) are in phase and therefore always have the same sign , For a capacitor or inductor, the
relative signs of i(t) and v(t) vary over a cycle due to their phase differences (see and . Consequently, p(t) is
positive at some times and negative at others, indicating that capacitive and inductive elements produce power
at some instants and absorb it at others.

Graph of instantaneous power for various circuit elements.

(a) For the resistor, whereas for
(b) the capacitor and

(c) the inductor,

(d) For the source, which may be positive, negative, or zero, depending on

Because instantaneous power varies in both magnitude and sign over a cycle, it seldom has any practical
importance. What we’re almost always concerned with is the power averaged over time, which we refer to as
the average power. It is defined by the time average of the instantaneous power over one cycle.
Resonant circuits

Resonance occurs in a circuit when the reactances within a circuit cancel one another out. As a result,
the impedance is at a minimum and the current is at a maximum. Mathematically, the condition for resonance is

X_L = X_C.XL=XC.
Resonance allows for the maximum power output of an RLC circuit.

The current in a circuit peaks at the resonant frequency.

Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)

What is it?
An electrocardiogram — abbreviated as EKG or ECG — is a test that measures the electrical activity of the
heartbeat. With each beat, an electrical impulse (or “wave”) travels through the heart. This wave causes the
muscle to squeeze and pump blood from the heart. A normal heartbeat on ECG will show the timing of the top
and lower chambers.

The right and left atria or upper chambers make the first wave called a “P wave" — following a flat line when
the electrical impulse goes to the bottom chambers. The right and left bottom chambers or ventricles make the
next wave called a “QRS complex." The final wave or “T wave” represents electrical recovery or return to a
resting state for the ventricles.

Why is it done?

An ECG gives two major kinds of information. First, by measuring time intervals on the ECG, a doctor can
determine how long the electrical wave takes to pass through the heart. Finding out how long a wave takes to
travel from one part of the heart to the next shows if the electrical activity is normal or slow, fast or irregular.
Second, by measuring the amount of electrical activity passing through the heart muscle, a cardiologist may be
able to find out if parts of the heart are too large or are overworked.

Does it hurt?

No. There’s no pain or risk associated with having an electrocardiogram. When the ECG stickers are removed,
there may be some minor discomfort.
HOW METAL DETECTORS WORK
BASIC PRINCIPLES

How Do Metal Detectors Work?

Metal detectors work by transmitting an electromagnetic field from the search coil into the ground. Any
metal objects (targets) within the electromagnetic field will become energised and retransmit an
electromagnetic field of their own. The detector’s search coil receives the retransmitted field and alerts the
user by producing a target response. Minelab metal detectors are capable of discriminating between different
target types and can be set to ignore unwanted targets.

1. Battery
The battery provides power to the detector.

2. Control Box
The control box contains the detector’s electronics. This is where the transmit signal is generated and the
receive signal is processed and converted into a target response.

3. Search Coil
The detector’s search coil transmits the electromagnetic field into the ground and receives the return
electromagnetic field from a target.

4. Transmit Electromagnetic Field (visual representation only - blue)

The transmit electromagnetic field energises targets to enable them to be detected .

5. Target
A target is any metal object that can be detected by a metal detector. In this example, the detected target is
treasure, which is a good (accepted) target.

6. Unwanted Target
Unwanted targets are generally ferrous (attracted to a magnet), such as nails, but can also be non -ferrous,
such as bottle tops. If the metal detector is set to reject unwanted targets then a target response will not be
produced for those targets.

7. Receive Electromagnetic Field (visual representation only - yellow)

The receive electromagnetic field is generated from energised targets and is received by the search coil.

8. Target Response (visual representation only - green)

When a good (accepted) target is detected the metal detector will produce an audible response, such as a
beep or change in tone. Many Minelab detectors also provide a visual display of target information.

Maxwell's Equations And Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves are waves travelling in vacuum which are a couple of electric as well as magnetic fields.
An ideal electromagnetic wave can be represented in three-directional space as a magnetic field in x direction
and an electric field in y direction.
Hence, the direction of motion of the wave will be in z direction. Maxwell's equations are best way to represent
electromagnetic waves. These are partial differential equations which represent the electric and magnetic fields
in term of charge and fields.

The equations are,

1. Gauss' law of electricity is about the electric field and the charge enclosed. This is about the
surface integral of electric field.

The differential form will give

2. Gauss' law of magnetism tells about the magnetic flux. This says about the surface integral of
magnetic field.

The differential form will give

∇ · B =0
3. Using Faraday's law, the relationship between the electric field and magnetic field can be determined.
According to Faraday's law
4. According to Ampere's law

To modify amperes law, Maxwell considered if the equation has to be correct, then there must be a
displacement current between the capacitor plates since there is electric field between the capacitor plates and
outside the plates the field is zero.
The Ampere law can hence be replaced as

Reference pages
https://circuitglobe.com/alternating-current-ac.html
https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/instantaneous-average-and-rms-values-4
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits/phase-difference.html
https://tyrocity.com/topic/ac-through-resistor-only/
http://www.learningaboutelectronics.com/Articles/What-is-impedance.php
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/magnetism-and-magnetic-fields/
https://opentextbc.ca/universityphysicsv2openstax/chapter/power-in-an-ac-circuit/
https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C1CHBF_enPK813PK813&sxsrf=ALeKk00HdQY35t8NzT_LEUeppEL
S_PFwkg%3A1592373012607&ei=FK_pXtTOJIPxkwXop5yoBQ&q=Resonant+circuits+&oq=Resonant+circu
its+&gs_lcp=CgZwc3ktYWIQAzICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgYIABAWEB4yBggAEBYQHjIGC
AAQFhAeMgYIABAWEB4yBggAEBYQHjoECAAQRzoECCMQJzoHCCMQ6gIQJ1C8D1js3wFgiugBaAJw
AXgBgAHxAogBxRaSAQUyLTYuNJgBAKABAaABAqoBB2d3cy13aXqwAQo&sclient=psy-
ab&ved=0ahUKEwjUqJDek4jqAhWD-KQKHegTB1UQ4dUDCAw&uact=5
https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/heart-attack/diagnosing-a-heart-attack/electrocardiogram-ecg-or-ekg
https://www.minelab.com/knowledge-base/getting-started/how-metal-detectors-work
https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/maxwells-equations-and-electromagnetic-waves-2
Unit#16

Physics of Solids

Topic skills understanding

Students will be able to: Students will be able to:
Physics of Solids.
Topics according to national • determine Young’s modulus of the distinguish between the structure of
curriculum. material of a given wire using crystalline, glassy, amorphous and
Classification of solids Searle’s apparatus. polymeric solids.
• Mechanical properties of solids • determine the energy stored in a • describe that deformation in solids is
• Elastic limit and yield strength spring. caused by a force and that in one
• Electrical properties of solids • describe the applications of dimension, the deformation can be
• Superconductors superconductors in magnetic tensile or compressive.
• Magnetic properties of solids resonance imaging (MRI), magnetic • describe the behavior of springs in
levitation trains, powerful but small terms of load-extension, Hooke’s law
electric motors and faster computer and the spring constant.
chips. • define and use the terms Young’s
• identify the importance of hysteresis modulus, bulk modulus and shear
loop to select materials for their use modulus.
to make them temporary magnets or • demonstrate knowledge of the force-
permanent magnets. extension graphs for typical ductile,
brittle and polymeric materials.
• become familiar of ultimate tensile
stress, elastic deformation and plastic
deformation of a material.
• describe the idea about energy bands
in solids.
• classify insulators, conductors,
semiconductors on the basis of energy
bands.
• become familiar with the behavior
of superconductors and their potential
uses.
• distinguish between dia, para and
ferro magnetic materials.
 • describe the concepts of magnetic
domains in a material.
• explain the Curie point.
• classify hard and soft ferromagnetic
substances.
• describe hysteresis loss.
• synthesise from hysteresis loop how
magnetic field strength varies with
magnetizing current.

VIDEOS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fTbNwKC3jfg https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WNRiVPDAekg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H0z7EmzPqIU https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h6FYs_AUCsQ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X7xNSl8N1ds
Unit overview
Mechanical Properties of Solids
A material is said to be in the solid state if all the atoms of that matter are densely packed together. A solid material
has a definite shape and size. In order to change the shape and size of the solid object, an external force needs to be
applied. In this chapter, we will learn about the Mechanical Properties of Solids.

 Elasticity and Plasticity

 Applications of Elastic Behavior of Materials
 Stress and Strain
 Elastic Moduli
 Hooke’s Law and Stress-strain Curve

Elasticity and Plasticity

Elasticity is the property of a body to recover its original configuration (shape and size) when you remove the
deforming forces. Plastic bodies do not show a tendency to recover to their original configuration when you remove
the deforming forces. Plasticity is the property of a body to lose its property of elasticity and acquire a permanent
deformation on the removal of deforming force.

Applications of Elastic Behaviour of Materials

Have you seen a stretched slingshot? You surely must have played with it, haven’t you? What happens when you
release it? This is an important concept of elasticity and the Elastic behaviour of substances. It finds various
applications in our day to day lives. Let us look at this concept in a greater detail.

Stress and Strain

You must have noticed that there are certain objects that you can stretch easily. Let’s say a rubber band. However,
can you stretch an iron rod? Sound’s impossible right? Why? In this chapter, we will look at these properties
of solids in greater detail. We will see how quantities like stress can help us guess the strength of solids.

Elastic Moduli
In the stress-strain curve given below, the region within the elastic limit (region OA) is of importance to structural
and manufacturing sectors since it describes the maximum stress a particular material can take before being
permanently deformed. The modulus of elasticity is simply the ratio between stress and strain. Elastic Moduli can
be of three types, Young’s modulus, Shear modulus, and Bulk modulus. In this article, we will understand elastic
moduli in detail.
Hooke’s Law and Stress-strain Curve
By now, we know that the stress and strain take different forms in different situations. In this article, we will
understand the relationship between stress and strain by looking at the Hooke’s law and the stress-strain curve.

What is elastic limit?

Elastic limit is defined as the maximum stress that a material can withstand before the permanent deformation.
It is the highest limit of the material before plastic deformation of the material can occur. Once the stress or
force is removed from the material, the material comes back to its original shape. Elastomers like rubber have
the highest elastic limit. The behavior can be explained by Hooke’s law.

Elastic Limit Testing

Elastic limit can be determined by measuring the greatest stress that can be applied to a given sample without
causing any permanent deformation. For metals or any other rigid materials have the stress-strain curve as a
straight line as the elastic limit is approximately equal to the proportional limit. Materials like rubber and plastic
are called an apparent elastic limit as their stress-strain curve is not significantly straight..

Electrical Properties of Solids

We are aware of the physical properties of solids. Like the fact that they have a definite shape and volume. But the
electrical properties of solids vary largely based on their composition and chemical structure. They are divided into
three groups – conductors, semiconductors, and insulators. Let us study these further.

Conductors – Insulators – Semiconductors

Conductors
Conductors are generally substances which have the property to pass different types of energy. In the following,
the conductivity of electricity is the value of interest.
Metals
The conductivity of metals is based on the free electrons (so-called Fermi gas) due to the metal bonding.
Already with low energy electrons become sufficiently detached from the atoms and a conductivity is achieved.
Metallic bonding: fixed ions and free valence electrons (Fermi gas)

The conductivity depends, inter alia, on the temperature. If the temperature rises, the metal atoms swing ever
stronger, so that the electrons are constrained in their movements. Consequence, the resistance increases. The
best conductors, gold and silver, are used relatively rare because of the high costs (gold e.g. for the contacting
of the finished chips). The alternatives in the semiconductor technology for the wiring of the individual
components of microchips are aluminum and copper.
Salts
In addition to metals, salts can also conduct electricity. There are no free electrons, so the conductivity depends
on ions which can be solved when a salt is melting or dissolving, so that the ions are free to move (see chapter
chemical bonds for details).
Insulators
Insulators possess no free charge carriers and thus are non-conductive.
The atomic bond
The atomic bond is based on shared electron pairs of nonmetals. The elements which behave like nonmetals
have the desire to catch electrons, thus there are no free electrons which might serve as charge carriers.
The ionic bond
In the solid state, ions are arranged in a grid network. By electrical forces, the particles are held together. There
are no free charge carriers to enable a current flow. Thus substances composed of ions can be both conductor
and insulator.
Semiconductors
Semiconductors are solids whose conductivity lies between the conductivity of conductors and insulators. Due
to exchange of electrons - to achieve the noble gas configuration - semiconductors arrange as lattice structure.
Unlike metals, the conductivity increases with increasing temperature.
Increasing temperatures leads to broken bonds and free electrons are generated. At the location at which the
electron was placed, a so-called defect electron ("hole") remains.
Cut-out of a silicon lattice
The electron flow is based on the conductivity properties of semiconductors. The electronic band structure
illustrates why semiconductors behave like this.
Superconductors

Superconductors are materials that offer no resistance to electrical current. Prominent examples of
superconductors include aluminium, niobium, magnesium diboride, cuprates such as yttrium barium copper
oxide and iron pnictides. These materials only become superconducting at temperatures below a certain value,
known as the critical temperature.

Magnetic Properties Of Solids

Every substance around us has some magnetic properties in it. Different types of materials show different
properties in the presence of a magnetic field. The magnetic properties of a substance originate from the
electrons present in the atoms or molecules. Every electron in an atom behaves like a small magnet. Electrons
can also be referred to as small loops of current which retain their magnetic moment.

Magnetic properties

These magnetic moments come from two types of motion of electrons:

1. The orbital movement around the nucleus of an atom.

2. When the electron spins around its own axis.

On the basis of the magnetic properties solids can be classified as follows:

Alignment of
Properties Description magnetic Examples Application
dipoles

All the electrons

in the orbitals
They are weakly repelled Behaves like
Diamagnetic are paired and NaCl, Benzene
by the magnetic fields an insulator.
are completely
filled.

Contains at least
They are weakly
one unpaired Electronic
Paramagnetic attracted by the magnetic O2, Cu2+ etc.
electron in the appliances
fields.
orbital.

CrO2 is
Consists of commonly
Strongly attracted by the
unpaired used in
magnetic field. Cobalt, nickel,
Ferromagnetic electrons, all making
CrO2 etc.
The can be magnetised having the same cassette
permanently direction recorder.

Net magnetic moment is Dipole moments NiO, MnO,

Antiferromagnetic –
zero. are arranged in a V2O3 etc.
 compensatory
way

Unequal number
of parallel and
Possess small net antiparallel
Ferrimagnetic Fe3O4 –
magnetic moments arrangement of
magnetic
moments

Graphs showing the variation of magnetic properties on changing temperature:

In paramagnetic material, with the increase in the magnetic field, the magnetization of the material increases.
When the material is heated the magnetization starts decreasing, so the magnetization of the material is
inversely proportional to temperature. This relationship is known as Curie’s law.
M = C×(B/T)
Where, M = magnetization of the material
C= Curie’s constant
B= applied magnetic field
T= Temperature
Reference pages
https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/mechanical-properties-of-solids/elasticity-and-plasticity/

https://byjus.com/physics/elastic-limit/

https://www.nature.com/subjects/superconductors

https://byjus.com/chemistry/magnetic-properties-of-solids/

Unit#17
 Electronics

Topics skills understanding

Students will be able to: Students will be able to:
Electronics. • distinguish between intrinsic and draw characteristics of
Topics according to national extrinsic semiconductors. semiconductor diode and calculate
curriculum. • distinguish between P & N type forward and reverse current
• Intrinsic and extrinsic substances. resistances.
semiconductors • explain the concept of holes and • study the half and full waver
• P & N type substances electrons in semiconductors. rectification by semiconductor diodes
• Electrical conductivity by electrons • explain how electrons and holes by displaying on C.R.O.
and holes flow across a junction. • use multimeter to
• PN Junction • describe a PN junction and discuss (i) identify base of transistor
• Forward and reverse biased PN its forward and reverse biasing. (ii) distinguish between NPN and PNP
junction characteristics • define rectification and describe transistor
• Half and full wave rectification the use of diodes for half and full (iii) see the unidirectional flow of
• Uses of specially designed PN wave rectifications. current in case of diode and an lED.
junctions • distinguish PNP & NPN transistors. (iv) to check whether a given electric
• Transistor and its characteristics • describe the operations of component e.g. diode or transistor is
• Transistor as an amplifier (C-E transistors. in working order.
configuration) • deduce current equation and apply • demonstrate the amplification
it to solve problems on transistors. action of a transistor graphically by
• explain the use of transistors as a CRO Science, Technology and Society
switch and an amplifier. Connections
• describe the function and use of
LED, Photodoide and Photo voltaic
cell.
• analyze that the modern world is
the world of digital electronics.
• analyze that the computers are the
forefront of electronic technology.
 • realize that electronics is shifting
low-tech electrical appliances to high-
tech electronic appliances.

VIDEOS

https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=intrinsic+and+extrinsic+semiconductor

https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=P+%26+N+type+substances

https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=electrical+conductivity+by+electrons+and+holes
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=PN+junction

https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=forward+and+reverse+bias+

https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=pn+junction+characteristics

https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=half+and+full+wave+rectification

https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=uses+of+special+designed+PN+Junction

https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=transisters+and+its+characteristics
 https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=transistor+as+an+amplifier+%28C-E+Configuration%29

Chapter overview
INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Definition of Intrinsic Semiconductor

An intrinsic semiconductor is formed from a highly pure semiconductor material thus also known as pure
semiconductors. These are basically undoped semiconductors that do not have doped impurity in it.
At room temperature, intrinsic semiconductors exhibit almost negligible conductivity. As no any other type of
element is present in its crystalline structure.
The group IV elements of the periodic table form an intrinsic semiconductor. However, mainly silicon and
germanium are widely used. This is so because in their case only small energy is needed in order to break the
covalent bond.
The figure below shows the crystalline structure of silicon:

The figure above clearly shows that silicon consists of 4 electrons in the valence shell. Here, 4 covalent bonds
are formed between the electrons of the silicon atom.

When the temperature of the crystal is increased then the electrons in the covalent bond gain kinetic energy and
after breaking the covalent bond it gets free. Thus, the movement of free electrons generates current.

The rise in temperature somewhat increases the number for free electrons for conduction.
Definition of Extrinsic Semiconductor

Extrinsic Semiconductors are those that are the result of adding an impurity to a pure semiconductor. These are
basically termed as an impure form of semiconductors.

The process by which certain amount of impurity is provided to a pure semiconductor is known as doping. So,
we can say a pure semiconductor is doped to generate an extrinsic semiconductor.
These are highly conductive in nature. However, unlike intrinsic semiconductor, extrinsic semiconductors are
of two types p-type and an n-type semiconductor.
It is noteworthy here that the classification of the extrinsic semiconductor depends on the type of element doped
to the pure semiconductor.

The p-type semiconductors are formed by introducing group III elements or trivalent impurity into the pure
semiconductor. These are also known as an acceptor impurity, as a trivalent impurity has only 3 electrons in
the valence shell.
The n-type semiconductors are formed by the addition of group V elements or pentavalent impurity to a pure
semiconductor. These are termed as donor impurity, as a pentavalent impurity holds 5 electrons in its valence
shell.
The figure below represents the crystalline structure of n-type semiconductor:

Here, the above figure clearly shows that a pentavalent impurity is doped to a pure silicon crystal. In this case, 4
electrons of phosphorus are covalently bonded with the adjacent silicon atom. But, still, a free electron is left in
this case.

Thus, the movement of these free electrons generates high conduction. Also, when the temperature is increased
then it causes the covalent bond to get a breakdown. Hence generating more free electrons.

So, this is the reason why an n-type extrinsic semiconductor has electrons as the majority charge carrier.

p-type
In a pure (intrinsic) Si or Ge semiconductor, each nucleus uses its four valence electrons to form four covalent
bonds with its neighbors (see figure below). Each ionic core, consisting of the nucleus and non-valent electrons,
has a net charge of +4, and is surrounded by 4 valence electrons. Since there are no excess electrons or holes
In this case, the number of electrons and holes present at any given time will always be equal.

An intrinsic semiconductor. Note each +4 ion is surrounded by four electrons.

Now, if one of the atoms in the semiconductor lattice is replaced by an element with three valence electrons,
such as a Group 3 element like Boron (B) or Gallium (Ga), the electron-hole balance will be changed. This
impurity will only be able to contribute three valence electrons to the lattice, therefore leaving one excess hole
(see figure below). Since holes will "accept" free electrons, a Group 3 impurity is also called an acceptor.

A semiconductor doped with an acceptor. An excess hole is now present.

Because an acceptor donates excess holes, which are considered to be positively charged, a semiconductor that
has been doped with an acceptor is called a p-type semiconductor; "p" stands for positive. Notice that the
material as a whole remains electrically neutral. In a p-type semiconductor, current is largely carried by the
holes, which outnumber the free electrons. In this case, the holes are the majority carriers, while the electrons
are the minority carriers.

n-type
In addition to replacing one of the lattice atoms with a Group 3 atom, we can also replace it by an atom with
five valence electrons, such as the Group 5 atoms arsenic (As) or phosphorus (P). In this case, the impurity adds
five valence electrons to the lattice where it can only hold four. This means that there is now one excess electron
in the lattice (see figure below). Because it donates an electron, a Group 5 impurity is called a donor. Note that
the material remains electrically neutral.

A semiconductor doped with a donor. A free electron is now present.

Donor impurities donate negatively charged electrons to the lattice, so a semiconductor that has been doped
with a donor is called an n-type semiconductor; "n" stands for negative. Free electrons outnumber holes in an
n-type material, so the electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the minority carriers.

What is P-N Junction?

Definition: A p-n junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor material types, namely the p-type and the n-
type, inside a semiconductor.
The p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes and the n-side or the negative side has an excess of
electrons. In a semiconductor, the p-n junction is created by the method of doping. The process of doping is explained in further
details in the next section.
Formation of P N JunctionForward BiasReverse BiasP N Junction Formula

Formation of P-N Junction

As we know, if we use different semiconductor materials to make a p-n junction, there will be a grain boundary that would inhibit
the movement of electrons from one side to the other by scattering the electrons and holes and thus we use the process of
doping. We will understand the process of doping with the help of this example. Let us consider a thin p-type silicon
semiconductor sheet. If we add a small amount of pentavalent impurity to this, a part of the p-type Si will get converted to n-type
silicon. This sheet will now contain both p-type region and n-type region and a junction between these two regions. The
processes that follow after the formation of a p-n junction are of two types – diffusion and drift. As we know, there is a difference
in the concentration of holes and electrons at the two sides of a junction, the holes from the p-side diffuse to the n-side and the
electrons from the n-side diffuse to the p-side. This gives rise to a diffusion current across the junction.
Also, when an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, an ionized donor is left behind on the n-side, which is immobile. As
the process goes on, a layer of positive charge is developed on the n-side of the junction. Similarly, when a hole goes from the
p-side to the n-side, an ionized acceptor is left behind in the p-side, resulting in the formation of a layer of negative charges in
the p-side of the junction. This region of positive charge and negative charge on either side of the junction is termed as the
depletion region. Due to this positive space charge region on either side of the junction, an electric field direction from positive
charge towards the negative charge is developed. Due to this electric field, an electron on the p-side of the junction moves to the
n-side of the junction. This motion is termed as the drift. Here, we see that the direction of drift current is opposite to that of the
diffusion current.

Biasing conditions for the p-n Junction Diode

There are two operating regions in p-n junction diode:

 P-type
 N-type
There are three biasing conditions for p-n junction diode and this is based on the voltage applied:

 Zero bias: There is no external voltage applied to the p-n junction diode.
 Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type while the negative terminal is
connected to the n-type.
 Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type and the positive is connected to
the n-type.

Forward Bias
When the p-type is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the n-type to the negative terminal then the p-n junction
is said to be forward biased. When the p-n junction is forward biased, the built-in electric field at the p-n junction and the applied
electric field are in opposite directions. When both the electric fields add up the resultant electric field has a magnitude lesser
than the built-in electric field. This results in a less resistive and thinner depletion region. The depletion region’s resistance
becomes negligible when the applied voltage is large. In silicon, at the voltage of 0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion region
becomes completely negligible and the current flows across it unimpeded.

Reverse Bias
When the p-type is connected to the negative terminal of the battery and the n-type is connected to the positive side then the p-n
junction is said to be reverse biased. In this case, the built-in electric field and the applied electric field are in the same direction.
When the two fields are added, the resultant electric field is in the same direction as the built-in electric field creating a more
resistive, thicker depletion region. The depletion region becomes more resistive and thicker if the applied voltage becomes
larger.

What is P-N Junction?

Definition: A p-n junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor material types, namely the p-type and the n-
type, inside a semiconductor.
The p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes and the n-side or the negative side has an excess of
electrons. In a semiconductor, the p-n junction is created by the method of doping. The process of doping is explained in further
details in the next section.
Formation of P N JunctionForward BiasReverse BiasP N Junction Formula

Formation of P-N Junction

As we know, if we use different semiconductor materials to make a p-n junction, there will be a grain boundary that would inhibit
the movement of electrons from one side to the other by scattering the electrons and holes and thus we use the process of
doping. We will understand the process of doping with the help of this example. Let us consider a thin p-type silicon
semiconductor sheet. If we add a small amount of pentavalent impurity to this, a part of the p-type Si will get converted to n-type
silicon. This sheet will now contain both p-type region and n-type region and a junction between these two regions. The
processes that follow after the formation of a p-n junction are of two types – diffusion and drift. As we know, there is a difference
in the concentration of holes and electrons at the two sides of a junction, the holes from the p-side diffuse to the n-side and the
electrons from the n-side diffuse to the p-side. This gives rise to a diffusion current across the junction.
Also, when an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, an ionized donor is left behind on the n-side, which is immobile. As
the process goes on, a layer of positive charge is developed on the n-side of the junction. Similarly, when a hole goes from the
p-side to the n-side, an ionized acceptor is left behind in the p-side, resulting in the formation of a layer of negative charges in
the p-side of the junction. This region of positive charge and negative charge on either side of the junction is termed as the
depletion region. Due to this positive space charge region on either side of the junction, an electric field direction from positive
charge towards the negative charge is developed. Due to this electric field, an electron on the p-side of the junction moves to the
n-side of the junction. This motion is termed as the drift. Here, we see that the direction of drift current is opposite to that of the
diffusion current.

Biasing conditions for the p-n Junction Diode

There are two operating regions in p-n junction diode:

 P-type
 N-type
There are three biasing conditions for p-n junction diode and this is based on the voltage applied:

 Zero bias: There is no external voltage applied to the p-n junction diode.
 Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type while the negative terminal is
connected to the n-type.
 Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type and the positive is connected to
the n-type.

Forward Bias
When the p-type is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the n-type to the negative terminal then the p-n junction
is said to be forward biased. When the p-n junction is forward biased, the built-in electric field at the p-n junction and the applied
electric field are in opposite directions. When both the electric fields add up the resultant electric field has a magnitude lesser
than the built-in electric field. This results in a less resistive and thinner depletion region. The depletion region’s resistance
becomes negligible when the applied voltage is large. In silicon, at the voltage of 0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion region
becomes completely negligible and the current flows across it unimpeded.

Reverse Bias
When the p-type is connected to the negative terminal of the battery and the n-type is connected to the positive side then the p-n
junction is said to be reverse biased. In this case, the built-in electric field and the applied electric field are in the same direction.
When the two fields are added, the resultant electric field is in the same direction as the built-in electric field creating a more
resistive, thicker depletion region. The depletion region becomes more resistive and thicker if the applied voltage becomes
larger.

P-N Junction Formula

The formula used in the p-n junction depends upon the built-in potential difference created by the electric field is given as:

E0=VTln[ND.NAn2i]

Where,

 E0 is the zero bias junction voltage

 VT is the thermal voltage of 26mV at room temperature
 ND and NA are the impurity concentrations
 ni is the intrinsic concentration.

How does current flow in pn junction diode?

The flow of electrons from n-side towards p-side of the junction takes place when there is increase in the voltage. Similarly, flow
of holes from p-side towards n-side of the junction takes place along with the increase in the voltage. This results in the
concentration gradient between on both the sides of the terminals. Because of formation of concentration gradient, there will be
flow of charge carriers from higher concentration region to lower concentration region. The movement of charge carriers inside
the pn junction is the reason behind current flow in the circuit.

V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

Full-Wave and Half-Wave Rectification
Rectification methods to convert AC (Alternating Current) to DC (Direct Current) include
full-wave rectification and half-wave rectification. In both cases, rectification is
performed by utilizing the characteristic that current flows only in the positive direction
in a diode.
Full-wave rectification rectifies the negative component of the input voltage to a positive
voltage, then converts it into DC (pulse current) utilizing a diode bridge configuration. In
contrast, half-wave rectification removes just the negative voltage component using a
single diode before converting to DC.
Afterward, the waveform is smoothed by charging/discharging a capacitor, resulting in a
clean DC signal.
From this, it can be said that full-wave rectification is a more efficient method than half-
wave rectification since the entire waveform is used.
Also, a ripple voltage that appears after smoothing will vary depending on the
capacitance of this capacitor and the load.
Given the same capacitance and load, ripple voltage is smaller with full-wave
rectification than haif-wave rectification. Of course it goes without saying that the
smaller the ripple voltage the better the stability.

Transistor Characteristics
In physics, the graph representing the relationships between the current and the voltage of any transistor of any
configuration is called Transistor Characteristics. Any two-port network which is analogous to transistor
configuration circuits can be analysed using three types of characteristic curves. They are

 Input Characteristics: The curve describes the changes in the values of input current with the variation in the
values of input voltage keeping the output voltage constant.
 Output Characteristics: The curve is got by plotting the output current against output voltage keeping the input
current constant.
 Current Transfer Characteristics: This characteristic curve describes the variation of output current in
accordance with the input current, keeping the output voltage constant.

Configuration Of Transistor

Any transistor circuit can be designed using three types of configuration. Three configurations of the transistor
are based on the connection of the transistor terminal. The three types of transistor circuit configurations are:
  Common Emitter Transistor
 Common Base Transistor
 Common Collector Transistor(emitter follower).
Each of these three circuit configurations has its own characteristics curve. Based on the requirement the type
will be chosen for the circuit.

Common Emitter (CE) Configuration of Transistor

In CE Configuration, the Emitter terminal of the transistor will be connected common between the output and
the input terminals.

Common Emitter (CE) Configuration of Transistor

The transistor characteristic under Common Emitter configuration is as follows:

Transistor Definition Formula/Expression Characteristic Curve

Characteristi
cs

Input The Rin=ΔVBEΔIB|VCE=Const

Characteristi variation ant
cs of emitter
current(IB)
with Base-
Emitter
voltage(VBE
), keeping
Collector
Emitter
voltage(VCE
) constant.
 Output The Rout=ΔVCEΔIC|IB=Consta
Characteristi variation nt
cs of
collector
current(IC)
with
Collector-
Emitter
voltage(VCE
), keeping
the base
current(IB)
constant.

Current The α=ΔICΔIB|VCB=Constant

Transfer variation
Characteristi of
cs collector
current(IC)
with the
base
current(IB),
keeping
Collector-
Emitter
voltage(VCE
) constant.
The
resulting
current
gain has a
value
greater
than 1.

Reference pages
https://electronicsdesk.com/difference-between-intrinsic-and-extrinsic-semiconductor.html

https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Materials_Science/Supplemental_Modules_(Materials_Science)/Solar_Basics/D.
_P-N_Junction_Diodes/I._P-Type%2C_N-Type_Semiconductors

https://byjus.com/physics/p-n-junction/

https://www.rohm.com/electronics-basics/ac-
dc/rectification#:~:text=Full%2Dwave%20rectification%20rectifies%20the,diode%20before%20converting%20to%20DC.

Unit # 18
 DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS

TOPICS UNDERSTANDING SKILLS

• Special theory of relativity • distinguish between inertial and • investigate the variation of electric
• Quantum theory of radiation non-inertial frames of reference. current with intensity of incident light
• Photoelectric effect • describe the significance of on a photocell.
• Compton’s effect Einstein’s assumption of the • determine Planck’s constant using
• Pair production and pair constancy of the speed of light. internal potential barrier of different
annihilation • identify that if c is constant then light emitting diodes.
• Wave nature of particles space and time become relative.
• Electron microscope • explain qualitatively and
• Uncertainty Principle quantitatively the consequence of
special relativity in relation to: – the
relativity of simultaneity – the
equivalence between mass and
energy – length contraction
Conceptual linkage: This chapter is
built on Planck’s quantum theory
Chemistry XI Resolving power,
Magnifying power of microscope
Physics IX – time dilation – mass
increase
• explain the implications of mass
increase, time dilation and length
contraction for space travel.
• describe the concept of black body
radiation.
 • describe how energy is distributed
over the wavelength range for
several values of source temperature.
• describe the Planck’s hypothesis
that radiation emitted and absorbed
by the walls of a black body cavity is
quantized.
• elaborate the particle nature of
electromagnetic radiation.
• describe the phenomenon of
photoelectric effect.
• solve problems and analyses
information using: E = h f and c = f λ.
• identify data sources, gather,
process and present information to
summarize the use of the
photoelectric effect in solar cells &
photocells
• describe the confirmation of de
Broglie’s proposal by Davisson and
Germen experiment in which the
diffraction of electrons by the surface
layers of a crystal lattice was
observed.
• describe the impact of de Broglie’s
proposal that any kind of particle has
both wave and particle properties.
• explain the particle model of light
in terms of photons with particular
energy and frequency.
• describe Compton effect
qualitatively.
• explain the phenomena of pair
production and pair annihilation.
• explain how the very short
wavelength of electrons, and the
ability to use electrons and magnetic
fields to focus them, allows electron
microscope to achieve very high
resolution.
• describe uncertainty principle.

Unit overview
01.Special theory of relativity
 CONSEQUENCES OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

We observe that in the development of special theory of relativity,frames of reference in relative

motion with a constant speed V have been used. If the speed V becomes large enough to approach the
velocity of light C, then the Galilean's transformations are found to be noticeably wrong. To correct the
state of affairs it will be necessary to introduce a factor called 'Lorentz Factor' or 'Relativistic factor'.

Lorentz Factor is equal to:

This factor is in fact a measure of departure of Galilean's transformation. If is much smaller than as

it is in our common situations,then is so small that the relativistic factor is essentially equal to
unity. Under these conditions the classical and the relativistic physics predict nearly identical results.
However when V approaches c (e.g.: V = C/5), Then the Galilean transformation will be incorrect.
Based on these considerations, if we interpret the result of special theory of relativity we end up in
some very interesting consequences. Without going to make actual mathematical calculation, We may
summarize the important consequences of the theory of special relativity which are as under:

According to the special theory of relativity, the mass of an object in a frame of reference at rest is called its
rest mass mo. if this mass is measured by an observation moving with a constant speed V relative to the
object, then it will not remain constant if the speed V is comparable to C. The mass m in the moving frame
will very according to the mass variation given by:

This mass variation formula shows that mass changes with the velocity and not in general a constant nor the
same for all observes but it is quantity that:
(a) depend upon the reference frame from which the body is being observed.
(b) is greater then or equal to the rest mass mo when the body is at rest in the frame of reference
from which the body is being observed.

LENGTH CONTRACTION
In the theory of special relativity it has been found that the measurement of
length of a rod in a stationary frame of reference is not the same when the
rod is measured by the observer in the moving frame of reference with the
velocity relative to the rod, provided the measurement is made along the
direction of motion.
Hence, if Lo is the length of rod in the frame at rest, and L is the length of
same rod in the moving frame, then:

Since v/c is less then unity, the length L is less then Lo i.e. there is a
contraction in length along the direction of motion. This is called the
Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction.
above equation tells us that an observer past whom a system is moving
with a speed v measures object in the moving system to be shortened in
length along the direction of motion by a factor:

It is important to note that only the dimension along the line of motion is
changed and there is no change in the other two perpendicular directions.
With the development of special theory of relativity it became apparent
that there is no physical contraction of the moving objects. There is,
however, an apparent contraction of body for an observer where there is a
relative motion of the object and the observer. In the natural sense the
observer in moving frame can not detect the contraction because in this
frame it does not exist; where is in the rest frame, it does exist, but the
measuring rod in the moving system has shrunk too further we must note
that for moderate velocities (v/c<<1)of the objects the contraction in
length is negligible as observed in our every day observation.
TIME DILATION

Time is regarded as an absolute quantity in classical mechanics

whereas in the special theory of relativity it is considered to be a relative
entity based on the measurement of time in frame of references in relative
motion.
The time interval between two events taking place at the same point in
space as timed with a clock at rest with respect to that point is called the
proper time interval and is denoted ∆to=To.Time measured with a clock in
motion with respect to the events is known as relativistic time it is
represented by ∆t=T. Both of the time intervals To & T refer to the time
elapsed between the same pair of events occurring in the two frames
moving with a relative speed v. then, according to special relativity the two
times are related by the formula:
Above equation represents , what we call as the time dilation phenomena.
According to the time dilation formula we mean that from the point of
view of an observer at rest, the time of the observer in motion is dilated i.e.
the clocks in moving frame run slowly and the Lorentz factor

Gives us the ratio of the rates of clocks for normal

speeds, this factor is so close to unity (1.00) that we are quite unable to
detect time dilation effect, but for speed comparable to the speed of
light c the time dilation effect is quite significant.
We can now conclude that for every observer his own clock in his frame of
reference run faster than do any other clocks which are moving relative to
him. We may also note that every observer may consider himself to be at
rest and consider all that moves as moving relative to him. This is actually
an outcome of the principle of special relativity stated earlier: Every
observer is equivalent to every other observer.
MASS ENERGY RELATION

In the beginning of this section we have stated the

postulates of relativity that the speed of light is a universal constant. We
can not reach speeds greater than the speed of light by the relativistic
addition of velocities. The equation is how to reconcile with this result of
special relativity with Newton's second law, F=ma? It would be seen that
any constant force, no matter how small, applied for a considerably very
long time, should continuously accelerate any mass 'm' at a rate a=f/m until
the speed was arbitrarily very large. Einstein, concluded that energy has
inertia i.e. the more energy a body possess, the more inertia that body will
display. Since, inertia is a property of matter, which is associated with
mass. Thus from Einstein's argument mass is simply a property attributed
to the total energy of the body and only the total energy is required, to
know the total mass of the body . Thus, in special theory of relativity total
energy and mass are related by the famous Einstein's equation.
E=mc2
From this relation between mass and energy it has been predicted that any
process that changed the mass by a detectable amount would involve huge
amounts of energy. For example, a mass change of 1.00 gram is equal to
an energy change of 9 x 1013 joules.
VIDEO LINK:

02.Quantum theory of radiation

INTRODUCTION:
In physics, electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) refers to the waves (or
their quanta, photons) of the electromagnetic field, propagating (radiating) through space, carrying
electromagnetic radiant energy. It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, (visible) light, ultraviolet, X-
rays, and gamma rays.
Classically, electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves, which are
synchronized oscillations of electric and magnetic fields. In a vacuum, electromagnetic waves travel at
the speed of light, commonly denoted c. In homogeneous, isotropic media, the oscillations of the two fields are
perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation, forming
a transverse wave. The wavefront of electromagnetic waves emitted from a point source (such as a light bulb) is
a sphere. The position of an electromagnetic wave within the electromagnetic spectrum can be characterized by
either its frequency of oscillation or its wavelength. Electromagnetic waves of different frequency are called by
different names since they have different sources and effects on matter. In order of increasing frequency and
decreasing wavelength these are: radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet
radiation, X-rays and gamma rays.

Electromagnetic waves are emitted by electrically charged particles undergoing acceleration,and these waves
can subsequently interact with other charged particles, exerting force on them. EM waves
carry energy, momentum and angular momentum away from their source particle and can impart those
quantities to matter with which they interact. Electromagnetic radiation is associated with those EM waves that
are free to propagate themselves ("radiate") without the continuing influence of the moving charges that
produced them, because they have achieved sufficient distance from those charges. Thus, EMR is sometimes
referred to as the far field. In this language, the near field refers to EM fields near the charges and current that
directly produced them, specifically electromagnetic induction and electrostatic induction phenomena.
In quantum mechanics, an alternate way of viewing EMR is that it consists of photons, uncharged elementary
particles with zero rest mass which are the quanta of the electromagnetic force, responsible for all
electromagnetic interactions. Quantum electrodynamics is the theory of how EMR interacts with matter on an
atomic level. Quantum effects provide additional sources of EMR, such as the transition of electrons to
lower energy levels in an atom and black-body radiation. The energy of an individual photon is quantized and is
greater for photons of higher frequency. This relationship is given by Planck's equation E = hf, where E is the
energy per photon, f is the frequency of the photon, and h is Planck's constant. A single gamma ray photon, for
example, might carry ~100,000 times the energy of a single photon of visible light.

Blackbody Radiation:

Black-body radiation is the thermal electromagnetic radiation within or surrounding a body in thermodynamic
equilibrium with its environment, emitted by a black body (an idealized opaque, non-reflective body). It has a
specific spectrum of wavelengths, inversely related to intensity that depend only on the body's temperature,
which is assumed for the sake of calculations and theory to be uniform and constant
The thermal radiation spontaneously emitted by many ordinary objects can be approximated as black-body
radiation. A perfectly insulated enclosure that is in thermal equilibrium internally contains black-body radiation
and will emit it through a hole made in its wall, provided the hole is small enough to have a negligible effect
upon the equilibrium
In a dark room, a black body at room temperature appears black because most of the energy it radiates is in
the infrared spectrum and cannot be perceived by the human eye. Since the human eye cannot perceive light
waves below the visible frequency, a black body at the lowest just faintly visible temperature subjectively
appears grey, even though its objective physical spectrum peak is in the infrared range. The human eye
perceives only black and white at low light levels as the light-sensitive retinal rods are more sensitive than
cones. When the object becomes a little hotter, it appears dull red. As its temperature increases further it
becomes bright red, orange, yellow, white, and ultimately blue-white.

Wien's displacement law

Wien's displacement law states that the black-body radiation curve for different temperatures will peak at
different wavelengths that are inversely proportional to the temperature. The shift of that peak is a direct
consequence of the Planck radiation law, which describes the spectral brightness of black-body radiation as a
function of wavelength at any given temperature. However, it had been discovered by Wilhelm Wien several
years before Max Planck developed that more general equation, and describes the entire shift of the spectrum of
black-body radiation toward shorter wavelengths as temperature increases.
Formally, Wien's displacement law states that the spectral radiance of black-body radiation per unit wavelength,
peaks at the wavelength λpeak given by:

Rayleigh-Jeans Law
a law expressing the energy distribution in the spectrum of a blackbody as a function of temperature. The Raylei
gh-Jeans law may be written in the form

where uv is the radiation density corresponding to the frequency v, c is the speed of light, T is the absolute temp
erature, and k is the Boltzmann constant.
The Rayleigh-
Jeans law was derived in 1900 by Lord Rayleigh from classical concepts of the uniform distribution of energy w
ith respect to degrees of freedom. In work conducted between 1905 and 1909, J. Jeans applied the methods of cl
assical statistical mechanics to standing waves in a cavity and arrived at the same equation as Rayleigh.
The Rayleigh-Jeans law of radiation is in good agreement with experiment only for small v—
that is, for long wavelengths. According to the law, as v increases, the radiant energy should increase without bo
und. In the far ultraviolet and in still shorter-
wavelength regions of the spectrum, the density of radiant energy should reach extremely large values, a situatio
n called the ultraviolet catastrophe. This prediction, however, is inconsistent with experiment. A blackbody ener
gy distribution valid for the entire spectrum can be obtained only on the basis of quantum concepts (see PLANC
K’S RADIATION LAW). The Rayleigh-
Jeans law is a special case of Planck’s law for small v and can be used instead of Planck’s law when radiation at
sufficiently long wavelengths is being considered and when high accuracy of calculation is not required.

Stefan-Boltzmann law:

statement that the total radiant heat power emitted from a surface is proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature. Formulated in 1879 by Austrian physicist Josef Stefan as a result of his experimental
studies, the same law was derived in 1884 by Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann from thermodynamic
considerations: if E is the radiant heat energy emitted from a unit area in one second (that is, the power from a
unit area) and T is the absolute temperature (in kelvins),
then
E = σT4

the Greek letter sigma (σ) representing the constant of proportionality, called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
This constant has the value 5.670374419 × 10−8 watt per metre2 per K4. The law applies only to blackbodies,
theoretical surfaces that absorb all incident heat radiation.
Planck’s radiation law
 A mathematical relationship formulated in 1900 by German physicist Max
Planck to explain the spectral-energy distribution of radiation emitted by a blackbody (a hypothetical body that
completely absorbs all radiant energy falling upon it, reaches some equilibrium temperature, and then reemits
that energy as quickly as it absorbs it). Planck assumed that the sources of radiation are atoms in a state of
oscillation and that the vibrational energy of each oscillator may have any of a series of discrete values but
never any value between. Planck further assumed that when an oscillator changes from a state of energy E1 to a
state of lower energy E2, the discrete amount of energy E1 − E2, or quantum of radiation, is equal to the product
of the frequency of the radiation, symbolized by the Greek letter ν and a constant h, now called Planck’s
constant, that he determined from blackbody radiation data; i.e.,

E1 − E2 = h ν

Video link:

03.Photoelectric effect:
Under the right circumstances light can be used to push electrons, freeing them from the surface of a solid. This
process is called the photoelectric effect (or photoelectric emission or photoemission), a material that can exhibit
this phenomena is said to be photo emissive, and the ejected electrons are called photoelectrons; but there is
nothing that would distinguish them from other electrons. All electrons are identical to one another in mass,
charge, spin, and magnetic moment.
Knocking electrons free from the photo emissive plate would give it a slight positive charge. Since the second
plate was connected to the first by the wiring of the circuit, it too would become positive, which would then attract
the photoelectrons floating freely through the vacuum where they would land and return back to the plate from
which they started. Keep in mind that this experiment doesn't create electrons out of light, it just uses the energy
in light to push electrons that are already there around the circuit. The photoelectric current generated by this
means was quite small, but could be measured with the micro ammeter (a sensitive galvanometer with a maximum
deflection of only a few micro amps). It also serves as a measure of the rate at which photoelectrons are leaving
the surface of the photo emissive material.
Note how the power supply is wired into the circuit — with its negative end connected to the plate that isn't
illuminated. This sets up a potential difference that tries to push the photoelectrons back into the photo emissive
surface. When the power supply is set to a low voltage it traps the least energetic electrons, reducing the current
through the micro ammeter. Increasing the voltage drives increasingly more energetic electrons back until finally
none of them are able to leave the metal surface and the micro ammeter reads zero. The potential at which this
occurs is called the stopping potential. It is a measure of the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons emitted as
a result of the photoelectric effect.
What Lenard found was that the intensity of the incident light had no effect on the maximum kinetic energy of
the photoelectrons. Those ejected from exposure to a very bright light had the same energy as those ejected from
exposure to a very dim light of the same frequency. In keeping with the law of conservation of energy, however,
more electrons were ejected by a bright source than a dim source.
Later experiments by others, most notably the American physicist Robert Millikan in 1914, found
that light with frequencies below a certain cutoff value, called the threshold frequency, would not eject
photoelectrons from the metal surface no matter how bright the source was. These result were completely
unexpected. Given that it is possible to move electrons with light and given that the energy in a beam of light is
related to its intensity, classical physics would predict that a more intense beam of light would eject electrons
with greater energy than a less intense beam no matter what the frequency. This was not the case, however.

Actually, maybe these results aren't all that typical. Most elements have threshold frequencies that are ultraviolet
and only a few dip down low enough to be green or yellow like the example shown above. The materials with the
lowest threshold frequencies are all semiconductors. Some have threshold frequencies in the infrared region of
the spectrum.

New idea
The two factors affecting maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons are the frequency of the incident radiation
and the material on the surface. As shown in the graph below, electron energy increases with frequency in a simple
linear manner above the threshold. All three curves have the same slope (equal to Planck's constant) which shows
that the energy-frequency relation is constant for all materials. Below the threshold frequency photoemission does
not occur. Each curve has a different intercept on the energy axis, which shows that threshold frequency is a
function of the material.
Equations
Einstein and Millikan described the photoelectric effect using a formula (in contemporary notation) that relates
the maximum kinetic energy (K max) of the photoelectrons to the frequency of the absorbed photons (f) and the
threshold frequency (f0) of the photo emissive surface.
K max = h(f − f0)
or if you prefer, to the energy of the absorbed photons (E) and the work function (φ) of the surface
K max = E − φ
where the first term is the energy of the absorbed photons (E) with frequency (f) or wavelength (λ)
hc
E = hf =
λ
and the second term is the work function (φ) of the surface with threshold frequency (f0) or threshold wavelength
(λ0)
hc
φ = hf0 =
λ0
The maximum kinetic energy (K max) of the photoelectrons (with charge e) can be determined from the stopping
potential (V0).
W K
V0 = = max
q e

Thus…

K max = eV0
When charge (e) is given in coulombs, the energy will be calculated in joules. When charge (e) is given in
elementary charges, the energy will be calculated in electron volts. This results in a lot of constants. Use the one
that's most appropriate for your problem.

Video Link:
04.Compton’s effect
The scattering of x rays can be treated as a collision of a photon of initial momentum h/1 and a free electron.
Using conservation of momentum and energy, the momentum of the scattered photon h/2 can be related to the
initial momentum, the electron mass, and the scattering angle. The resulting Compton equation for the change in
the wavelength of the x ray is Equation 3-25.
Video Link:

05.Pair production
Third principle mechanism of ionization

The third process of ionization is known as pair-production. In this process, the initial photon
energy is very high, normally occurring at energies of 1.02 Mev and above. This particular process does not
involve orbital electrons, rather the interaction occurs near the nucleus of the atom instead.
 As the photon energy approaches the nucleus of the atom, it is changed into an electron -positron
pair. The electron and positron move in different paths away from each other. A positron is nuclear in origin,
possessing a positive charge, and mass equal to that of an electron. Technically a positron is the sister particle to
the electron. Being positively charged, the positron immediately joins with an electron. The result of this
process is annihilation of the positron, and the emission of two new photons, each with equal energy, but one
half that of the original photons. These two new photons continue to go through ionization, eventually
producing the Compton effect, and finally diminishing to the Photoelectric effect and total absorption.

Video Link:

Pair annihilation

Pair Annihilation means the reverse process of pair production. In the pair annihilation, the electron and positron in the
stationary state combine with each other and annihilate. Surely, the particles are disappeared and radiation energy will
occur instead of two particles. For the momentum conservation, the most frequent process in pair annihilation is making
two photons that have exactly opposite direction and the same amount of momentum. (Sometimes it produces three
photons in the pair annihilation process.)
06.Wave nature of particles
In experiments like photoelectric effect and Compton effect, radiation behaves like particles. de
Broglie, a French physicist asked whether in some situations, the reverse could be true, i.e., would objects which
are generally regarded as particles (e.g. electrons) behave like waves ? In 1924 de Broglie postulated that we can
associate a wave with every material object. In analogy with photons, he proposed that the wavelength associated
with such a matter wave is related to the particle momentum ‘P’ through the relationship

Calculate the wavelength associated with a cricket ball of mass 0.2 kg moving with a speed of 30 m/s
Solution :
07.Electron microscope

 An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source of

illumination.
 It is a special type of microscope having a high resolution of images, able to magnify objects in nano
metres, which are formed by controlled use of electrons in vacuum captured on a phosphorescent screen.
 Ernst Ruska (1906-1988), a German engineer and academic professor, built the first Electron
Microscope in 1931, and the same principles behind his prototype still govern modern EMs.

Working Principle of Electron microscope

Electron microscopes use signals arising from the interaction of an electron beam with the sample to obtain
information about structure, morphology, and composition.
1. The electron gun generates electrons.
2. Two sets of condenser lenses focus the electron beam on the specimen and then into a thin tight beam.
3. To move electrons down the column, an accelerating voltage (mostly between 100 kV-1000 kV) is
applied between tungsten filament and anode.
4. The specimen to be examined is made extremely thin, at least 200 times thinner than those used in the
optical microscope. Ultra-thin sections of 20-100 nm are cut which is already placed on the specimen
holder.
5. The electronic beam passes through the specimen and electrons are scattered depending upon the
thickness or refractive index of different parts of the specimen.
6. The denser regions in the specimen scatter more electrons and therefore appear darker in the image since
fewer electrons strike that area of the screen. In contrast, transparent regions are brighter.

7. The electron beam coming out of the specimen passes to the objective lens, which has high power and
forms the intermediate magnified image.
8. The ocular lenses then produce the final further magnified image
Types of Electron microscope
There are two types of electron microscopes, with different operating styles:

01.The transmission electron microscope (TEM)

 The transmission electron microscope is used to view thin specimens through which electrons can pass
generating a projection image.
 The TEM is analogous in many ways to the conventional (compound) light microscope.
 TEM is used, among other things, to image the interior of cells (in thin sections), the structure of protein
molecules (contrasted by metal shadowing), the organization of molecules in viruses and cytoskeletal
filaments (prepared by the negative staining technique), and the arrangement of protein molecules in cell
membranes (by freeze-fracture).

02.The scanning electron microscope (SEM)

 Conventional scanning electron microscopy depends on the emission of secondary electrons from the
surface of a specimen.
 Because of its great depth of focus, a scanning electron microscope is the EM analog of a stereo light
microscope.
 It provides detailed images of the surfaces of cells and whole organisms that are not possible by TEM. It
can also be used for particle counting and size determination, and for process control.
 It is termed a scanning electron microscope because the image is formed by scanning a focused electron
beam onto the surface of the specimen in a raster pattern.

3. Specimen Holder
  The specimen holder is an extremely thin film of carbon or collodion held by a metal grid.

4. Image viewing and Recording System.

 The final image is projected on a fluorescent screen.
 Below the fluorescent screen is a camera for recording the image.

Applications
 Electron microscopes are used to investigate the ultrastructure of a wide range of biological and
inorganic specimens including microorganisms, cells, large molecules, biopsy samples, metals, and
crystals.
 Industrially, electron microscopes are often used for quality control and failure analysis.
 Modern electron microscopes produce electron micrographs using specialized digital cameras and frame
grabbers to capture the images.
 Science of microbiology owes its development to the electron microscope. Study of microorganisms like
bacteria, virus and other pathogens have made the treatment of diseases very effective.

Advantages
 Very high magnification
 Incredibly high resolution
 Material rarely distorted by preparation
 It is possible to investigate a greater depth of field
 Diverse applications

Limitations
 The live specimen cannot be observed.
 As the penetration power of the electron beam is very low, the object should be ultra-thin. For this, the
specimen is dried and cut into ultra-thin sections before observation.
 As the EM works in a vacuum, the specimen should be completely dry.
 Expensive to build and maintain
 Requiring researcher training
 Image artifacts resulting from specimen preparation.
 This type of microscope is a large, cumbersome extremely sensitive to vibration and external magnetic
fields.

Video Link:
08.Uncertainty Principle

The Uncertainty Principle

The position and momentum of a particle cannot be simultaneously measured with arbitrarily high
precision. There is a minimum for the product of the uncertainties of these two measurements.
There is likewise a minimum for the product of the uncertainties of the energy and time.

This is not a statement about the inaccuracy of measurement instruments, nor a reflection on the
quality of experimental methods; it arises from the wave properties inherent in the quantum
mechanical description of nature. Even with perfect instruments and technique, the uncertainty is
inherent in the nature of things.

Uncertainty Principle
Important steps on the way to understanding the uncertainty principle are wave-particle duality and
the DeBroglie hypothesis. As you proceed downward in size to atomic dimensions, it is no longer
valid to consider a particle like a hard sphere, because the smaller the dimension, the more wave-
like it becomes. It no longer makes sense to say that you have precisely determined both the
position and momentum of such a particle. When you say that the electron acts as a wave, then the
wave is the quantum mechanical wavefunction and it is therefore related to the probability of
finding the electron at any point in space. A perfect sinewave for the electron wave spreads that
probability throughout all of space, and the "position" of the electron is completely uncertain.
Reference Page:
01.http://www.citycollegiate.com/physicsXII_17d.htm
02.https://www.google.com/search?q=Photoelectric+effect&tbm=isch&ved=2ah
UKEwiHw73Y07_qAhUJ4RoKHfhBDMQQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=Photoelectric+effect&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQDDIECAAQQzIE
CAAQQzICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAUOSWB
FiJtQVgi8AFaABwAHgAgAH0AYgB9AGSAQMyLTGYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3
Mtd2l6LWltZ7ABAA&sclient=img&ei=HsgGX4e8DonCa_iDsaAM&bih=657&
biw=1366#imgrc=oiW2R0HEGj1OmM&imgdii=65Zo4Lq4lkKujM
03. https://physics.info/photoelectric/
04 file:///C:/Users/CoreCom/Downloads/Documents/compton.pdf.
05.
https://www.google.com/search?q=Pair+production+&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiL0qLZp
cnqAhXVgHMKHZ3bB_sQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=Pair+production+&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAg
gAMgIIADICCAAyBAgAEEMyAggAMgIIAFDWiQtYhqwLYNa0C2gAcAB4AIABswOIAbMDkg
EDNC0xmAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWewAQA&sclient=img&ei=EdYLX8uFD9WBzgOdt
5_YDw&bih=657&biw=1366

06. http://electrons.wikidot.com/pair-production-and-annihilation
07
https://www.google.com/search?bih=608&biw=1366&hl=en&sxsrf=ALeKk03J5p5rzeurc
52Qz0RN2Zb8No8i9Q%3A1594616992094&ei=oOwLX_WpBbidjLsPtICdwAc&q=Wave+n
ature+of+particles&oq=Wave+nature+of+particles&gs_lcp=CgZwc3ktYWIQDDICCAAyAg
gAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADIGCAAQFhAeMgYIABAWEB4yBggAEBYQHjIICAAQFhAKEB4
6BwgjEOoCECdQiInvBliIie8GYImW7wZoAHAAeACAAZIDiAGwBZIBBzItMS4wLjGYAQCgAQ
GgAQKqAQdnd3Mtd2l6sAEK&sclient=psy-ab&ved=0ahUKEwj1-
faau8nqAhW4DmMBHTRAB3gQ4dUDCAw

08. https://microbenotes.com/electron-microscope-principle-types-components-
applications-advantages-limitations/

09.http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/uncer.html
Unit 19
Atomic Spectra
Topics Understandings Skills
• Atomic spectra The students will: •Observe the line spectrum of
• Emission of spectral lines • Describe and explain the origin of mercury with diffraction grating and
• Ionization and excitation different types of optical spectra. spectrometer to determine the
potentials • Show an understanding of the wavelength of several different
• Inner shell transitions and existence of discrete electron lines, and hence draw a conclusion
characteristic X-rays energy levels in isolated atoms (e.g. about the width of visible spectrum.
• Laser atomic hydrogen) and deduce how • Examine the optical spectra by
this leads to spectral lines. spectrometer and diffraction grating
• Explain how the uniqueness of the using different sources such as
spectra of elements can be used to discharge tube (hydrogen, helium
identify an element. or neon) or of flames.
• Analyse the significance of the
hydrogen spectrum in the
development of Bohr’s model of the
atom.
• Explain hydrogen atom in terms of
energy levels on the basis of Bohr
Model.
• Determine the ionization energy and
various excitation energies of an
atom using an energy level diagram.
• Solve problems and analyse
information using.
• 1/λ = RH [1/p2 – 1/n2].
• Understand that inner shell
transitions in heavy elements result
into emission of characteristic X-
rays.
• Explain the terms spontaneous
emission, stimulated emission, meta
stable states, population inversion
and laser action.
• Describe the structure and purpose
of the main components of a He-Ne
gas laser.
Unit overview

Atomic spectra
When atoms are excited they emit light of certain wavelengths which correspond to different colors. The emitted light
can be observed as a series of colored lines with dark spaces in between; this series of colored lines is called a line or
atomic spectra. Each element produces a unique set of spectral lines. Since no two elements emit the same spectral lines,
elements can be identified by their line spectrum.

Electromagnetic Radiation and the Wave Particle Duality

Energy can travel through a vacuum or matter as electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation is a transverse
wave with magnetic and electric components that oscillate perpendicular to each other. The electromagnetic spectrum
is the range of all possible wavelengths and frequencies of electromagnetic radiation including visible light.
According to the wave particle duality concept, although electromagnetic radiation is often considered to be a wave, it
also behaves like a particle. In 1900, while studying black body radiation, Max Planck discovered that energy was limited
to certain values and was not continuous as assumed in classical physics. This means that when energy increases, it does
so by tiny jumps called quanta (quantum in the singular). In other words, a quantum of energy is to the total energy of a
system as an atom is to the total mass of a system. In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed that energy was bundled into packets,
which became known as photons. The discovery of photons explained why energy increased in small jumps. If energy
was bundled into tiny packets, each additional packet would contribute a tiny amount of energy causing the total amount
of energy to jump by a tiny amount, rather than increase smoothly as assumed in classical physics.

List of Variables Discussed in this Article

 λ is the wavelength of light (Greek letter Lambda)
 ν is the frequency of light (Greek letter Nu)
 n is the quantum number of a energy state
 E is the energy of that state

Table 1: Important Constants

Constant Meaning Value

c speed of light 2.99792458 x 108 ms-1
h Planck's constant 6.62607 x 10-34 Js
eV electron volt 1.60218 x 10-19 J
RH Rydberg constant for H 2.179 x 10-18 J

Units to Know
Wavelength, or the distance from one peak to the other of a wave, is most often measured in meters, but can be measured
using other SI units of length where practical. The number of waves that pass per second is the frequency of the wave.
The SI unit for frequency is the Hertz (abbreviated Hz). 1 Hz is equal to 1s-1. The speed of light is constant. In a vacuum
the speed of light is 2.99792458 x 108 ms-1. The relationship between wavelength (λ), frequency (ν), and the speed of
light (c) is:

ν=cλ(1)

The energy of electromagnetic radiation of a particular frequency is measured in Joules and is given by the equation:

E=hν(2)

with

 H as Planck's constant (6.62606876 x 10-34 Js)

The electron volt is another unit of energy that is commonly used. The electron volt (eV) is defined as the kinetic
energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated by a potential electrical difference of 1 volt. It is equal to 1.60218 x
10-19 J.
Spectroscope
A spectrum is a range of frequencies or wavelengths. By the process of refraction, a prism can split white light into it's
component wavelengths. However this method is rather crude, so a spectroscope is used to analyze the light passing
through the prism more accurately. The diagram to the right shows a simple prism spectroscope (click to enlarge). The
smaller the difference between distinguishable wavelengths, the higher the resolution of the spectroscope. The observer
(shown as an eye in the diagram) sees the radiation passing through the slit as a spectral line. To obtain accurate
measurements of the radiation, and electronic device often takes the place of the observer, the device is then called a
spectrophotometer. In more modern Spectrophotometers, a diffraction grating is used instead of a prism to disperse the
light.

How Atoms React when Excited by Light

Electrons can only exist in certain areas around the nucleus called shells. Each shell corresponds to a specific energy level
which is designated by a quantum number n. Since electrons cannot exist between energy levels, the quantum number n
is always an integer value (n=1,2,3,4…). The electron with the lowest energy level (n=1) is the closest to the nucleus. An
electron occupying its lowest energy level is said to be in the ground state. The energy of an electron in a certain energy
level can be found by the equation:

En=−RHn2(3)

Where RH is a constant equal to 2.179 x 10 -18 J and n is equal to the energy level of the electron.
When light is shone on an atom, its electrons absorb photons which cause them to gain energy and jump to higher energy
levels. The higher the energy of the photon absorbed, the higher the energy level the electron jumps to. Similarly, an
electron can go down energy levels by emitting a photon. The simplified version of this principal is illustrated in the
figure to the left based on the Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom. The energy of the photon emitted or gained by an
electron can be calculated from this formula:

Ephoton=RH(1n2i–1n2f)(4)

Where ni is the initial energy level of the electron and n f is the final energy level of the electron. The frequency of the
photon emitted when an electron descends energy levels can be found using the formula:

nuphoton=Ei−Efh(5)

with

Ei is the initial energy of the electron and

Ef is the final energy of the electron.

Since an electron can only exist at certain energy levels, they can only emit photons of certain frequencies. These specific
frequencies of light are then observed as spectral lines. Similarly, a photon has to be of the exact wavelength the electron
needs to jump energy levels in order to be absorbed, explaining the dark bands of an absorption spectra.

Emission Lines
As discussed above, when an electron falls from one energy level in an atom to a lower energy level, it emits a photon of
a particular wavelength and energy. When many electrons emit the same wavelength of photons it will result in a spike
in the spectrum at this particular wavelength, resulting in the banding pattern seen in atomic emission spectra. The graphic
to the right is a simplified picture of a spectrograph, in this case being used to photograph the spectral lines of Hydrogen.

In this spectrograph, the Hydrogen atoms inside the lamp are being excited by an electric current. The light from the lamp
then passes through a prism, which diffracts it into its different frequencies. Since the frequencies of light correspond to
certain energy levels (n) it is therefore possible to predict the frequencies of the spectral lines of Hydrogen using an
equation discovered by Johann Balmer.

ν=3.2881x1015s−1(122−1n2)(6)

Where n must be a number greater than 2. This is because Balmer’s formula only applies to visible light and some longer
wavelengths of ultraviolet.
The frequencies in this region of Hydrogen’s atomic spectra are called the Balmer series. The Balmer series for Hydrogen
is pictured to the left. There are several other series in the Hydrogen atom which correspond to different parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The Lyman series, for example, extends into the ultraviolet, and therefore can be used to
calculate the energy of to n=1.

Absorption Lines
When an electron jumps from a low energy level to a higher level, the electron will absorb a photon of a particular
wavelength. This will show up as a drop in the number of photons of this wavelength and as a black band in this part of
the spectrum. The figure to the right illustrates a mechanism to detect an absorption spectrum. A white light is shone
through a sample. The atoms in the sample absorb some of the light, exciting their electrons. Since the electrons only
absorb light of certain frequencies, the absorption spectrum will show up as a series of black bands on an otherwise
continuous spectrum.

Applications of Atomic Spectral Analysis

Atomic spectroscopy has many useful applications. Since the emission spectrum is different for every element, it acts as
an atomic fingerprint by which elements can be identified. Some elements were discovered by the analysis of their atomic
spectrum. Helium, for example, was discovered while scientists were analyzing the absorption spectrum of the sun.
Emission spectra is especially useful to astronomers who use emission and absorption spectra to determine the make up
of far away stars and other celestial bodies
Videos

Reference pages
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules
_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Quantum_Mechanics/09._The_Hydrogen_Atom/Atomic_Theory/Electrons_in
_Atoms/Atomic_Spectra

Assessment
1. Using the Balmer equation, find the frequency of the radiation corresponding to n=3.
2. What is the frequency of the spectral line produced when an electron moves from n=5 to n=2 in a Hydrogen
atom?
3. What value of n does the line at 656.3 nm in the Balmer series correspond to?
4. A photon with a wavelength of 397nm is emitted from an electron in energy level 7 of a Hydrogen atom. What
is the new energy level of the electron?
5. Find the frequency in Hertz of radiation with an energy of 2.179x 10-18 J per photon.
 6. What frequency of light would be needed to make an electron in a Hydrogen atom jump from n=1 to n=3 ?
7. A spectral line is measured to have a wavelength of 1000nm. Is this within the Balmer series?

Solutions

1.)Using the Balmer equation, find the frequency of the radiation corresponding to n=3.

The Balmer Equation is:ν= 3.2881 x 1015s-1 (1/22 - 1/n2)

We simply plug in the given value for n: ν= 3.2881 x 1015s-1 (1/22 - 1/32)

The answer is ν=4.5668 s-1

2.) What is the frequency of the spectral line produced when an electron moves from n=5 to n=2 in a Hydrogen atom?

We use equation number 4: Ephoton =RH (1/ni2 – 1/nf2)

We simply plug in the given values for n and the Rhydberg constant for Hydrogen:

Ephoton =2.179 x 10-18 J (1/52 – 1/22)

Ephoton = 4.5759x 10-19 J

Next, we rearrange equation 2 to solve for frequency (v):

v=E/h

Then plug in the values for E and h:

v= (4.5759x 10-19 J)/(6.62607 x 10-34 Js)

v= 6.905x1014s-1

3.) What value of n does the line at 656.3 nm in the Balmer series correspond to?

We then substitute equation 1 into equation 2 to get this equation:

E=hc/λ

We convert the wavelength of the photon to meters, and then plug it into the equation

E=(6.62607 x 10-34 Js)( 2.99792458 x 108 ms1)/(6.563x10-7m)

E=3.20267344 x 10-19J

We then use this value to find the frequency (v).

v=(3.20267344 x 10-19J) /(6.62607 x 10-34 Js)

v= 4.567917995 x 1014
We then use equation 6 to find the energy level:

4.567917995 x 1014= 3.2881 x 1015s-1 (1/22 - 1/n2)

n= 3

4.) A photon with a wavelength of 397nm is emitted from an electron in energy level 7 of a Hydrogen atom. What is the
new energy level of the electron?

We use equation number 3 (En = -RH/n2)to find the number of joules when n=7:

E7= (2.179 x 10-18 J)/72

E7= -4.4469388 x 10-20 J

We then substitute equation 1 into equation 2 to get this equation:

E=hc/λ

We convert the wavelength of the photon to meters, and then plug it into the equation

Ephoton= (6.62607 x 10-34 Js)( 2.99792458 x 108 ms-1)/(3.97 x10-7m)

Ephoton= 5.00358898x10-19 J

We then subtract the energy of the photon emitted from the energy level the electron was originally in; this will
give us the energy of the new energy level:

En final=En initial-Ephoton

Plug the values previously calculated into the equation:

En final = (-4.4469388 x 10-20J) – (5.00358898x10-19 J)

En final = -5.4482829x10-19J

To figure out the energy level (n), we can plug our En final into equation number 3:

En = -RH/n2

-5.4482829x10-19J = (-2.179 x 10-18 J)/n2

We solve for n, and get:

n=2

5.) Find the frequency in Hertz of radiation with an energy of 2.179x 10-18 J per photon.

We rearrange equation 2:
v=E/h

Plug in the values:

v=(2.179 x 10-18 J)/(6.62607 x 10-34 Js)

v= 3.289 x 1015 s-1

6.) What frequency of light would be needed to make an electron in a Hydrogen atom jump from n=1 to n=3 ?

Using equation3(En = -RH/n2), we calculate the energy when n=1 and when n=3.

E1 = -2.179x10-18J

E3= -2.42x10-19J

We next use equation5 to find the frequency of the photon that must be absorbed.

νphoton = (Ei - Ef)/h

νphoton= [(-2.179x10-18J) – (-2.42x10-19J)] / (6.62607 x 10-34 Js)

νphoton=2.923301 x 1015s-1

7.)A spectral line is measured to have a wavelength of 1000nm. Is this within the Balmer series?

No, the Balmer series does not extend into the infrared.

Excitation and Ionization potentials

Excitation
By definition, if an electron is accelerated by 1 volt of potential difference. it acquires 1 eV of energy. So if the electron
is accelerated through a p.d. of 10.2 volts, it acquires 10.2 eV energy. If such an extra electron collides with a ground
state hydrogen atom, the hydrogen atom may be excited to the first excited energy state. Hence, the 10,2 volt of
potential difference is the first excitation potential for a hydrogen atom. Second excitation potential for the hydrogen
atom is given by (E:, in eV — E, in eV) volt and so on.
Thus, the excitation potential of an energy of an atom is the potential. which is required for an electron to jump from the
ground state to any one of its excited states.

Ionization potential
The potential difference through which the extra electron is to be in acceleration in order for it to cause the ionization of
an atom is called the ionization potential of the atom. For example, for the hydrogen atom, the ionization energy is 13.6
eV. By definition of 1 eV, an electron acquires 13.6 eV energy when it is accelerated through a potential difference of
13.6 volts.
Thus. ionization potential is the minimum potential to be applied in order to remove the electron completely from its
ground state to infinity.

Emission Spectra
When the excited atoms make transitions from the excited state to the lower lying energy levels. then the emission
spectra is obtained. Emission spectra are classified into continuous, line and a band spectrum visible from hot solid is an
example of the continuous spectrum. A continuous spectrum is produced by incandescent solids, liquids, and
compressed gasses. Line spectra are discontinuous lines produced by excited atoms and ions as they fall back to the
lower energy level.

Absorption spectra
Absorption spectra are obtained when electrons are taken from lower energy states to the higher energy states. Various
absorption series are Lyman, Balmer. Paschen. Bradcet, and Pfund.

Limitations of Bohrs Theory of Hydrogen Atom

 Elliptical orbits are possible for the electron orbits, but Bohrs theory does not tell us why only elliptical orbits
are possible.
 Bohrs theory does not explain the spectra of only simple atoms like hydrogen but fails to explain the spectra of
multi-electron atoms.
 The fine structure of certain spectral lines of hydrogen could not be explained by Bohrs theory.
 It does not explain the relative intensities of spectral lines.
 This theory does not account for the wave nature of electrons.
Video

Refrence
https://www.kullabs.com/classes/subjects/units/lessons/notes/note-detail/3024

Inner shell transitions

Inner shell transitions in medium to very heavy atoms are treated within a relativistic framework. The many-
body part of the calculation includes full relaxation, correlation and the admixture of, sometimes degenerate,
states with two vacancies and one excited particle. The Breit interaction is treated on equal footing with the
Coulomb part of the electron-electron interaction through the whole calculation and the retardation beyond the
Breit interaction is included in lowest order. The effect of the finite nuclear size is substantial and special care
has been taken to use a correct nuclear mean square radius even for deformed nuclei. Hydrogenic radiative
corrections (with finite nucleus effects) as well as screening contributions are included. Comparison with
experiments over a wide range of elements show agreement within combined theoretical and experimental
uncertainties.
Characteristic X-Rays
Characteristic x-rays are emitted from heavy
elements when their electrons make transitions
between the lower atomic energy levels. The
characteristic x-ray emission which is shown as
two sharp peaks in the illustration at left occur
when vacancies are produced in the n=1 or K-
shell of the atom and electrons drop down from
above to fill the gap. The x-rays produced by
transitions from the n=2 to n=1 levels are called
K-alpha x-rays, and those for the n=3→1
transition are called K-beta x-rays.

Transitions to the n=2 or L-shell are designated as

L x-rays (n=3→2 is L-alpha, n=4→2 is L-beta,
etc. ). The continuous distribution of x-rays which
forms the base for the two sharp peaks at left is
called "bremsstrahlung" radiation.

X-ray production typically involves bombarding a metal target in an x-ray tube with high speed electrons which have
been accelerated by tens to hundreds of kilovolts of potential. The bombarding electrons can eject electrons from the
inner shells of the atoms of the metal target. Those vacancies will be quickly filled by electrons dropping down from
higher levels, emitting x-rays with sharply defined frequencies associated with the difference between the atomic energy
levels of the target atoms.

The frequencies of the characteristic x-rays can be predicted from the Bohr model. Moseley measured the frequencies of
the characteristic x-rays from a large fraction of the elements of the periodic table and produced a plot of them which is
now called a "Moseley plot".

Characteristic x-rays are used for the investigation of crystal structure by x-ray diffraction. Crystal lattice dimensions
may be determined with the use of Bragg's law in a Bragg spectrometer.

Bremsstrahlung X-Rays
"Bremsstrahlung" means "braking radiation" and is retained from the original German to describe the radiation which is
emitted when electrons are decelerated or "braked" when they are fired at a metal target. Accelerated charges give off
electromagnetic radiation, and when the energy of the bombarding electrons is high enough, that radiation is in the x-
ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum. It is characterized by a continuous distribution of radiation which becomes
more intense and shifts toward higher frequencies when the energy of the bombarding electrons is increased. The curves
above are from the 1918 data of Ulrey, who bombarded tungsten targets with electrons of four different energies.

The bombarding electrons can also eject electrons from the inner shells of the atoms of the metal target, and the quick
filling of those vacancies by electrons dropping down from higher levels gives rise to sharply defined characteristic x-
rays.

Video

Refrence
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/xrayc.html

Laser
A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of
electromagnetic radiation. The term "laser" originated as an acronym for "light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation".[1][2][3] The first laser was built in 1960 by Theodore H. Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories, based on
theoretical work by Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow.

A laser differs from other sources of light in that it emits light which is coherent. Spatial coherence allows a laser to be
focused to a tight spot, enabling applications such as laser cutting and lithography. Spatial coherence also allows a laser
beam to stay narrow over great distances (collimation), enabling applications such as laser pointers and lidar. Lasers can
also have high temporal coherence, which allows them to emit light with a very narrow spectrum, i.e., they can emit a
single color of light. Alternatively, temporal coherence can be used to produce pulses of light with a broad spectrum but
durations as short as a femtosecond ("ultrashort pulses").

Lasers are used in optical disk drives, laser printers, barcode scanners, DNA sequencing instruments, fiber-optic,
semiconducting chip manufacturing (photolithography), and free-space optical communication, laser surgery and skin
treatments, cutting and welding materials, military and law enforcement devices for marking targets and measuring
range and speed, and in laser lighting displays for entertainment. They have been used for car headlamps on luxury cars,
by using a blue laser and a phosphor to produce highly directional white light

Video
Refrence
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser

Learning Outcomes
The students will:
• Describe and explain the origin of different types of optical spectra.
• Show an understanding of the existence of discrete electron energy levels in isolated atoms (e.g.atomic hydrogen) and
deduce how this leads to spectral lines.
• Explain how the uniqueness of the spectra of elements can be used to identify an element.
• Analyse the significance of the hydrogen spectrum in the development of Bohr’s model of the atom.
• Explain hydrogen atom in terms of energy levels on the basis of Bohr Model.
• Determine the ionization energy and various excitation energies of an atom using an energy level diagram.
• Solve problems and analyse information using.
• 1/λ = RH [1/p2 – 1/n2].
• Understand that inner shell transitions in heavy elements result into emission of characteristic X- rays.
• Explain the terms spontaneous emission, stimulated emission, meta stable states, population inversion and laser
action.
• Describe the structure and purpose of the main components of a He-Ne gas laser
Unit 20

Nuclear Physics
Topics Understandings Skills
• Composition of atomic nuclei The students will: The students will:
• Isotopes • Describe a simple model for the atom to • Simulate the radioactive decay of
• Mass spectrograph include protons, neutrons and electrons. nuclei using a set of at least 100 dice
• Mass defect and binding • Determine the number of protons, and measure the simulated half life of
energy neutrons and nucleons it contains for the nuclei.
• Radioactivity (properties of the specification of a nucleus in the • Draw the characteristics curve of a
α, β and γ rays) form A. Geiger Muller tube.
• Energy from nuclear decay • Explain that an element can exist in • Determine the amount of background
• Half life and rate of decay various isotopic forms each with a radiation in your surroundings and
• Interaction of radiation with different number of neutrons. identify their possible sources.
matter • Explain the use of mass spectrograph to • Set up a G.M. point tube and show the
• Radiation detectors (GM demonstrate the existence of isotopes detection of Alpha particles with the
counter and solid state and to measure their relative abundance. help of CRO and determine the count
detector) • Define the terms unified mass scale, rate using a scalar unit.
• Nuclear reactions mass defect and calculate binding
• Nuclear fission (fission chain • Illustrate graphically the variation of
reaction) binding energy per nucleon with the
• Nuclear reactors (types of mass number.
nuclear reactor) • Explain the relevance of binding energy
• Nuclear fusion (nuclear per nucleon to nuclear fusion and
reaction in the Sun) to nuclear fission.
• Radiation exposure • Identify that some nuclei are unstable,
• Biological and medical uses give out radiation to get rid of excess
of radiations (radiation energy and are said to be radioactive.
therapy, diagnosis of • Describe that an element may change
diseases,tracers techniques) into another element when radioactivity
• Basic forces of nature occurs.
• Elementary particles and • Identify the spontaneous and random
particle classification nature of nuclear decay.
(hadrons, leptons and • Describe the term half life and solve
quarks) problems using the equation
λ=0.693/T1/2 .
• Determine the release of energy from
different nuclear reactions.
• Explain that atomic number and mass
number conserve in nuclear reactions.
• Describe energy and mass conservation
in simple reactions and in radioactive
decay.
• Describe the phenomena of nuclear
fission and fusion.
• Describe the fission chain reaction.
• Describe the function of various
components of a nuclear reactor.
• Describe the interaction of nuclear
radiation with matter.
• Describe the use of Geiger Muller
counter and solid state detectors to
detect the radiations.
• Describe the basic forces of nature.
• Describe the key features and
components of the standard model of
matter including hadrons, leptons and
 quarks.
Science, Technology and Society Connections
The students will:
• Explain the basic principle of nuclear reactor.
• Describe and discuss the function of the principle components of a water moderated power reactor (core, fuel, rods,
moderator, control rods, heat exchange, safety rods and shielding).
• Explain why the uranium fuel needs to be enriched.
• Compare the amount of energy released in a fission reaction with the (given) energy released in a chemical reaction.
• Describe how the conditions in the interiors of the Sun and other stars allow nuclear fusion to take place and hence,
how nuclear fusion is their main energy conversion process.
• Show an awareness about nuclear radiation exposure and biological effects of radiation.
• Describe the term dosimetry.
• Describe the use of radiations for medical diagnosis and therapy.
• Explain the importance of limiting exposure to ionizing radiation.
• Describe the examples of the use of radioactive tracers in medical diagnosis, agriculture and industry.

Unit overview

Composition of atomic nuclei

The nucleus is the center of an atom. It is made up of nucleons called (protons and neutrons) and is surrounded by the
electron cloud. The size (diameter) of the nucleus is between 1.6 fm (10−15 m) (for a proton in light hydrogen) to about
15 fm (for the heaviest atoms, such as uranium). These sizes are much smaller than the size of the atom itself by a factor
of about 23,000 (uranium) to about 145,000 (hydrogen). Although it is only a very small part of the atom, the nucleus
has most of the mass. Almost all of the mass in an atom is made up from the protons and neutrons in the nucleus with a
very small contribution from the orbiting electrons.

Neutrons have no charge and protons are positively charged. Because the nucleus is only made up of protons and
neutrons it is positively charged. Things that have the same charge repel each other: this repulsion is part of what is
called electromagnetic force. Unless there was something else holding the nucleus together it could not exist because
the protons would push away from each other. The nucleus is actually held together by another force known as the
strong nuclear force.

The word nucleus is from 1704, meaning “kernel of a nut”. In 1844, Michael Faraday used nucleus to describe the
“central point of an atom”. The modern atomic meaning was proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1912. The use of the
word nucleus in atomic theory, however, did not happen immediately. In 1916, for example, Gilbert N. Lewis wrote in
his famous article The Atom and the Molecule that "the atom is composed of the kernel and an outer atom or shell"

Videos
Reference pages
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_nucleus

Isotopes

Atoms that have the same atomic number (number of protons), but different mass numbers (number of protons and
neutrons) are called isotopes. There are naturally occurring isotopes and isotopes that are artificially produced. Isotopes
are separated through mass spectrometry; MS traces show the relative abundance of isotopes vs. mass number (mass :
charge ratio).

Introduction

As mentioned before, isotopes are atoms that have the same atomic number, but different mass numbers. Isotopes are
denoted the same way as nuclides, but they are often symbolized only with the mass numbers because isotopes of the
same element have the the same atomic number. Carbon, for example, has two naturally occurring isotopes, 126C

and 136C. Because both of these isotopes have 6 protons, they are often written as 12C and 13C. 12C has 6 neutrons,
and 13C

has 7 neutrons.
Of all the elements on the periodic table, only 21 are pure elements. Pure, or monotopic, elements are those elements with
only one naturally occurring nuclide. The following lists the 21 pure elements

Isotopes of the other elements either occur naturally or are artificially produced.

Natural and Artificial Isotopes

Most elements have naturally occurring isotopes. Percent natural abundances indicate which isotopes of any given
element are predominant (occur in greater abundance) and which only occur in trace amounts. Mercury, for example, has
seven naturally occurring isotopes: 196Hg

, 198Hg, 199Hg, 200Hg, 201Hg, 202Hg, 204Hg; these have the percent natural abundances of 0.146%, 10.02%,
16.84%, 23.13%, 13.22%, 29.80%, and 6.85%, respectively. It is clear that 202Hg occurs with greatest abundance, and
200Hg

is the next most abundant, but the other isotopes only occur in small traces.

Note: The sum of the percent natural abundances of all the isotopes of any given element must total 100%.

There are 20 elements with only artificially produced isotopes. The majority of these are heavier elements; the lightest
elements with artificial isotopes are 43Tc
and 61Pm. The other elements that only have artificial isotopes are those with atomic numbers of 84-88 and 89-103,
otherwise known as the actinoids, but excluding 90Th and 92U

Some naturally occurring and artificially produced isotopes are radioactive. The nucleus of a radioactive isotope is
unstable; radioactive isotopes spontaneously decay, emitting alpha, beta, and gamma rays until they reach a stability,
usually in the state of a different element. Bismuth (20983Bi

) has the highest atomic and mass number of all the stable nuclides. All nuclides with atomic number and mass number
greater than 83 and 209, respectively, are radioactive. However, there are some lighter nuclides that are radioactive. For
example, hydrogen has two naturally occurring stable isotopes, 1H and 2H (deuterium), and a third naturally occurring
radioactive isotope, 3H

(tritium).

Radioisotope Dating
The presence of certain radioisotopes in an object can be used to determine its age. Carbon dating is based on the fact
that living plants absorb stable 12C

, 13C and radioactive 14C from the atmosphere, and animals absorb them from the plants. An organism no longer
absorbs carbon after it dies, its age can be determined by measuring the ratio of 13C to 14C

in the sample and extrapolating based on its decay rate.

Art forgeries are often detected by similar means. 137Cs

and 90Sr

do not occur naturally and are only present in the atmosphere today because of nuclear weapons. Any object created
before July 1945, then, would have neither of these elements, so finding them through mass spectrometry or other
means would indicate that it was created later.

Isotopic Masses, Percent Natural Abundance, and Weighted-

Average Atomic Mass
Because most elements occur as isotopes and different isotopes have different masses, the atomic mass of an element is
the average of the isotopic masses, weighted according to their naturally occurring abundances; this is the mass of each
element recorded on the periodic table, also known as the relative atomic mass (Ar). Treating isotopic masses in weighted
averages gives greater importance to the isotope with greatest percent natural abundance. Below is a general equation to
calculate the atomic mass of an element based on percent natural abundance and isotopic masses:

* fractional abundance is the percent abundance divided by 100%

Bromine has two naturally occurring isotopes: bromine-79 has a mass of 78.9183 u and an abundance of 50.69%, and
bromine-81 has a mass of 80.92 u and an abundance of 49.31%. The equation above can be used to solve for the relative
atomic mass of bromine:

atomic mass of Br = (0.5069 x 78.9183 u) + (0.4931 x 80.92 u) = 79.91 u

This is the relative atomic number of bromine that is listed on the periodic table.

Comparing their isotopic masses of any given element to the relative atomic mass of the element reveals that the Ar is
very close to the isotope that occurs most frequently. Thus, the isotope whose isotopic mass is closest to the atomic mass
of the element is the isotope that occurs in the greatest abundance.

Mass Spectrometry
Mass spectrometry is a technique that can be used to distinguish between isotopes of a given element. A mass spectrometer
separates each isotope by mass number. Each isotope is characterized by a peak (of given intensity) according to its
relative abundance. The most intense peak corresponds to the isotope that occurs in the largest relative natural abundance,
and vice versa. Refer to Mass Spectrometry: Isotope Effects.

Example

The mass spectrum of strontium has four different peaks, varying in intensity. The four peaks indicate that there are four
isotopes of strontium. The four isotopes of strontium have isotopic mass numbers of 84, 86, 87, and 88, and relative
abundances of 0.56%, 9.86%, 7.00%, and 82.58%, respectively. The intensity of the peak corresponds to the abundance.
84Sr

has the smallest peak, which corresponds to its relative abundance of 0.56%, whereas 88Sr has the largest peak, which
corresponds to its relative abundance of 82.58%. This indicates that 88Sr is the isotope that occurs in highest amounts.
Video

Reference
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modul
es_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Atomic_Theory/Isotopes

Mass spectrograph

Mass spectrograph, device used to separate electrically charged particles according to their masses; a form of the
instrument known as a mass spectrometer is often used to measure the masses of isotopes of elements. J. J. Thomson
and F. W. Aston showed (c.1900) that magnetic and electric fields can be used to deflect streams of charged particles
traveling in a vacuum, and that the degree of bending depends on the masses and electric charges of the particles. In the
mass spectrograph the particles, in the form of ions, pass through deflecting fields (produced by carefully designed
magnetic pole pieces and electrodes) and are detected by photographic plates. The beam of ions first passes through a
velocity selector, consisting of a combination of electric and magnetic fields that eliminates all particles except those of
a given velocity. The remaining ion beam then enters an evacuated chamber where a magnetic field bends it into a
semicircular path ending at the photographic plate. The radius of this path depends upon the mass of the particles (all
other factors, such as velocity and charge, being equal). Thus, if in the original stream isotopes of various masses are
present, the position of the blackened spots on the plate makes possible a calculation of the isotope masses. The mass
spectrograph is widely used in chemical analysis and in the detection of impurities.

How a mass spectrometer works

If something is moving and you subject it to a sideways force, instead of moving in a straight line, it will move in a
curve - deflected out of its original path by the sideways force.

Suppose you had a cannonball travelling past you and you wanted to deflect it as it went by you. All you've got is a jet
of water from a hose-pipe that you can squirt at it. Frankly, its not going to make a lot of difference! Because the
cannonball is so heavy, it will hardly be deflected at all from its original course.

But suppose instead, you tried to deflect a table tennis ball travelling at the same speed as the cannonball using the same
jet of water. Because this ball is so light, you will get a huge deflection.

The amount of deflection you will get for a given sideways force depends on the mass of the ball. If you knew the speed
of the ball and the size of the force, you could calculate the mass of the ball if you knew what sort of curved path it was
deflected through. The less the deflection, the heavier the ball

Video
Reference
https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/physics/concepts/mass-spectrograph

https://www.chemguide.co.uk/analysis/masspec/howitworks.html

Mass defect and binding energy

Binding Energy
Nuclear binding energy is the energy required to split a nucleus of an atom into its component parts: protons and
neutrons, or, collectively, the nucleons. The binding energy of nuclei is always a positive number, since all nuclei
require net energy to separate them into individual protons and neutrons.

Mass Defect
Nuclear binding energy accounts for a noticeable difference between the actual mass of an atom’s nucleus and its
expected mass based on the sum of the masses of its non-bound components.

Recall that energy (E) and mass (m) are related by the equation:

[latex]E=mc^2[/latex]

Here, c is the speed of light. In the case of nuclei, the binding energy is so great that it accounts for a significant amount
of mass.

The actual mass is always less than the sum of the individual masses of the constituent protons and neutrons because
energy is removed when when the nucleus is formed. This energy has mass, which is removed from the total mass of
the original particles. This mass, known as the mass defect, is missing in the resulting nucleus and represents the energy
released when the nucleus is formed.

Mass defect (Md) can be calculated as the difference between observed atomic mass (mo) and that expected from the
combined masses of its protons (mp, each proton having a mass of 1.00728 amu) and neutrons (mn, 1.00867 amu):

[latex]M_d=(m_n+m_p)-m_o[/latex]

Nuclear Binding Energy

Once mass defect is known, nuclear binding energy can be calculated by converting that mass to energy by using
E=mc2. Mass must be in units of kg.

Once this energy, which is a quantity of joules for one nucleus, is known, it can be scaled into per-nucleon and per-mole
quantities. To convert to joules/mole, simply multiply by Avogadro’s number. To convert to joules per nucleon, simply
divide by the number of nucleons.

Nuclear binding energy can also apply to situations when the nucleus splits into fragments composed of more than one
nucleon; in these cases, the binding energies for the fragments, as compared to the whole, may be either positive or
negative, depending on where the parent nucleus and the daughter fragments fall on the nuclear binding energy curve. If
new binding energy is available when light nuclei fuse, or when heavy nuclei split, either of these processes result in the
release of the binding energy. This energy—available as nuclear energy—can be used to produce nuclear power or build
nuclear weapons. When a large nucleus splits into pieces, excess energy is emitted as photons, or gamma rays, and as
kinetic energy, as a number of different particles are ejected.

Nuclear binding energy is also used to determine whether fission or fusion will be a favorable process. For elements
lighter than iron-56, fusion will release energy because the nuclear binding energy increases with increasing mass.
Elements heavier than iron-56 will generally release energy upon fission, as the lighter elements produced contain
greater nuclear binding energy. As such, there is a peak at iron-56 on the nuclear binding energy curve.

Nuclear binding energy curve .This graph shows the nuclear binding energy (in MeV) per nucleon as a function
of the number of nucleons in the nucleus. Notice that iron-56 has the most binding energy per nucleon, making it the
most stable nucleus.

The rationale for this peak in binding energy is the interplay between the coulombic repulsion of the protons in the
nucleus, because like charges repel each other, and the strong nuclear force, or strong force. The strong force is what
holds protons and neutrons together at short distances. As the size of the nucleus increases, the strong nuclear force is
only felt between nucleons that are close together, while the coulombic repulsion continues to be felt throughout the
nucleus; this leads to instability and hence the radioactivity and fissile nature of the heavier elements.

Video
Reference
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/nuclear-binding-energy-and-mass-defect/

Radioactivity (properties of α, β and γ rays)

During radioactivity, particles like alpha, beta & gamma rays are emitted by an atom, due to unstable atom trying to
gain stability. Hence, the atoms eventually decay by emitting a particle that transforms when they are unstable and
transforms the nucleus into a lower energy state. This process of decaying continues till the nucleus attains a stable
stage.

There exist three major types of radiations emitted by the radioactive particles namely:

 Alpha
 Beta
  Gama

These radiations are released from the nucleus of an atom. Their behavior differs from one another, though all the three
causes some ionization and carry some penetration power. Let’s discuss the properties of beta, alpha and gamma one by
one.

Alpha Rays
Alpha rays are the positively charged particles. Alpha-particle is highly active and energetic helium atom that contains
two neutrons and protons. These particles have the minimum penetration power and highest ionization power. They can
cause serious damage if get into the body due to their high ionization power. They are capable of ionizing numerous
atoms by a short distance. It is due to the fact that the radioactive substances that release alpha particles are required to
be handled after wearing rubber gloves.

Beta Rays
Beta particles are extremely energetic electrons that are liberated from the inner nucleus. They bear negligible mass and
carry the negative charge. A neutron in the nucleus splits into a proton and an electron on the emission of a beta
particle. Hence, it is the electron that is emitted by the nucleus at a rapid pace. Beta particles have a higher penetration
power when compared to alpha particles and can travel through the skin with ease. Beta particles can be dangerous and
any contact with the body must be avoided, though their ionization power is low.

Gamma Rays
The waves arising from the high-frequency end of the electromagnetic spectrum that has no mass are known as gamma
rays. They hold the highest power of penetration. They are the most penetrating but least ionizing and very difficult to
resist them from entering the body. The Gamma rays carry a large amount of energy and can also travel via thick
concrete and thin lead.

The below table describes the characteristics of beta, alpha and gamma radiations and compares the masses and charges
of the three rays.

Property α\alphaα ray β\betaβ ray γ\gammaγ ray

Positive charged particles, 2He 4 Uncharged ?~0.01a, electromagnetic

Nature Negatively charged particles (electrons).
nucleus radiation

Charge +2e –e 0

Mass 6.6466 × 10–27 kg 9.109 × 10–31 kg 0

~10 cm in air, can be stopped by Upto a few m in air, can be stopped by a Several m in air, can be stopped by a th
Range
1mm of Aluminium thin layer of Aluminium layer of Lead

Natural By natural radioisotopes Excited nuclei formed as a result of Ga

By radioisotopes e.g.29Co68
Sources e.g.92U236 decay

Video
Reference
https://byjus.com/jee/properties-of-alpha-beta-gamma-rays/

Energy from nuclear decay

The decay energy is the energy released by a radioactive decay. Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable
atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and radiation. This decay, or loss of energy, results in an
atom of one type, called the parent nuclide transforming to an atom of a different type, called the daughter nuclide.

Video

Reference
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decay_energy
Half life and rate of decay
Describing reaction rates is based on the time required for the concentration of a reactant to decrease to one-half its initial
value. This period of time is called the half-life of the reaction, written as t1/2. Thus the half-life of a reaction is the time
required for the reactant concentration to decrease from [A]0 to [A]0/2. If two reactions have the same order, the faster
reaction will have a shorter half-life, and the slower reaction will have a longer half-life.

The half-life of a first-order reaction under a given set of reaction conditions is a constant. This is not true for zeroth- and
second-order reactions. The half-life of a first-order reaction is independent of the concentration of the reactants. This
becomes evident when we rearrange the integrated rate law for a first-order reaction (Equation 14.21) to produce the
following equation:

ln[A]0[A]=kt(1)

Substituting [A]0/2 for [A] and t1/2 for t (to indicate a half-life) into Equation 1

gives

ln[A]0[A]0/2=ln2=kt1/2(2)

Substituting ln2≈0.693

into the equation results in the expression for the half-life of a first-order reaction:

t1/2=0.693k(3)
Thus, for a first-order reaction, each successive half-life is the same length of time, as shown in Figure 1
, and is independent of [A].

The Half-Life of a First-Order Reaction. This plot shows the concentration of the reactant in a first-order reaction as a
function of time and identifies a series of half-lives, intervals in which the reactant concentration decreases by a factor
of 2. In a first-order reaction, every half-life is the same length of time.

If we know the rate constant for a first-order reaction, then we can use half-lives to predict how much time is needed for
the reaction to reach a certain percent completion.

Number of Half-Lives Percentage of Reactant Remaining

1 100%2=50%
 12(100%)=50%

2 50%2=25%

12(12)(100%)=25%

3 25%2=12.5%

12(12)(12)(100%)=12.5%

n 100%2n

(12)n(100%)=(12)n%

As you can see from this table, the amount of reactant left after n half-lives of a first-order reaction is (1/2)n times the
initial concentration.

Video

Reference
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modul
es_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Nuclear_Chemistry/Nuclear_Kinetics/Half-
Lives_and_Radioactive_Decay_Kinetics

Interaction of radiation with matter

You may click on any of the types of radiation for more detail about its particular type of interaction with matter. The
different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum have very different effects upon interaction with matter. Starting with
low frequency radio waves, the human body is quite transparent. (You can listen to your portable radio inside your
home since the waves pass freely through the walls of your house and even through the person beside you!) As you
move upward through microwaves and infrared to visible light, you absorb more and more strongly. In the lower
ultraviolet range, all the uv from the sun is absorbed in a thin outer layer of your skin. As you move further up into the
x-ray region of the spectrum, you become transparent again, because most of the mechanisms for absorption are gone.
You then absorb only a small fraction of the radiation, but that absorption involves the more violent ionization events.
Each portion of the electromagnetic spectrum has quantum energies appropriate for the excitation of certain types of
physical processes. The energy levels for all physical processes at the atomic and molecular levels are quantized, and if
there are no available quantized energy levels with spacings which match the quantum energy of the incident radiation,
then the material will be transparent to that radiation, and it will pass through. If electromagnetic energy is absorbed,
but cannot eject electrons from the atoms of the material, then it is classified as non-ionizing radiation, and will
typically just heat the material.

Video

Reference
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/mod3.html

Radiation detectors (GM counter and solid state detector)

For those who work with or around radiation, one of the most important factors is an awareness of the levels of
radiation around them. This is primarily accomplished through the use of radiation detectors of varying types. A basic
understanding of the different types of detectors out there and how they work can go a long way both to finding the best
detector for the required task and also for maximizing the benefits of operating that detector.

A NOTE: “GEIGER COUNTERS”

Many people, thinking of radiation detection, tend to group them all together under the term “Geiger counters,” a
misconception heartily encouraged by popular TV shows and movies. While one of the most common types of radiation
detector is in fact called a “Geiger Mueller (G-M) tube,” the catchall phrase “Geiger Counter” isn’t always the most
appropriate. It applies to a very specific type of detector, and generally to a specific application of that
detector. Radiation detection devices are typically categorized by either the type of detector element employed, or by
the application involved. People will refer to instruments as an Ion Chamber, or a Survey Meter, or a Contamination
Meter, or a Frisker Probe. Popular culture has so thoroughly subverted the proper usage of “Geiger Counter” that using
the phrase doesn’t generally provide enough information about the device in question.

FIRST RADIATION DETECTORS

Since the early days of radiation testing by Roentgen and Becquerel, scientists have sought ways to measure and
observe the radiation given off by the materials they worked with. One of the earliest means of capturing any sort of
data from radioactivity was a photographic plate. A photographic plate would be placed in the path/vicinity of a
radioactive beam or material. When the plate was developed, it would have spots or be fogged from the exposure to the
radiation. Henri Becquerel used a method similar to this to demonstrate the existence of radiation in 1896.

Another common early detector was the electroscope. These used a pair of gold leaves that would become charged by
the ionization caused by radiation and repel each other. This provided a means of measuring radiation with a better level
of sensitivity than was reliably possible using photographic plates. Depending on the arrangement of the device, they
could be configured to measure alpha or beta particles, and were a valuable tool for early experiments involving
radioactivity.

An interesting early device, borne out of a desire to measure the actual individual particles or rays being emitted by a
radioactive substance, as opposed to a more gross measurement of a radioactive field, was the spinthariscope.
Developed by William Crookes, who had also invented the Crookes Tube used by Wilhelm Roentgen to discover X-
Rays, it used a zinc sulfide screen at the end of a tube, with a lens at the other end, with a small amount of a radioactive
substance near the zinc sulfide screen. The zinc sulfide would react with the alpha particles emitted, and each
interaction would result in a tiny flash of light. This was one of the first means of counting a rate of decay, albeit a very
tedious one, as it meant scientists had to work in shifts watching and literally counting the flashes of light. The
spinthariscope wasn’t very practical as a long term solution for radiation detection, though it did undergo a revival later
in the 20th century as an educational tool. This tendency of certain materials to give off light when exposed to radiation
would also prove valuable in future radiation detection technologies.

These early devices, and many others, such as cloud chambers, were valuable in developing an understanding of the
basic principles of radiation and conducting important experiments that set the stage for later developments. This
included development of new types of radiation detectors, many of which are still in use today, such as G-M Tubes, Ion
Chambers, and Scintillators.

WHERE/WHEN YOU’D NEED RADIATION DETECTORS

An important part of knowing what type of detector to use is to have an idea of how and where it will be
used. Different applications and settings call for different types of detectors, as each detector type has various ways it
can be specialized to fit a role. The applications for radiation detection instruments can be broadly categorized into a
few different core tasks: measurement, protection, and search.

Radiation measurement tasks are for situations where there is a known presence of radioactive materials which need to
be monitored. The goal with this type of detection is awareness. Awareness of the strength of an established radioactive
field, the boundaries of a radioactive area, or simply of the spread of radioactive contamination. These are settings
where the presence of radiation is expected, or at least considered likely. The requirements for detectors involved in
these settings are unique, often with relatively higher measurement ranges or with modifications needed to specifically
look for one type of radiation.

Radiation protection is similar to radiation measurement applications in the sense that it is usually in a setting where
radiation is expected to be found. However, the goals are different. With radiation measurement settings, the goal is to
monitor the radioactivity itself, to be aware of fluctuations, boundaries, etc. With radiation protection, the goal is
monitoring people. Radiation dosimetry is the most common example of this, with radiation badges being worn by
medical personnel, nuclear industry workers, and many other occupationally exposed workers all over the world. The
importance of this is that it provides protection from the most harmful effects of radiation exposure through awareness,
in that a wearer can keep informed of how much radiation they’ve been exposed to, and how that corresponds to
potential health effects, and alter their behavior or position or schedule accordingly.

Radiation search differs from the other two basic categories of radiation detection applications in that it is predicated
both on the fact that radiation is not expected in the area, and the desire to keep things that way. Primarily the goal of
radiation security personnel, first responders, or groups such as customs & border inspectors, radiation search has a
different set of requirements to mirror the significantly different circumstances in which it takes place. Detectors need
to be highly sensitive, with the concern being more about smaller, concealed radioactive sources or materials.
Spectroscopy is often very helpful as well, since it is typically a small subset of radioactive isotopes that are of concern,
and being able to filter those out that are present due to legitimate reasons such as medical treatment or just an
accumulation of a naturally occurring radioactive substance is important.

These three categories, and the varying tasks that fit inside them, help determine what the best type of instrument or
detector is best suited for the task.

TYPES

When talking about radiation detection instruments, there are three types of detectors that are most commonly used,
depending on the specific needs of the device. These are: Gas-Filled Detectors, Scintillators, and Solid State
detectors. Each has various strengths and weaknesses that recommend them to their own specific roles.

GAS FILLED

The first type of radiation detector, gas-filled detectors, are amongst the most commonly used. There are several types
of gas-filled detector, and while they have various differences in how they work, they all are based on similar
principles. When the gas in the detector comes in contact with radiation, it reacts, with the gas becoming ionized and
the resulting electronic charge being measured by a meter.

The different types of gas-filled detectors are: ionization chambers, proportional counters, and Geiger-Mueller (G-M)
tubes. The major differentiating factor between these different types is the applied voltage across the detector, which
determines the type of response that the detector will register from an ionization event.

ION CHAMBER

At the lower end of the voltage scale for gas-filled detectors are Ionization Chambers, or Ion Chambers. They operate at
a low voltage, meaning that the detector only registers a measurement from the “primary” ions (in actuality pair of ions
created: a positively charged ion and a free election) caused by an interaction with a radioactive photon in the reaction
chamber. Thus the measurement that the detector records is directly proportional to the number of ion pairs created.
This is particularly useful as a measure of absorbed dose over time. They are also valuable for the measurement of
high-energy gamma rays, as they don’t have any of the issues with dead time that other detector types can have.
However, ion chambers are unable to discriminate between different types of radiation, meaning they cannot be used for
spectroscopy. They can also tend towards being more expensive than other solution. Despite this, they are valuable
detectors for survey meters. They are also widely used in laboratories to establish reference standards for calibrations.

PROPORTIONAL

The next step up on the voltage scale for gas-filled detectors is the proportional (or gas-proportional) counter. They are
generally devised so that for much of the area inside the chamber, they perform similarly to an ion chamber, in that
interactions with radiation create ion pairs. However, they have a strong enough voltage that the ions “drift” towards
the detector anode. As the ions approach the detector anode, the voltage increases, until they reach a point where a “gas
amplification” effect occurs.

Gas amplification means that the original ions created by the reaction with a photon of radiation causes further
ionization reactions, which multiply the strength of the output pulse measured across the detector. The resulting pulse is
proportional to the number of original ion pairs formed, which correlates to the energy of the radioactive field that it is
interacting with.

The makes proportional counters very useful for some spectroscopy applications, since they react differently to different
energies, and thus are able to tell the difference between different types of radiation that they come into contact with.
They are also highly sensitive, which coupled with their effectiveness at alpha and beta detection and discrimination,
makes this type of detector very valuable as a contamination screening detector.

GM TUBE

The last major class of gas-filled detectors is the Geiger-Mueller tube, the origin of the name “Geiger Counter.”
Operating at a much higher voltage than other detector types, they differ from other detector types in that each
ionization reaction, regardless of whether it is a single particle interaction or a stronger field, causes a gas-amplification
effect across the entire length of the detector anode. Thus they can only really function as simple counting devices, used
to measure count rates or, with the correct algorithms applied, dose rates.

After each pulse, a G-M has to be “reset” to its original state. This is accomplished by quenching. This can be
accomplished electronically by temporarily lowering the anode voltage on the detector after each pulse, which allows
the ions to recombine back to their inert state. This can also be accomplished chemically with a quenching gas such as
halogen which absorbs the additional photons created by an ionization avalanche without becoming ionized itself.
Due to the extensive reaction G-M tubes experience with each pulse of radiation, they can experience something called
“dead time” at higher exposure rates, meaning that there is a lag between the pulse cascade and when the gas is able to
revert to its original state and be ready to detect another pulse. This can be accommodated for with calibration, or with
algorithms in the detection instruments themselves to “calculate” what the additional pulses would be based on the
existing measurement data.

SCINTILLATORS

The second major type of detectors utilized in radiation detection instruments are Scintillation Detectors. Scintillation is
the act of giving off light, and for radiation detection it is the ability of some material to scintillate when exposed to
radiation that makes them useful as detectors. Each photon of radiation that interacts with the scintillator material will
result in a distinct flash of light, meaning that in addition to being highly sensitive, scintillation detectors are able to
capture specific spectroscopic profiles for the measured radioactive materials.

Scintillation detectors work through the connection of a scintillator material with a photomultiplier (PM) tube. The PM
tube uses a photocathode material to convert each pulse of light into an electron, and then amplifies that signal
significantly in order to generate a voltage pulse that can then be read and interpreted. The number of these pulses that
are measured over time indicated the strength of the radioactive source being measured, whereas the information on the
specific energy of the radiation, as indicated by the number of photons of light being captured in each pulse, gives
information on the type of radioactive material present.

Due to their high sensitivity and their potential ability to “identify” radioactive sources, scintillation detectors are
particularly useful for radiation security applications. These can take many forms, from handheld devices used to screen
containers for hidden or shielded radioactive material, to monitors set up to screen large areas or populations, able to
differentiate between natural or medical sources of radiation and sources of more immediate concern, such as Special
Nuclear Material (SNM).

SOLID STATE

The last major detector technology used in radiation detection instruments are solid state detectors. Generally using a
semiconductor material such as silicon, they operate much like an ion chamber, simply at a much smaller scale, and at a
much lower voltage. Semiconductors are materials that have a high resistance to electronic current, but not as high a
resistance as an insulator. They are composed of a lattice of atoms that contain “charge carriers,” these being either
electrons available to attach to another atom, or electron “holes,” or atoms with an empty place where an electron
would/could be.
Silicon solid state detectors are composed of two layers of silicon semiconductor material, one “n-type,” which means it
contains a greater number of electrons compared to holes, and one “p-type,” meaning it has a greater number of holes
than electrons. Electrons from the n-type migrate across the junction between the two layers to fill the holes in the p-
type, creating what’s called a depletion zone.

This depletion zone acts like the detection area of an ion chamber. Radiation interacting with the atoms inside the
depletion zone causes them to re-ionize, and create an electronic pulse which can be measured. The small scale of the
detector and of the depletion zone itself means that the ion pairs can be collected quickly, meaning that the instruments
utilizing this type of detector can have a particularly quick response time. This, when coupled with their small size,
makes this type of solid state detector very useful for electronic dosimetry applications. They are also able to withstand
a much higher amount of radiation over their lifetime than other detectors types such as G-M Tubes, meaning that they
are also useful for instruments operating in areas with particularly strong radiation fields

Video

Reference
https://www.mirion.com/learning-center/radiation-detector-types/introduction-to-radiation-detectors
Nuclear reactions
Nuclear reactions are processes in which one or more nuclides are produced from the collisions between two atomic
nuclei or one atomic nucleus and a subatomic particle. The nuclides produced from nuclear reactions are different from
the reacting nuclei (commonly referred to as the parent nuclei).

Two notable types of nuclear reactions are nuclear fission reactions and nuclear fusion reactions. The former
involves the absorption of neutrons (or other relatively light particles) by a heavy nucleus, which causes it to split into
two (or more) lighter nuclei. Nuclear fusion reactions are the processes in which two relatively light nuclei combine (via
a collision) to afford a single, heavier nucleus.

Processes that are not Considered to be Nuclear Reactions

The term ‘nuclear reaction’ is generally used to refer to the externally induced changes brought on to atomic nuclei.
Therefore, the following processes cannot be classified as nuclear reactions:

 Nuclear scattering processes – processes that involve the collision and subsequent separation of atomic nuclei
without any notable changes in the nuclear composition. In these processes, only momentum and energy are
transferred.
 Nuclear Decay – a process through which an unstable nucleus emits radiation in order to lose energy.
 Spontaneous fission reactions – nuclear fission reactions that do not require a neutron to proceed and are,
therefore, not induced.

These processes are quite similar to nuclear reactions (but are spontaneous rather than induced).

Why do Nuclear Reactions Release Tremendous Amounts of

Energy?
The mass of an atomic nucleus is always less than the sum of the individual masses of each subatomic particle that
constitutes it (protons and neutrons). This difference in mass is attributed to nuclear binding energy (often referred to as
a mass defect). Nuclear binding energy can be defined as the energy required to hold all the protons and neutrons within
the nucleus.

During a nuclear reaction (such as a fission or fusion reaction), the mass accounted for by the nuclear binding energy is
released in accordance with the equation e = mc2 (energy = mass times the square of the speed of light).
To simplify, the products formed in nuclear fission and nuclear fusion always have a lower mass than the reactants. This
‘missing’ mass is converted into energy. A single gram of matter can release approximately 90,00,00,00,000 kilojoules
of energy.

Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission refers to the splitting of an atomic nucleus into two or more lighter nuclei. This process can occur
through a nuclear reaction or through radioactive decay. Nuclear fission reactions often release a large amount of
energy, which is accompanied by the emission of neutrons and gamma rays (photons holding huge amounts of energy,
enough to knock electrons out of atoms).

Nuclear fission was first discovered by the German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in the year 1938. The
energy produced from fission reactions is converted into electricity in nuclear power plants. This is done by using the
heat produced from the nuclear reaction to convert water into steam. The steam is used to rotate turbines in order to
generate electricity.

Examples

An important example of nuclear fission is the splitting of the uranium-235 nucleus when it is bombarded with
neutrons. Various products can be formed from this nuclear reaction, as described in the equations below.

 235
U + 1n → 141Ba + 92Kr + 3 1n
 235
U + 1n → 144Xe + 90Sr + 2 1n
 235
U + 1n → 146La + 87Br + 3 1n
 235
U + 1n → 137Te + 97Zr + 2 1n
 235
U + 1n → 137Cs + 96Rb + 3 1n

Another important example of nuclear fission is the splitting of the plutonium-239 nucleus.

Nuclear Fusion
In nuclear fusion reactions, at least two atomic nuclei combine/fuse into a single nucleus. Subatomic particles such as
neutrons or protons are also formed as products in these nuclear reactions.
An illustration of the nuclear fusion reaction between deuterium (2H) and tritium (3H) that yields helium (4He) and a
neutron (1n) is provided above. Such fusion reactions occur at the core of the sun and other stars. The fusion of
deuterium and tritium nuclei is accompanied by a loss of approximately 0.0188 amu of mass (which is completely
converted into energy). Approximately 1.69*109 kilojoules of energy are generated for every mole of helium formed.

Other Important Types of Nuclear Reactions

Alpha Decay

Nuclei with mass numbers greater than 200 tend to undergo alpha decay – a process in which a 4He nucleus, commonly
referred to as an alpha particle (42α) is liberated from the parent nucleus.

The general equation for alpha decay is: AZX → (A-4)(Z-2)X’ + 42α

Where A is the mass number and Z is the atomic number. An example of alpha decay is provided below.

226Ra → 222Rn + 42α

Here, the radium-226 nucleus decays into a radon-222 nucleus, liberating an alpha particle in the process.

Beta Decay

Beta decay occurs when a neutron is converted into a proton, which is accompanied by the emission of a beta particle
(high-energy electron). An example of this type of nuclear reaction is the beta decay of carbon-14 that affords nitrogen-
14:

14 C → 147N + 0-1β
6

Gamma Emission
Gamma emission occurs when an excited nucleus (often produced from the radioactive decay of another nucleus)
returns to its ground state, which is accompanied by the emission of a high energy photon.
An example of gamma emission is the de-excitation of the excited thallium-234 nucleus (which is produced from the
alpha decay of uranium-238). The equation for this nuclear reaction is:

234Th* → 234Th + 𝜸

Video

Reference
https://byjus.com/chemistry/nuclear-reaction/

Radiation exposure
Radiation is energy in the form of particles or waves. Radiation is emitted naturally in sunlight and is also made by man
for use in X-rays, cancer treatment, and for nuclear facilities and weapons.

Long-term exposure to small amounts of radiation can lead to gene mutations and increase the risk of cancer, while
exposure to a large amount over a brief period can lead to radiation sickness. Some examples of the symptoms seen in
radiation sickness include nausea, skin burns, hair loss and reduced organ function. In severe cases, exposure to a large
amount of radiation can even cause death.

In terms of radiation in relation to health, two forms of radiation can be considered: non-ionising radiation (low energy
radiation) and ionising radiation (high energy radiation).

As the more powerful form of radiation, ionising radiation is more likely to damage tissue than non-ionising radiation.
The main source of exposure to ionising radiation is the radiation used during medical exams such as X-ray or
computed tomography scans. However, the amounts of radiation used are so small that the risk of any damaging effects
is minimal. Even when radiotherapy is used to treat cancer, the amount of ionising radiation used is so carefully
controlled that the risk of problems associated with exposure is tiny.

Examples of non-ionising radiation include visible light, microwaves, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, infrared radiation,
radio waves, radar waves, mobile phone signals and wireless internet connections.

The main source of non-ionising radiation that has been proven damaging to health is UV-radiation. High levels of UV-
radiation can cause sunburn and increase the risk of skin cancer developing.

Some researchers have suggested that the use of telecommunications devices such as mobile phones may be damaging,
but no risk associated with the use of these devices has yet been identified in any scientific studies.

Video

Reference
https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Radiation-Exposure.aspx

Biological and medical uses of radiations (radiation therapy, diagnosis

of diseases,tracers techniques)
Applications of radioactivity

In medicine
Radioisotopes have found extensive use in diagnosis and therapy, and this has given rise to a rapidly growing field
called nuclear medicine. These radioactive isotopes have proven particularly effective as tracers in certain diagnostic
procedures. As radioisotopes are identical chemically with stable isotopes of the same element, they can take the place
of the latter in physiological processes. Moreover, because of their radioactivity, they can be readily traced even in
minute quantities with such detection devices as gamma-ray spectrometers and proportional counters. Though many
radioisotopes are used as tracers, iodine-131, phosphorus-32, and technetium-99m are among the most important.
Physicians employ iodine-131 to determine cardiac output, plasma volume, and fat metabolism and particularly to
measure the activity of the thyroid gland where this isotope accumulates. Phosphorus-32 is useful in the identification
of malignant tumours because cancerous cells tend to accumulate phosphates more than normal cells do. Technetium-
99m, used with radiographic scanning devices, is valuable for studying the anatomic structure of organs.

Such radioisotopes as cobalt-60 and cesium-137 are widely used to treat cancer. They can be administered selectively to
malignant tumours and so minimize damage to adjacent healthy tissue.

In industry
Foremost among industrial applications is power generation based on the release of the fission energy of uranium (see
nuclear fission; nuclear reactor: Nuclear fission reactors). Other applications include the use of radioisotopes to measure
(and control) the thickness or density of metal and plastic sheets, to stimulate the cross-linking of polymers, to induce
mutations in plants in order to develop hardier species, and to preserve certain kinds of foods by killing microorganisms
that cause spoilage. In tracer applications radioactive isotopes are employed, for example, to measure the effectiveness
of motor oils on the wearability of alloys for piston rings and cylinder walls in automobile engines. For additional
information about industrial uses, see radiation: Applications in science and industry.

In science
Research in the Earth sciences has benefited greatly from the use of radiometric-dating techniques, which are based on
the principle that a particular radioisotope (radioactive parent) in geologic material decays at a constant known rate to
daughter isotopes. Using such techniques, investigators have been able to determine the ages of various rocks and rock
formations and thereby quantify the geologic time scale (see geochronology: Absolute dating). A special application of
this type of radioactivity age method, carbon-14 dating, has proved especially useful to physical anthropologists and
archaeologists. It has helped them to better determine the chronological sequence of past events by enabling them to
date more accurately fossils and artifacts from 500 to 50,000 years old.

Radioisotopic tracers are employed in environmental studies, as, for instance, those of water pollution in rivers and
lakes and of air pollution by smokestack effluents. They also have been used to measure deep-water currents in oceans
and snow-water content in watersheds. Researchers in the biological sciences, too, have made use of radioactive tracers
to study complex processes. For example, thousands of plant metabolic studies have been conducted on amino acids and
compounds of sulfur, phosphorus, and nitrogen.

Outside of nuclear power and nuclear weaponry, there remains a wide array of ways in which radioactive material and
the radiation it gives off remain useful in the daily lives of people all over the world.
SMOKE DETECTORS

An Americium-241 source from a smoke detector

Some smoke detectors also use radioactive elements as part of their detection mechanism, usually americium-241,
which use the ionizing radiation of the alpha particles to cause and then measure changes in the ionization of the air
immediately around the detector. A change due to smoke in the air will cause the alarm to sound.

MEDICINE

X-Rays are one of the most common uses of radiation in medicine, providing valuable information to doctors and other medical
professionals on patient injuries or maladies

Hospitals use radiation in a wide range of ways. X-Ray, CT, and PET machines use X-ray (X-ray and CT) and Gamma
radiation (PET) to produce detailed images of the human body, which provide valuable diagnostic information for
doctors and their patients. Radionuclides are also used to directly treat illnesses, such as radioactive iodine, which is
taken up almost exclusively by the thyroid, to treat cancer or hyperthyroidism. Radioactive tracers and dyes are also
used to be able to accurately map a specific area or system, such as in a cardiac stress test, which may use a radioactive
isotope like Technetium-99 to identify areas of the heart and surrounding arteries with diminished blood flow.

RADIOGRAPHY
Essentially high-powered versions of the types of X-Ray machines used in medicine, industrial radiography cameras
use X-rays or even gamma sources (such as Iridium-192, Cobalt-60, or Cesium-137) to examine hard to reach or hard to
see places. This is frequently used to examine welds for defects or irregularities, or examining other materials to locate
structural anomalies or internal components.

An industrial radiography camera being used to inspect a weld for defects

Industrial radiography is also very useful for secure, non-invasive scanning at security checkpoints, such as airports,
where x-ray baggage scanners are in routine use. Larger versions of the same machines are often used to examine
shipping containers all over the world.

FOOD SAFETY

The Radura is the international symbol denoting that a food product has been irradiated

Food irradiation is the process of using radioactive sources to sterilize foodstuffs. The radiation works by killing
bacteria and viruses, or eliminating their ability to reproduce by severely damaging their DNA or RNA. Since neutron
radiation is not used, the remaining food doesn’t become radioactive itself, leaving it safe to eat. This method is also
used to sterilize food packaging, medical devices, and manufacturing parts.

Video
Reference
https://www.britannica.com/science/radioactivity/Applications-of-radioactivity

https://www.mirion.com/learning-center/radiation-safety-basics/uses-of-radiation

Basic forces of nature

Fundamental interaction, in physics, any of the four basic forces gravitational, electromagnetic, strong, and weak that
govern how objects or particles interact and how certain particles decay. All the known forces of nature can be traced to
these fundamental interactions. The fundamental interactions are characterized on the basis of the following four
criteria: the types of particles that experience the force, the relative strength of the force, the range over which the force
is effective, and the nature of the particles that mediate the force.

Read More on This Topic

subatomic particle: The basic forces and their messenger particles
The previous section of this article presented an overview of the basic issues in particle physics, including the four fundamental
interactions...

Gravitation and electromagnetism were recognized long before the discovery of the strong and weak forces because
their effects on ordinary objects are readily observed. The gravitational force, described systematically by Isaac Newton
in the 17th century, acts between all objects having mass; it causes apples to fall from trees and determines the orbits of
the planets around the Sun. The electromagnetic force, given scientific definition by James Clerk Maxwell in the 19th
century, is responsible for the repulsion of like and the attraction of unlike electric charges; it also explains the chemical
behaviour of matter and the properties of light. The strong and weak forces were discovered by physicists in the 20th
century when they finally probed into the core of the atom. The strong force acts between quarks, the constituents of all
subatomic particles, including protons and neutrons. The residual effects of the strong force bind the protons and
neutrons of the atomic nucleus together in spite of the intense repulsion of the positively charged protons for each other.
The weak force manifests itself in certain forms of radioactive decay and in the nuclear reactions that fuel the Sun and
other stars. Electrons are among the elementary subatomic particles that experience the weak force but not the strong
force.

The four forces are often described according to their relative strengths. The strong force is regarded as the most
powerful force in nature. It is followed in descending order by the electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational forces.
Despite its strength, the strong force does not manifest itself in the macroscopic universe because of its extremely
limited range. It is confined to an operating distance of about 10−15 metre—about the diameter of a proton. When two
particles that are sensitive to the strong force pass within this distance, the probability that they will interact is high. The
range of the weak force is even shorter. Particles affected by this force must pass within 10−17 metre of one another to
interact, and the probability that they will do so is low even at that distance unless the particles have high energies. By
contrast, the gravitational and electromagnetic forces operate at an infinite range. That is to say, gravity acts between all
objects of the universe, no matter how far apart they are, and an electromagnetic wave, such as the light from a distant
star, travels undiminished through space until it encounters some particle capable of absorbing it.

For years physicists have sought to show that the four basic forces are simply different manifestations of the same
fundamental force. The most successful attempt at such a unification is the electroweak theory, proposed during the late
1960s by Steven Weinberg, Abdus Salam, and Sheldon Lee Glashow. This theory, which incorporates quantum
electrodynamics (the quantum field theory of electromagnetism), treats the electromagnetic and weak forces as two
aspects of a more-basic electroweak force that is transmitted by four carrier particles, the so-called gauge bosons. One
of these carrier particles is the photon of electromagnetism, while the other three—the electrically charged W+ and W−
particles and the neutral Z0 particle—are associated with the weak force. Unlike the photon, these weak gauge bosons
are massive, and it is the mass of these carrier particles that severely limits the effective range of the weak force.

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In the 1970s investigators formulated a theory for the strong force that is similar in structure to quantum
electrodynamics. According to this theory, known as quantum chromodynamics, the strong force is transmitted between
quarks by gauge bosons called gluons. Like photons, gluons are massless and travel at the speed of light. But they differ
from photons in one important respect: they carry what is called “colour” charge, a property analogous to electric
charge. Gluons are able to interact together because of colour charge, which at the same time limits their effective
range.

Investigators are seeking to devise comprehensive theories that will unify all four basic forces of nature. So far,
however, gravity remains beyond attempts at such unified field theories.

The current physical description of the fundamental interactions is embodied within the Standard Model of particle
physics, which outlines the properties of all the fundamental particles and their forces. Graphical representations of the
effect of fundamental interactions on the behaviour of elementary subatomic particles are incorporated in Feynman
diagrams.

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Reference
https://www.britannica.com/science/fundamental-interaction

Elementary particles and particle classification (hadrons,

leptons and quarks)
Elementary Particles in Physics S. Gasiorowicz and P. Langacker Elementary-particle physics deals with the
fundamental constituents of matter and their interactions. In the past several decades an enormous amount of
experimental information has been accumulated, and many patterns and systematic features have been observed. Highly
successful mathematical theories of the electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions have been devised and tested.
These theories, which are collectively known as the standard model, are almost certainly the correct description of
Nature, to first approximation, down to a distance scale 1/1000th the size of the atomic nucleus. There are also
speculative but encouraging developments in the attempt to unify these interactions into a simple underlying
framework, and even to incorporate quantum gravity in a parameter-free “theory of everything.” In this article we shall
attempt to highlight the ways in which information has been organized ,and to sketch the outlines of the standard model
and its possible extensions .Classification of Particles The particles that have been identified in high-energy
experiments fall into distinct classes. There are the leptons (see Electron, Leptons, Neutrino, Muonium),all of which
have spin12. They may be charged or neutral. The charged leptons have electromagnetic as well as weak interactions;
the neutral ones only interact weakly. There are three well-defined lepton pairs ,the electron (e−) and the electron
neutrino (νe), the muon (μ−) and the muon neutrino (νμ), and the(much heavier) charged lepton, the tau (τ), and its tau
neutrino (ντ). These particles all have antiparticles, in accordance with the predictions of relativistic quantum mechanics
(see CPT Theorem). There appear to exist approximate “lepton-type” conservation laws: the number of plus the number
of νemi-nus the number of the corresponding anti particle se +and ̄νeis conserved in weak reactions, and similarly for
the muon and tau-type leptons. These conservation laws would follow automatically in the standard model if the
neutrinosare massless. Recently, however, evidence for tiny non zero neutrino masses and subtle violation of these
conservations laws has been observed. There is no understanding of the hierarchy of masses in Table 1 or why the
observed neutrinosare so light. In addition to the leptons there existhadrons (see Hadrons, Baryons, Hyperons, Mesons,
Nucleon), which have strong interactions as well as the electromagnetic and weak. These particles have a variety of
spins, both integraland half-integral, and their masses range from the value of 135 MeV/c2for the neutral pionπ0to 11
020 MeV/c2for one of the upsilon (heavy quark) states. The particles with half-integral spin are called baryons, and
there is clear evidence for baryon conservation: The number of baryons minus the number of antibaryons is constant in
any interaction. The best evidence for this is the stability of the lightest baryon, the proton (if the proton decays, it does
so with a lifetime in excess of 1033yr). In contrast to charge conservation, there is no
2Table 1: The leptons. Charges are in units of the positron (e+) charge =1.602×10−19coulomb. In addition to the upper
limits, two of the neutrinos have masses larger than 0.05 eV/c2and 0.005 eV/c2, respectively. There ,νμ, and ντare
mixtures of the states of definite mass. Particle Q Masse1 0.51 MeV/c2μ−−1 105.7 MeV/c2τ−−1 1777
MeV/c2νe0<0.15 eV/c2νμ0<0.15 eV/c2ντ0<0.15 eV/c2Table 2: The quarks (spin-12constituents of hadrons). Each
quark carries baryon number B=13, while the antiquarks have B=−13.ParticleQMassu(up)231.5−5
MeV/c2d(down)−135−9 MeV/c2s(strange)−1380−155 MeV/c2c(charm)231−1.4 GeV/c2b(bottom)−134−4.5
GeV/c2t(top)23175−180 GeV/c2deep principle that makes baryon conservation compelling,and it may turn out that
baryon conservation is only approximate. The particles with integer spinare called mesons, and they have baryon
number B= 0. There are hundreds of different kinds of hadrons, some almost stable and some (known as resonances)
extremely short-lived. The degree of stability depends mainly on the mass of the hadron. If its mass lies above the
threshold for an allowed decay channel ,it will decay rapidly; if it does not, the decay will proceed through a channel
that may have a strongly suppressed rate, e. g., because it can only be driven by the weak or electromagnetic
interactions. The large number of hadrons has led to the universal acceptance of the notion that the hadrons, in contrast
to the leptons, are composite. In particular, experiments involving lepton–had ronscattering ore+e−annihilation into
hadrons have established that hadrons are bound states of point-like spin-12particles of fractional charge, known as
quarks .Six types of quarks have been identified (Table 2). As with the leptons, there is no understanding of the extreme
hierarchy of quark masses. For each type of quark there is a corresponding antiquark. Baryons are bound states of three
quarks (e. g., proton =uud; neutron =udd), while mesons consist of a quark and an antiquark. Matter and decay
processes under normal terrestrial conditions involve only the e−,νe,u, and. However, from Tables 2 and 3 we
ELEMENTARY PARTICLES IN PHYSICS3see that these four types of fundamental particle are replicated in two
heavier families, (μ−,νμ,c,s) and (τ−,ντ,t,b). The reason for the existence of the seheavier copies is still unclear.

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Reference
https://www.physics.upenn.edu/~pgl/e27/E27.pdf