MODULE 6:

OBJECTIVES:
After successful completion of this module, you should be
able to:
✦ Identify regions under the normal curve corresponding to
different standard normal values.
✦ Compute probabilities using the standard normal table and
Excel.
✦ Know when to use Normal distribution and T-distribution.
✦ Differentiate the null and alternative hypotheses.
✦ Formulates the appropriate null and alternative
hypotheses.
✦ Explain the logic of hypothesis testing.
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 Normal Distribution
✦ The normal distribution is sometimes called the
bell curve because the graph of its probability
density looks like a bell.
✦ It is also known as the Gaussian distribution,
after the German mathematician Carl Friedrich
Gauss who first described it.
✦ It is a probability function that describes how
the values of a variable are distributed.

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 Normal Curve

50 100 150
The red curve is a model called the normal curve ,
which is used to describe continuous random variables
that are said to be normally distributed.
A continuous random variable is normally distributed,
or has a normal probability distribution, if its relative
frequency histogram has the shape of a normal curve.
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Properties of Normal Curve
1. The normal curve is bell-shaped and symmetric
about the mean, μ.
2. Because mean, median and mode are equal, the
normal curve has a single peak and the highest
point occurs at x = μ.
3. The normal curve has
inflection points at μ − σ Inflection point Inflection point

and μ + σ.

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μ−σ μ μ+σ
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Properties of Normal Curve
4. The area under the normal curve is 1.

5. The area under the normal curve to the right

of μ equals the area under the curve to the
left of μ, which equals 0.50
6. The normal curve approaches, area = 1
but never touches the x-axis
as it extends farther and
farther away from the mean. 0.50 0.50

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 μ1 = μ2, σ1 < σ2 μ1 < μ2, σ1 < σ2

Mean:
✦ Changing the mean shifts the entire

curve left or right on the X-axis.

Standard Deviation:
✦ Changing the standard deviation
either tightens or spreads out the
width of the distribution along the X-
axis.
μ 1 < μ2 , σ1 = σ2
Larger standard deviations produce distributions that are more
spread out.
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Determine whether the graph represent a normal
curve.

A. C.

B. D.

All of them did not represent the normal curve.

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 Role of Area under a Normal
Curve
Suppose that a random variable X is normally
distributed with mean μ and standard deviation σ . The
area under the normal curve for any interval of values of
the random variable X represents either
✦ the proportion of the population with the characteristic
described by the interval of values or
✦ the probability that a randomly selected individual
from the population will have the characteristic
described by the interval of values.

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Standard Normal Distribution
A normal random variable having mean
value μ = 0 and standard deviation σ = 1 is
called a standard normal random variable,
and its density curve is called the standard
normal curve.

It will always be denoted by the letter Z.

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 Standardizing a Normal Random Variable
The normal random variable of a standard
normal distribution is called a standard x−μ
score or a z-score. Every normal random z=
variable X can be transformed into a z score
σ
via the following equation:
where X is a normal random variable, μ is the mean of X, and
σ is the standard deviation of X.
Probabilities for a standard normal
random variable are computed
using Standard Normal
Distribution Table which shows
a cumulative probability associated
with a particular z-score.
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Remember!
Positive values of z-score indicate how far above
the mean a score falls and negative values
indicate how far below the mean a score falls.

Whether positive or negative, larger z-scores

mean that scores are far away from the mean and
smaller z-scores means that scores are close to
the mean.

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Standard Normal Distribution Table 1 (Positive Side P(Z < z))

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Patterns for Finding Areas under a Standard Normal Curve

A. Area to the right of a negative z value or to the left of a

positive z value.
Use Table 1 directly
0 z1 z1 0
B. Area between z values on either side of 0.
= -
z1 0 z2 0 z2 z1 0
1 − Area
C. Area between z values on same side of 0.

= -
z1 z2 0 z1 0 z2
1 − Area 1 − Area
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Patterns for Finding Areas under a Standard Normal Curve

D. Area to the right of a positive z value or to the left of a

negative z value.

= -
0 z1 0 0 z1
Area = 1

E. Area between a given z value and 0.

= -
0 z1 0 z1 0
Area = 0.50
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Example 1:
Scores on a standardized college entrance examination (CEE)
are normally distributed with mean 510 and standard
deviation 60. A selective university considers for admission
only applicants with CEE scores over 560. Find proportion of
all individuals who took the CEE who meet the university's
CEE requirement for consideration for admission.
Solution:
Given: μ = 510,σ = 60 and x = 560
Area = P(X > 560)
Step 1: Draw a normal curve and
shade the desired area.

X
450 510 570
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560
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Using Table 1 By-hand Approach!
Step 2: Convert the value of x to a z-score.
P(X > 560) = P (Z > z) Area = P(Z > 0.83)

( )
560 − 510 = 0.2033
=P Z>
60
= P(Z > 0.83)
= 1 − P(Z ≤ 0.83)
= 1 − 0.7967 Z
−2 −1 0 1 2
= 0.2033
0.83
Use the Complement Rule
and determine one minus
the area.
The proportion of all CEE scores that exceed 560 is
0.2033 or 20.33%.
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Step 2: Used Excel to determine the area under
any normal curve. Technology Approach!
Use “TRUE” for
cumulative since we
want the area under the
normal curve.

The proportion of all CEE

scores that exceed 560 is
0.2033 or 20.33%.
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Example 2:
A pediatrician obtains the heights of her three-year-old female
patients. The heights are approximately normally distributed,
with mean 38.72 inches and standard deviation 3.17 inches.
Determine the proportion of the three-year-old females that
have a height less than 35 inches.
Solution:
Given: μ = 38.72,σ = 3.17 and x = 35
Step 1: Draw a normal curve and shade
the desired area.
Area = P(X < 35)

X
35.55 38.72 41.89
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Using Table 1 By-hand Approach!
Step 2: Convert the value of x to a z-score.
P(X < 35) = P (Z < z) Area = P(Z < − 1.17) = 0.1210

( 3.17 )
35 − 38.72
=P Z<
= P(Z < − 1.17)
= 1 − P(Z ≥ − 1.17)
= 1 − 0.8790 Z
−2 −1 0 1 2
= 0.1210
Use the Complement Rule −1.17
and determine one minus
the area.
The proportion of the pediatrician’s three-year-old
females who are less than 35 inches tall is 0.1210 or
12.10%.
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Step 2: Used Excel to determine the area under
any normal curve. Technology Approach!

Use “TRUE”
for cumulative
since we want
the area under
the normal
curve.

The proportion of the

pediatrician’s three-
year-old females who
are less than 35 inches
tall is 0.1210 or 12.10%.
Polytechnic University of the Philippines
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Example 3:
A pediatrician obtains the heights of her three-year-old female
patients. The heights are approximately normally distributed,
with mean 38.72 inches and standard deviation 3.17 inches.
Determine the probability that a randomly selected three-year-
old girl is between 35 and 40 inches tall, inclusive.
Solution:
Given: μ = 38.72,σ = 3.17, and 35 ≤ X ≤ 40
Area = P(35 ≤ X ≤ 40)
Step 1: Draw a normal curve and
shade the desired area.

X
35.55 38.72 41.89
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Using Table 1 By-hand Approach!
Step 2: Convert the value of x to a z-score.
P(35 ≤ X ≤ 40) = P(z ≤ Z ≤ z)

( 3.17 3.17 )
35 − 38.72 40 − 38.72
=P ≤Z≤
= P(−1.17 ≤ Z ≤ 0.40)
= P(Z ≤ 0.40) − [1 − P(Z ≥ − 1.17)]
= 0.6554 − [1 − 0.8790] Area = P(−1.17 ≤ Z ≤ 0.40)
= 0.6554 − 0.1210
= 0.5344
The probability a randomly
selected three-year-old female
is between 35 and 40 inches tall X
−2 −1 0 1 2
is 0.5344.
−1.17 0.40

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Step 2: Used Excel to determine the area under
any normal curve. Technology Approach!

Use “TRUE” for

cumulative since
we want the area
under the normal
curve.

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What is t - Distribution?
• The t-distribution (also called Student’s t-
Distribution) is a family of distributions that look
almost identical to the normal distribution curve,
only a bit shorter and fatter.
✦ The t distribution is
used instead of the
normal distribution
when you have small
samples.

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Department of Mathematics and Statistics distribution-from-a-t-distribution/
How to determine the critical value/t-scores for a
t - Distribution?
Step 1: Calculate the degrees of freedom (df).
df = n − 1
Take note!
The degrees of freedom depend on the number of
parameters you are estimating. Thus, from an n-sized
sample you have n-1 degrees of freedom if, as it usually
happens, you need to estimate the population mean
through the sample mean.
Step 2: Look up the df in the left hand side of the t-
distribution table. Locate the column under your
alpha level.
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Example: If n = 15 and α = 0.05, then tα/2 → t0.025 = 2.145
α 0.05
df = 15 − 1 = 14 = = 0.025
2 2

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Example:
If n = 11 and confidence level = 99%, then
tα/2 → t0.005 = 3.169
α = 1 − CL α 0.01
df = 11 − 1 = 10 = 1 − 0.99 = = 0.005
2 2
= 0.01

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Take Note!
✦ The t -distribution is different for different degrees of
freedom.
✦ The larger the sample size, the more the t distribution
looks like the normal distribution.
✦ The t -distribution is
centered at 0 and is
symmetric about 0.
✦ The area under the curve is
1. The area under the curve
to the right of 0 equals the
area under the curve to the
left of 0, which equals 0.50.
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Inferential Statistics
It is the process of generalizing
information obtained from a sample to a
population.
Two areas of inferential statistics:
(1)Estimation
(2)Hypothesis
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ESTIMATION
Sample data are used to estimate the value
of unknown parameters such as μ or σ.

Two Types of Estimation

1. Point estimation -(single points that

are used to infer parameters directly).
2. Interval estimation - (also called
confidence interval for parameter).
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 Confidence Interval
Confidence interval provides more information
than point estimates and it consist of an interval
of numbers.

Level of confidence represents the expected

proportion of intervals that will contain the
parameter if a large number of different samples
is obtained.
The level of confidence is denoted by(1 − α) × 100 %
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Misconception about Interpreting Confidence
Interval

“There is a 95% chance that the true

population mean falls within the
confidence interval.”

“The mean will fall within the confidence

interval 95% of the time.”

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Take Note!
A 95% confidence interval does not mean
that there is 95% probability that the
interval contains the true value you are
estimating .

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What is HYPOTHESIS TESTING?
Hypothesis testing is a procedure on sample
evidence and probability, used to test claims
regarding a characteristic of one or more populations.

What is HYPOTHESIS?
•A statement or claim regarding a characteristic of
one or more populations.
•A preconceived idea, assumed to be true but has to
be tested for its truth or falsity.

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 Take Note!
Because we use sample data to test
hypotheses, we cannot state with 100%
certainty that the statement is true; we
can only determine whether the sample
data support the statement or not.

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 Procedures for Testing
Hypothesis
1. State the null and alternative hypothesis.
2. Set the level of significance or alpha level (α).
3. Determine the test distribution to use.
4. Calculate test statistic or p - value.
5. Make statistical Decision
6. Draw Conclusion
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1. State the Null and Alternative Hypothesis
Two Types of Hypothesis
1. Null Hypothesis
• Denoted by
• The statement being tested.
• Assumed true until evidence indicates otherwise.
• Must contain the condition of equality and must be written
with the symbol = , ≤ , or ≥.
2. Alternative Hypothesis
• Denoted by
• Statement that must be true if the null hypothesis is false
• Sometimes referred to as the research hypothesis
• Must contain the condition of equality and must be written
with the symbol ≠, < or >.
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Example Hypothesis: Null Hypothesis:
✦ Students who eat and not eat breakfast will perform the same on
a math exam.
✦ Students who experience and not experience test anxiety prior to
an English exam will get the same scores.
✦ Motorists who talk and not talk on the phone while driving will
get the same errors on a driving course.
Alternative Hypothesis:
✦ Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam
than students who do not eat breakfast.
✦ Students who experience test anxiety prior to an English exam
will get higher scores than students who do not experience test
anxiety.
✦ Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more likely
to make errors on a driving course than those who do not talk on
the phone.
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Exercises:
State the relevant null and alternative hypothesis.
1. The researcher is particularly concerned with
the pulse rate of the patients who take the
medication. The researcher wants to test whether
the pulse rate will be different from the mean
pulse rate of 82 beats per minute.

Answer:
H0 : μ = 82 and Ha : μ ≠ 82

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Exercises:
State the relevant null and alternative hypothesis.
2. Assume that in a certain district the mean systolic
blood pressure of persons aged 20 to 40 is 130 mm Hg
with a standard deviation of 10 mm Hg . A random
sample of 64 persons aged 20 to 40 from village x of
the same district has a mean systolic blood pressure of
132 mm Hg. Does the mean systolic blood pressure of
the dwellers of the village (aged 20 to 40) differ from
that of the inhabitants of the district (aged 20 to 40) in
general, at a 5% Level of significance?
Answer:
H0 : μ = 130 and Ha : μ ≠ 130
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Exercises:
State the relevant null and alternative hypothesis.
3. A chemist invents an additive to increase the
life of an automobile battery. The mean lifetime
of the battery is 36 months.
Answer:
H0 : μ ≤ 36 and Ha : μ > 36
4. A contractor wishes to lower heating bills by
using a special type of insulation in houses. The
average of the monthly heating bills is Php 780.
Answer:
H0 : μ ≥ Php780 and Ha : μ < Php780
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Reminders:
If you are conducting a research study and you want
to use a hypothesis test to support your claim, the
claim must be stated in such a way that it becomes
the alternative hypothesis, so it cannot contain the
condition of equality.

Two Types of Alternative Test

1. One - tailed test
✦ Left tailed

✦ Right tailed

2. Two - tailed test

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2. Set the Level of Significance or Alpha Level (α)
• You should establish a predetermined level of
significance, below which you will reject the null
hypothesis.
• The generally accepted levels are 0.10, 0.05, and 0.01.
• Be as rigorous as possible.
Two Types of Error

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Example:
H0: The defendant is innocent.
Ha: The defendant is not innocent.

What happen to the defendant if the jury made type I

and type II error?

Answer:
A type I error is like putting an innocent person in
jail.
A type II error is like letting a guilty person go free.

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 Reminders:
It is important to note that we want to set
( α ) before we start our study because the
Type I error is the more ‘grevious’ error to
make.
The smaller (α ) is, the smaller the region
of rejection.

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 3. Determine the Test Distribution to Use.
Determine the appropriate statistical test to be used.
Parametric Statistics Non-Parametric Statistics
• Dependent Sample t - Test • Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
• Independent Sample t - Test • Mann Whitney U - Test
• One-Way Analysis of • Kruskal Wallis H - Test
Variance (ANOVA) Test
• Pearson R • Spearman Rho
• Linear Regression • Logistic Regression
• Chi-Square Test
Semiparametric Statistics
Cox Regression
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4. Calculate Test Statistic or p - value.
Performing statistical analysis using statistical
software such as Excel, SPSS, R, Minitab, SAS,
etc.

5. Make Statistical Decision

✦ Using confidence interval

✦ Using p-value approach
✦ Using traditional method
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Decision Rule:
✦ Using Confidence Interval

Reject the null hypothesis if the test statistic is not within

the range specified by the confidence interval.
✦ Using Traditional Approach
Reject Ho if the computed value of the test statistic falls in
the region of rejection.
✦ Using P-value Approach
Reject the null hypothesis if the computed p-value is less
than or equal to the set significance level , otherwise do not
reject the null hypothesis.
Example: If the level of significance (α = 0.05),
P-value Decision
0.01 Reject H0
0.05 Reject H0
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0.10 Failed to Reject H0
Traditional Approach

Rejection of region
or critical region is
the set of all values of
the test statistic
which will lead to the
rejection of H0.
Acceptance Region is
the set of all values of
the test statistic that
leads the researcher to
retain H0.
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One-tailed and Left tailed One-tailed and Right tailed
Ha : μ1 < μ2 Ha : μ1 > μ2
Rejection Region
Rejection Region

-2 0 2 -2 0 2

Two-tailed
Ha : μ1 ≠ μ2
Rejection Region Rejection Region

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In stating your decision you can use:
✦ Fail to reject the null hypothesis/ Do not reject

the null hypothesis/ Retain the null hypothesis

✦ Reject the null hypothesis.

It is important to recognize that we never accept

the null hypothesis. We are merely saying that the
sample evidence is not strong enough to warrant
rejection of the null hypothesis.
6. Draw Conclusion
Record conclusions and recommendations in a report,
and associate interpretations to justify your
conclusion or recommendations.
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Take Note!
Sample evidence can never prove the null
hypothesis to be true. By not rejecting the
null hypothesis, we are saying that the
evidence indicates the null hypothesis
could be true.

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Take Note!
It is important to recognize that we never
accept the null hypothesis. We are merely
saying that the sample evidence is not
strong enough to warrant rejection of the
null hypothesis.
If population data are available, there is no
need for inferential statistics.

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ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
1. The length of life of an instrument produced by a machine has a normal
distribution with a mean of 12 months and standard deviation of 2 months.
Find the probability that an instrument produced by this machine will last
A. less than 7 months.
B. between 7 and 12 months.
Be sure to draw a normal curve with the area corresponding to the
probability shaded.
2. The lengths of human pregnancies are approximately normally distributed,
with mean μ = 266 days and standard deviation σ = 16 days.
What proportion of pregnancies lasts more than 270 days?
B. What proportion of pregnancies lasts less than 250 days?
C. What proportion of pregnancies lasts between 240 and 280 days?
D. What is the probability that a randomly selected pregnancy?
lasts more than 280 days?
Be sure to draw a normal curve with the area corresponding to the
probability shaded.
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ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
3. Suppose a borderline hypertensive is defined as a person whose DBP is
between 90 and 95 mm Hg inclusive, and the subjects are 35-44-year-old
males whose BP is normally distributed with mean 80 and variance 144.
What is the probability that a randomly selected person from this population
will be a borderline hypertensive?
4. Assume that among diabetics the fasting blood level of glucose is
approximately normally distribute with a mean of 105 mg per 100 ml and SD
of 9 mg per 100 ml. What proportions of diabetics have levels between 90
and 125 mg per 100 ml?
5. The null and alternative hypotheses are given. Determine whether the
hypothesis test is left-tailed, right-tailed, or two-tailed. What parameter is
being tested?
A. H0 : μ ≥ 7 and 1.HO : μ < 7 C. H0 : μ = 3 and 1.HO : μ ≠ 3
B. H0 : μ ≤ 5 and 1.HO : μ > 5 D. H0 : σ = 8 and 1.HO : σ ≠ 8
C. H0 : σ ≤ 10 and 1.HO : σ > 10
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ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENTS:
6. Determine the null and alternative hypotheses based on the following:
A. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 19.6% of
children aged 6 to 11 years are overweight. A school nurse thinks that
the percentage of 6- to 11-year-olds who are overweight is different in
her school district.
B. The standard deviation in the pressure required to open a certain valve
is known to be s = 1.1 psi. Due to changes in the manufacturing
process, the quality-control manager feels that the pressure variability
has increased.
C. For students who first enrolled in two year public institutions in a
recent semester, the proportion who earned a bachelor’s degree within
six years was 0.386. The president of a certain college believes that the
proportion of students who enroll in her institution have a lower
completion rate.
D. Historically, the time to order and deliver a pizza at Jimbo’s pizza was
48 minutes. Jim, the owner, implements a new system for ordering and
delivering pizzas that he believes will reduce the time required to get a
pizza to his customers.
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 References
h t t p s : / / w o l f w e b . u n r. e d u / h o m e p a g e / a n i a /
stat352f12lectures/352lecture21f12.pdf
Statistics. Informed Decision using Data by
Michael Sullivan, III,. Fifth Edition
http://www.real-statistics.com/tests-normality-
and-symmetry/statistical-tests-normality-
symmetry/shapiro-wilk-test/

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