Metamorphism and

Metamorphic Rocks

CUADERNO - 6
 Definitions

Metamorphism – mineralogical, chemical,

and physical changes that occur in solid
rocks.
Occurs at depths greater than that of
lithification (Diagenesis).
Solid state recrystallization – changes that
occur without the rock melting (rocks that
melt are igneous).
Factors influencing
Metamorphism

• Temperature
Agents of
• Pressure Metamorphism
• Fluid
• Time
 Factors influencing
Metamorphism
Temperature
• below about 150oC, most minerals are stable
(little or no metamorphism)
• above 150oC, reaction rate increases as
temperature increases, new minerals begin to
form
• above 600oC, some minerals begin to melt
(transition to igneous rocks)
• Temperature a function of depth within the
Earth and the presence of a magma
 Factors influencing
Metamorphism
Pressure
• as pressure increases, pore spaces reduced
and density increases, pore fluids are
expelled
• Minerals recrystallize and begin to realign
Differential stress
• pressure is greater in one direction
than in another
Temperature, Pressure and
Rock Type
 Effects of Stress
Uniform Differential
Factors influencing Metamorphism
Pore fluids (water and carbon dioxide)
• as pressure increases, pore fluids are
expelled
• Pore fluids increase the rate of metamorphic
reactions by:
• storing ions involved in reactions
• moving ions from one place to another
Chemical Fluids from Magmas
• Carry ions from the melt
• Fluids increase the temperature in the rock
 Veins

Solutions are deposited

in fractures and joints
 Factors influencing
Metamorphism
Time
• solid state recrystallization is a slow
process
• in general, size of minerals increases
with time
 Types of Metamorphism

1. Burial Metamorphism

2. Contact Metamorphism

3. Regional Metamorphism
Metamorphism & Plate Tectonics
 Types of Metamorphism

Burial Metamorphism
• most common type, occurs where crust
is greater than 5 km thick

Relatively low temperature and pressure

(low grade metamorphism)

Maximum stress vertical, foliation parallel

to ground surface
 Types of Metamorphism

Contact metamorphism
• Occurs in rocks around a magma body
• High temperature (heat from magma) “bakes”
the rock around the magma creating an
alternation
• High temperature & fluid primary agents, little
to no pressure (occurs at shallow depths in
the crust)
 Non-foliated Metamorphic
Rocks

• Granular texture
• Interlocking grains
• Composed primarily of one mineral
• Uniform grain size
Contact Metamorphism
Contact Metamorphism
 Types of Metamorphism
Regional metamorphism
• Large scale – large volume of rock is affected
• Associated with convergent plate margins and
mountain building
• Folding and faulting increase thickness of the
crust
• Occurs over a range of temperatures and
pressures
• Fluids are also present
• Low grade to high grade metamorphism
• Will have zones of contact metamorphism
Regional Metamorphism
Metamorphic Grade
 Metamorphic Grade

As pressure and/or
temperature increases,
the grade of
metamorphism increases
 Low Grade Metamorphism

Example: Slate
• Rocks become more dense and compact
• forms at low temperature and pressure
• microscopic crystals
• dull luster
• clay and mica minerals
• foliated
Low Grade - Slate
Metamorphic Grade
 Intermediate Grade
Metamorphism
Example: Phyllite
• intermediate temperature and pressure
• small crystals
• shiny luster
• mostly mica minerals
• foliated
Intermediate Grade –
Phyllite
Metamorphic Grade
 High Grade Metamorphism

Example: Schist
• high temperature and pressure
• large crystals
• mica-rich
• foliated
High Grade - Schist
Metamorphic Grade
 High Grade Metamorphism

Example: Gneiss
• high temperature and pressure
• large crystals
• mica-poor
• foliated
High Grade - Gneiss
Rock Cycle
Regional Revisited

Slate
Phyllite
Schist,
Gneiss
Magma
 Nonfoliated - Marble
• metamorphosed limestone (CaCO3)
• bedding and fossils obliterated
 Nonfoliated - Quartzite
• metamorphosed quartz-rich sandstone
• Pore spaces filled with SiO2
 Metamorphic Facies
Different
minerals
form at
different
temperatures
and
pressures
Group of stable
minerals
define a
facies
 PART II: METAMORPHIC PETROLOGY

INTRODUCTION

What is metamorphism?
"Metamorphism is the mineralogical and/or textural adjustments that take place in a rock
in response to a new set of physicochemical conditions different from the ones under
which the rock originally formed"

Requirements:
These changes should
(i) occur in the solid state;
(ii) be isochemical, i.e. involve no chemical changes in the bulk rock composition
(with the exception of loss or gain of volatiles such as H2O and CO2);
(iii) take place at conditions above those of diagenesis but below those of melting1.

Range or realm of Metamorphism:

The scope and range of metamorphism is not easy to define. By definition,
metamorphism should exclude all sedimentary and igneous processes. Yet the boundary
between diagenesis and metamorphism is poorly defined, and is definitely a function of
the composition of the rock undergoing such changes. This means that a metamorphic
texture or mineral may form for the first time in a basaltic rock at a temperature of for
example 180°C, but a shale subjected to the same temperature may not show any textural
or mineralogical changes that can be clearly identified as metamorphic. Similarly, the
boundary between metamorphism and igneous activity is also unclear. Most mantle rocks
could be considered metamorphic, but at the same time, partial melting within the mantle
results in many igneous textures and minerals. Although a basaltic rock will not melt at
temperatures of 700°C, a shale saturated with H2O will undergo "partial melting" at these
temperatures to produce a granitic liquid that moves like a magma, leaving behind mafic
minerals which can undergo further changes in the solid state. Nevertheless, the
temperature "boundaries" between metamorphism and diagenesis on one hand and
metamorphism and igneous activity on the other can be set at 150-200°C and 700-800°C,
respectively.

Factors controlling metamorphism:

(See your Intro notes and Winter p. 412 - 417, and summarize these readings in following
the headings given below).
1- Temperature
2- Pressure
3- Time

1In fact, some of these "requirements" or "rules" are "violated" to some extent by some metamorphic rocks.
It has recently been suggested that regional metamorphism is accompanied by significant changes in bulk
composition that occur at differnt scales (e.g. Ague, 1989). Partial melting is indeed a product of
metamorphism. The bounadry between diagenesis and metamorphism is poorly defined and will vary with
variations in bulk rock chemistry.
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El-Shazly, 2004

4- Original chemical composition of the rock

5- Composition of the fluid attending metamorphism.

Why study metamorphic rocks?

Studying metamorphic petrology is essential for understanding the processes involved in
the formation and evolution of the continental crust. Because almost all mountain chains
(orogenic belts) contain metamorphic rocks, understanding the conditions under which
these rocks form will lead to a better understanding of the processes involved in mountain
building, as well as understanding the relations between deformation, metamorphism and
igneous activity.

Definitions:
Protolith: The protolith of a metamorphic rock is defined as the original rock prior to
metamorphism. Therefore, the protolith of a quartz mica schist may have been a
sandstone, a siltstone or a quartz-rich shale, whereas the protolith of a marble must have
been some sort of a limestone or dolomite. An amphibolite rich in Fe and Mg may have
originally been a basalt. The protolith of a metamorphic rock can be "guessed" (or in
some cases positively identified) based on the mineralogy and/or the texture of this
metamorphic rock. Knowing the relative abundance of these metamorphic minerals
(known as the mode), and their chemical composition, one can estimate the relative
abundance of the major elements or oxides in the rock (e.g. CaO, Na2O, .... etc.), and
therefore guess its protolith. For example, if a rock contains abundant muscovite, it must
be rich in K2O and Al2O3, and the protolith was most likely a shale. In some cases, some
metamorphic rocks have textures that were inherited from the original igneous or
sedimentary rock, which may enable one to confidently identify the protolith.

Even if one cannot identify the protolith, identification of the minerals in a metamorphic
rock will give some idea about the chemical composition of the rock, and therefore the
"type" or "compositional group" to which this rock belongs. The most common
compositional groups include:
(i) mafic (ii) pelitic (iii) quatzofeldspathic (iv) calcareous (v) marly (vi)
ultramafic. Other less common "types" include: manganiferous, ferruginous, siliceous,
....etc. Table 1 lists the average chemical composition of some of the most common rock
types.
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El-Shazly, 2004

Table 1: Average Composition of selected rock types (Clarke, 1924).

Pelitic Mafic Calcareous Quartzo- Ultramafic

(basites) feldspathic
SiO2 58.5 48.4 5.2 78.4 43.5
Al2O3 15.5 16.8 0.8 4.8 4.0
FeO* 6.6 10.6 0.5 1.5 12.5
MgO 2.5 8.1 7.9 1.2 34.0
CaO 3.1 11.1 42.6 5.5 3.5
Na2O 1.3 2.3 0.1 0.5 0.6
K2O 3.3 0.6 0.3 1.3 0.3
H2O 5.1 0.6 0.3 0.8 0.7
CO2 2.7 41.6 5.0 0.7

Other definitions:
For the following definitions, refer to your textbook or lecture notes. (It would be a good
exercise for you to understand and study these definitions and try to summarize what you
have learned in the space provided without the help of your textbooks!)

Isochemical

Allochemical

Metasomatism

Metamorphic grade

Prograde metamorphism

Retrograde metamorphism (retrogression)

Index mineral

Isograd
Mineral assemblage

Paragenesis
Foliation

Lineation
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Nomenclature of metamorphic rocks:

The nomenclature of metamorphic rocks is much easier than that of igneous or
sedimentary rocks. Although you still need to know the texture and mineralogy of rock,
you really do not need to learn any "new" names! In general, there are four different ways
of giving a metamorphic rock a name:
1- [minerals; listed in reverse order of abundance] followed by the [general
texture]. e.g.: "sillimanite - garnet - biotite - quartz schist" (where quartz > biotite >
garnet > sillimanite)2
2- [minerals][ortho/para]-[general texture] e.g. Biotite - feldspar - quartz
paragneiss. (where the prefix "para" indicates that the protolith of the rock is sedimentary,
whereas "ortho" indicates that the protolith is an igneous rock).
3- meta-[protolith], e.g. metasandstone, metabasalt, metacarbonate, or metapelite.
4- special names: e.g. marble, quartzite, granulite.... etc, which depend on the
composition or the texture of the rock, as defined above (see Mason, 1978).

Selected (special) rock names that are based on textures or rock composition:
Slate
Phyllite
Schist
Gneiss
Hornfels
Granulite
Cataclasite
Mylonite
Marble
Serpentinite

Systematics of studying metamorphic rocks:

(i) Field mapping and sample collection
(ii) Identification of index minerals and directions of increasing metamorphic grade
(iii) Relations to major structures
(iv) Petrography: mineral assemblages, paragenetic diagrams
(v) Textures, mineral reactions
(vi) Paragenetic sequence diagrams; recheck (ii) and (iii)
(vii) Mineral analysis
(viii) Estimate P and T (importance of experiments)
(ix) Determine age of metamorphism
(x) P-T-time path
(xi) Tectonic interpretation

2In the literature, listing minerals in reverse order of abundance is not strictly followed, with some authors
preferring to list the minerals in order of abundance!
GLY 421: Igneous & Metamorphic Petrology
El-Shazly, 2004

TYPES OF METAMORPHISM

There are several classification schemes for metamorphic rocks, the most popular of
which are those based on the principal agent of metamorphism (i.e. genetic) and that
based on the geologic setting of metamorphic rocks. Other classifications are based on the
plate tectonic setting or relations between metamorphism and orogenesis.

A- Classification based on the principal metamorphic agent:

1- Thermal metamorphism: where temperature is the dominant agent. Examples
include contact aureoles around plutons, and ocean floor metamorphism
influenced by heat from mid - oceanic ridges.
2- Dynamic metamorphism: where pressure is the main factor effecting
recrystallization and mineral growth. Examples include cataclastic metamorphism
in the vicinity of fault zones.
3- Dynamothermal metamorphism: where both pressure and temperature play a
major role in effecting recrystallization and mineral growth. Several types of
regional metamorphism fall into this category.

B- Classification based on Geologic setting:

1- Contact metamorphism: Occurs near igneous intrusions where country rocks are
metamorphosed as a result of thermal and sometimes metasomatic effects of hot
magma. This type is characterized by its limited areal extent.
2- Cataclastic (dynamic) metamorphism: mostly effected by deviatoric stress, but
strain rate and temperature are other significant factors. This type of
metamorphism is highly localized close to fault and shear zones.
3- Orogenic metamorphism: a sub-category of regional metamorphism, where both P
and T play a major role. This type is related to mountain building events.
4- Burial metamorphism: a sub-category of regional metamorphism. P and T play
major roles. Occurs in deep sedimentary basins. Rocks produced by this type of
metamorphism usually lack a foliation. Highest grade rocks in such settings are
usually of greenschist facies conditions.
5- Ocean floor metamorphism: (sub category of regional metamorphism). T and
fluids. On ocean floor, particularly near mid oceanic ridges. Metamorphic grade
increases with depth with the following facies series established: Zeolite 
Greenschist  Amphibolite (Fig. 1).
6- Pyrometamorphism: Mostly effected by T. Volcanic or quasi-volcanic
environments. Local. Index minerals include sanidine and Opx.
7- Hydrothermal metamorphism: Effected by T and fluids. It occurs in areas of
hydrothermal activity (commonly associated with incipient rifting) and which are
often tapped as a source of geothermal energy (e.g. Salton Sea, California;
Reykjanes geothermal field, Iceland; Wairakei field, New Zealand). In such areas,
fluids may reach a T of 300°C or more, reacting with the country rocks to give
metamorphic mineral assemblages that depend on the original composition of
GLY 421: Igneous & Metamorphic Petrology
El-Shazly, 2004

those country rocks as well as on the composition of the hydrothermal fluids

(particularly their CO2 contents).
8- Freight train metamorphism: Mostly T, but P could be significant. This type of
metamorphism is rather rare, and is limited to soles of ophiolites. Rocks exhibit a
down-section decrease in metamorphic grade (usually from granulite or upper
amphibolite facies conditions near the contact with the ophiolite to greenschists
farthest away.
9- Impact metamorphism: Related to meteoritic impacts. Very high P and T, lasting
for a short period of time. Characterized by shatter cones, pseudotachylites,
tektites, coesite, and stishovite.

Summary of main Types of Metamorphism

Type Textures Main factors P-T conditions Environment

Cataclastic Cataclastic mostly P med P, low T Fault zones
Contact Hornfelsic T ± fluids High T, variableNear igneous
Granoblastic P intrusions
Orogenic Usually foliated P, T ± fluids variable P and TOrogenic belts, areas
of regional
deformation
Burial Non foliated, relict P and T Low P and T Deep sedimentary
basins with volcanic
and sedimentary
sequences
Ocean floor Variable; non- T, fluids ± P Low to med P, Ocean floor, close to
foliated, foliated med. to high T. spreading centers.
and relict
Impact Pseudotachylitic, T, P, very Extreme P & T Impact craters
shatter cones and short time
tektites
 1

Metamorphic Textures

Texture: Is a term that describes the size, shape and orientation of the grains constituting a
rock, as well as the relationship between these grains.

Elements of metamorphic textures:

1- Crystal size:
<0.1 mm v. fine-grained
0.1-1mm fine-grained
1-5 mm medium-grained
5-10mm coarse-grained
> 10 mm v. coarse-grained

2-Shape:
Idioblastic: If the mineral grain is euhedral
Subidioblastic: If the grain is subhedral
Xenoblastic: If the grain is anhedral

3- Macroscopic to mesoscopic textures (general textures):

(i) Slaty
(ii) Schistose: A schist has a lepidoblastic foliation if this foliation is defined by
oriented micas, and a nematoblastic foliation if such a foliation is defined by the
orientation of prismatic minerals as amphiboles and pyroxenes.
(iii) Gneissic: A complex banded texture made of schistose layers or bands
alternating with bands commonly characterized by a granoblastic texture.
(iv) Granoblastic: granular, interlocking equidimensional grains of subequal size;
no preferred orientation or cleavage.
(v) Hornfelsic: Fine-grained, granular interlocking grains, possibly of variable
shapes and sizes. No preferred orientation.

4- Mineral-mineral relations:

5- Order of crystallization: Crystalloblastic series

6- Relationship between deformation and metamorphism: Through the identification

of pre-, syn- and post-tectonic minerals.
 2

Types of metamorphic textures and mineral-mineral relations

Metamorphic textures can be grouped into three main groups:

A- Relict textures (palimpsest textures): are textures inherited from the original
rock type, and which have survived metamorphism.
B- Typomorphic textures: textures characteristic of metamorphism
C- Superimposed textures: textures characteristic of a post- metamorphic event, e.g.
alteration, weathering, ... etc.
Other smaller groups as “reaction textures”, “polydeformational textures”, … etc. may
also be typomorphic or replacement, but are grouped separately because they have some
genetic connotation.

A- Relict Textures

There are several types of relict textures. Relict textures in metamorphic rocks are
indicated by applying the prefix "blasto" to the original textural name. Relict textures are
best preserved in low-grade rocks. Examples of such textures include:
 porphyritic
 ophitic
 intergranular
 amygdaloidal
 spherulitic
 variolitic
 pisolitic
 oolitic
Please refer to your notes on igneous and sedimentary petrology if you cannot remember
any of these terms.

B- Typomorphic textures

Textures characteristic of thermal metamorphism:

When thermal metamorphism is not associated with any deformation, the mineral grains
are randomly oriented, resulting in either granoblastic or hornfelsic textures. Please note
that the granoblastic texture can also develop in regionally metamorphosed rocks. The
following are some of the types of granoblastic textures:
1- Granoblastic polygonal: where the equidimensional grains may have well developed
crystal faces resulting in straight grain boundaries, and where triple junctions are common.
2- Granoblastic interlobate: where the grain boundaries are somewhat irregular
3- Granoblastic amoeboid: where all the grains have irregular outlines, and all the minerals
are anhedral.
4- Granoblastic decussate: where the interlocking randomly oriented crystals are
somewhat elongate, prismatic or subidioblastic. Usually applied to rocks with one or two
mineral species only. Triple junctions are common.
5- Nodular: results from the growth of oval - shaped porphyroblasts of such minerals as
cordierite or scapolite in association with other randomly oriented minerals as Qz, ..etc.
 3

Textures of dynamic metamorphism:

6- Porphyroclastic: A texture produced by the crushing or fragmentation of large grains,
resulting in two distinct grain size distributions of the same mineral: coarser grained
porphyroclasts and finer grained fragments.
7- Mortar: similar to porphyroclastic but in which the smaller fragments are further
crushed to finer and finer sizes (close to becoming powders), while some porphyroclasts
still persist.
8- Protomylonitic: A more advanced stage of cataclasis, where some minerals begin to
deform in a ductile manner, giving rise to an incipient foliation or preferred orientation.
9- Orthomylonitic (mylonitic): Where the rocks develop a well - defined foliation. In
quartz rich rocks, an orthomylonitic fabric is often indicated by quartz crystals elongated
like ribbons or flames (ribbon quartz).
10- Polygonized/ recrystallized/ annealed (ultramylonitic): The most advanced stages of
cataclastic metamorphism result in the recrystallization of the highly strained crystals into
smaller ones developing a granoblastic polygonal texture. At the same time, a foliation
defined by micaceous or prismatic minerals persists.

Crystallization textures:
11- Porphyroblastic: Where coarse - grained metamorphic minerals (porphyroblasts) occur
in a matrix of finer grained crystals.
12- Poikiloblastic: Where coarse - grained metamorphic minerals contain numerous
inclusions of finer - grained crystals of other minerals. It is of different types:
a- Fish-net or skeletal texture: rapid crystallization
b- Sieve texture
c- Rotational texture: where the inclusions are oriented at an angle that suggests
that the poikiloblast may have rotated during its growth, thus indicating syndeformational
or syntectonic growth. An alternative interpretation of such texture is the rotation of the
foliation during the growth of the poikiloblast, which still makes the growth
syndeformational.
d- Snowball: Similar to rotational texture, but where the inclusions define a spiral
shaped trail, which may have developed from the "rolling over" of the poikiloblasts.
e- Helicitic: Where the poikiloblasts overgrow the pre-existing foliation. This
texture therefore indicates post-tectonic crystallization of the poikiloblasts.

C- Replacement textures (superimposed in part!)

13- Mesh texture: develops in serpentinites, where the needle shaped serpentine minerals
occur in aggregates interwoven like a mesh.
14- Hour-glass texture: Also in serpentinites, where the serpentine minerals replace the
granular olivine crystals giving rise to hour-glass like appearances.
15- Bastite texture: A third texture that occurs in serpentinites, where Opx crystals were
completely replaced by aggregates of serpentine minerals retaining the prismatic shape of
the original Opx.
16- Pseudomorphic replacement textures:
(i) single-crystal
(ii) multicrystal
(iii) multi-phase, multi-crystal
 4

D- Reaction textures
17- Epitaxial overgrowth: Epitaxial overgrowth is characterized by optical continuity
between the mineral and its overgrowth. Both the mineral and the overgrowth must belong
to the same structural group, and may possibly be the same mineral. This type of
overgrowth is controlled fully by the the matrix mineral.
18- Topotactic replacement: One mineral overgrows another of a similar structure (e.g.
Actinolite rims on glaucophane). Orientation of overgrowing mineral is controlled by that
of the overgrown one.
19- Kelyphitic texture (also a replacement texture): A kelyphitic texture is a replacement
of one mineral along its rim by an intergrowth of two or more minerals, in a way that the
new minerals almost completely surround the mineral being replaced. The term is most
commonly used when the replacing minerals form during retrogression. Examples include
kelyphitic rims of chlorite + Fe-oxides after garnet.
20- Reaction-rim texture: when one mineral replaces another along its rims, suggesting a
reaction between both phases. The contacts between both phases are irregular.
21- Corona texture: several concentric layers of one or more minerals completely
encircling an older phase. The layers (which range from one to five in number) represent a
sequence of reactions that have taken place (none to completion) to replace the mineral in
the core or center of the corona. Coronas form during both prograde or retrograde
metamorphism.
22-Atoll texture: where the core of a mineral is dissolved or replaced leaving behind a
surviving rim. Such textures usually form due to an original compositional zoning within
the mineral with the replaced core.

E- Intergrowth texture
23- Symplectites (also a reaction texture): Are irregular fine-grained mineral intergrowths
that form as a result of a certain reaction that did not go to completion. These intergrowths
are often recognized by their wormy appearance and often occur along the boundaries of
reacting minerals (or ones not in equilibrium).
Examples of commonly intergrown mineral pairs: Qz-Feldspar/ Amph-Spinel/ Plag-Mgt/
Gt-Qz/ Plag-Cpx/ Bt-Qz/ Ep-Qz/ Amph-Plag. Note that a common type of symplectitic
intergrowth is the myrmekitic texture commonly observed in granites, where wormy quartz
occurs in plagioclase crystals in contact with biotite. Symplectitic intergrowths are more
common in high temperature rocks.

F- Polydeformational/Polymetamorphic textures
24- Crenulated cleavage/schistosity: Results from the folding of a foliation.
25- S-C fabric: A more advanced stage of crenulation, where one or more minerals are
orientated along the crenulated surfaces to define a new foliation (S2) at an angle to the
older one (S1). This commonly involves some form of "recrystallization".
 5

G- Special textures and features

26- Pressure shadows: are ellipsoidal regions adjacent to a rigid crystal where minerals
grow developing textures that differ from those defined by the same minerals in the rest of
the sample. Growth in a pressure shadow is therefore influenced by the crystal faces of the
rigid mineral which seem to "protect" the minerals in its immediate vicinity from the
deformation affecting the same minerals in other parts of the sample. Accordingly, the
foliation wraps around the rigid crystal and its shadow.
27- Mica fish: Are lenticular porphyroblasts of mica which commonly develop in a shear
stress environment and can be used to indicate the sense of shear.
28- Kink bands (deformational bands): Are bends and twists within some minerals as a
result of their deformation. Kink bands develop in pre-tectonic minerals.
29- Zoning: Compositional change of a crystal, often accompanied by a change in some of
its optical properties.
30- Twinning: Some twinning may be induced by deformation.
31- Exsolution texture: results from the incomplete miscibility between two components
(end-members) of a solid solution series. A decrease in temperature may result in the
separation of these two phases, one in the other commonly along cleavage planes.
Common in high grade rocks that cooled slowly.

Importance of studying metamorphic textures

1- They provide a means for classifying metamorphic rocks, and hence for their
nomenclature.
2- They may help identify the original rock type prior to metamorphism (see relict
textures above).
3- They help identify which minerals may have formed with each other (in
equilibrium?) and which minerals are definitely out of equilibrium, and hence help
establish the order of crystallization and paragenetic sequences which are essential
in understanding the P-T history of the sample (see 4 & 5 below)
4- They help identify metamorphic reactions that may have taken place during the
rock's history, and are therefore essential for deriving the P-T paths of such rocks.
5- They help identify the relationship between deformation and mineral growth,
which is essential for any tectonic interpretations.
6- They are critical for determining the number of deformational and/or metamorphic
events affecting an area.
 1

Metamorphism and Tectonics

Definitions:
Steady state geotherm: Is that curve defining the change in T as a function of depth in an
area that is not experiencing any tectonic activity such as a stable shield or continental
interior.

Transient geotherm: Is the geotherm in a tectonically active area, and will only prevail for
a limited time period that depends on the duration and type of this tectonic event.

Geothermal gradient: Is the slope of the geotherm at a particular time in the history of the
study area.

Metamorphic field gradient: Is a trajectory connecting the P-T conditions at the

maximum T calculated for each metamorphic zone. According to England and
Richardson (1977), the metamorphic field gradient has little physical meaning because
peak temperatures in each metamorphic zone were reached at different times during the
metamorphic history of the area.

An overview of metamorphism in relation to tectonic regimes:

The metamorphic facies series encountered in different tectonic regimes or settings can be
summarized as follows, and are shown schematically on Figs. 1 and 2:
(a) Ridges and rift valleys: characterized by high geothermal gradients  contact and
ocean floor metamorphism.
(b) Areas of magmatic activity; volcanic - plutonic complexes: greenschists 
amphibolites  granulites.
(c) Areas of crustal thickening and mountain building: greenschists  amphibolites 
granulites and type B eclogites (particularly if there are magmatic intrusions).
(d) Subduction zones: Characterized by low geothermal gradients: zeolite  pumpellyite-
actinolite facies /lawsonite albite facies  blueschist facies  type C eclogites.

A- Convergent Plate Boundaries:

I- Subduction Zone metamorphism:
Rocks of the subducted plate are usually metamorphosed following "clockwise" P-T
paths in which peak pressures are attained before peak temperatures. According to
tectonic setting, subduction is of two "types":
(a) B-type subduction: where the oceanic crust is subducted beneath a continental
or another oceanic plate. This type usually results in the formation of the "paired
metamorphic belts" of Miyashiro, with blueschists and eclogites in the subducted plate
close to the subduction thrust, and high T, low P amphibolite- and sandinite- facies rocks
on the overriding plate, commonly forming an island arc in the case of ocean - ocean
interaction (Figs. 3 and 4). Examples of this type include the Franciscan (with the Sierra
Nevada) in the western U.S.A., and the Sanbagawa (and Abukuma) belts in Japan.
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(b) A-type subduction: where the continental crust "attempts" to become

subducted usually beneath another continental plate. Because of the low density of
continental material, it is generally more difficult to subduct compared to the oceanic
crust, and will have a tendency to "rebound" isostatically. Examples include the western
Alps (Dora Maira), the Tauern Window (Austrian Alps; Fig. 5), and Saih Hatat (Oman).

While discussing subduction zone metamorphism, it is appropriate to discuss some of the

problems associated with its rocks. The most important of these is the preservation of
blueschist facies mineral assemblages, and the uplift of blueschists.

Preservation of Blueschists:
 Most blueschists (and type C eclogites) are characterized by clockwise P-T paths,
and may therefore undergo heating and decompression during their exhumation.
 If the geothermal gradient prevailing during exhumation is sufficiently high, these
rocks will pass through the greenschist, epidote amphibolite or amphibolite facies
upon exhumation.
 If exhumation rate is not rapid enough, these rocks will be overprinted by these
later assemblages to such an extent that they may not survive their trip to the
surface.
 Draper and Bone (1974) suggested that the preservation of blueschists requires
exhumation rates that cannot be accounted for by average erosional rates.
 Hairpin shaped paths and their significance  underthrusting and refrigeration.

Models of blueschist and eclogite exhumation:

a) Platt's model: Platt (1987) suggested that blueschists and type C eclogites formed by
B-type subduction may be underplated (attached or accreted) to the overriding plate or
mantle wedge. Such process leads the accretionary wedge to become thicker and
tectonically unstable. This in turn leads to the development of normal faults along which
the high P/T rocks can make their way back to the surface fairly rapidly without being
significantly overprinted. This model is shown in Fig. 6. Note that a similar model can be
tailored to type A subduction zones.
b) Cloos's model: Cloos (1982) suggested that during B-type subduction, accretionary
wedge pelitic material moving down the subduction zone will tend to flow back upwards
by the forces of buoyancy, when it can then carry bits and pieces of the subducted slab
(now metamorphosed under blueschist and eclogite facies conditions; Fig. 7). This model
works only for tectonic mélanges, such as in the Franciscan.
c) Other models: Water melon seed model; delamination; …. etc.

Blueschists in time:
Most blueschists are Mesozoic in age, with some Paleozoic examples, and only a handful
of Precambrian ones. Could this be due to Plate tectonics not operating during the
Precambrian the way we think it does today? Or is it a function of differences in
geotherms prevailing at those times? Post-Eocene blueschists are also very rare or non-
existent. Can you think of a reason?
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II- Thrusting and continent - continent collision:

Not all areas of continent – continent collision are characterized by high P/T
metamorphism; many were found to belong to Miyashiro’s high P, intermediate facies
series; whereas others are associated with so much magmatic activity that they may be
considered to belong to the “regional – contact” type of metamorphism of Spear (1993).
Examples of these two cases include:
1- The Himalayas (which have an inverted metamorphic gradient in which the Sill
zone overlies the Ky zone, which in turn overlies the Gt and Bt zones (Fig. 8).
Several models have been proposed to explain this inverted sequence and the P-T
paths obtained. These are shown schematically in Figs. 9 and 10.
2- New England: The northern Appalachians are characterized by a complex
Polymetamorphic history. The main event seems to have been Acadian, in which a
continental fragment collided with N. America resulting in partial melting and the
development of numerous igneous intrusions. Nappes containing sheet – like
igneous intrusions were emplaced onto colder sheets. The overthrust nappes
therefore had counterclockwise P-T paths, whereas the lower nappes were
characterized by periods of isobaric heating followed by near isothermal loading
(Fig. 11).

III- Metamorphism associated with ophiolite emplacement:

1- Subophiolitic metamorphic aureoles or soles and inverted metamorphic gradients.
2- Burial type metamorphism with a high P/T field gradient
3- Subduction zone metamorphism

B- Stable continental interiors and deep sedimentary basins:

These are characterized by burial metamorphism with clockwise P-T paths, and peak T in
the greenschist to epidote amphibolite facies.

C- Divergent Plate Boundaries:

1- Ocean Floor Metamorphism:
2- Continental rifts: In such settings, it is very common to find “metamorphic core
complexes”, defined as areas that are topographically high and that consist of igneous
and metamorphic rocks that display anomalous deformation and metamorphism
relative to the surrounding rocks. These complexes are structurally overlain by
normally faulted sedimentary rocks. The boundary between the complexes and the
sedimentary rocks is a low angle normal fault known as a “decollement”. Rocks of the
metamorphic core complex are characterized by clockwise P-T paths of evolution,
with segments of isothermal decompression, marking their rapid exhumation along
these decollements. Examples include several areas in the Basin and Range province,
and the Cordillera Darwin in Chile (Fig. 12).

Conservative Plate Boundaries:

1- Cataclasis and Mylonitization
2- Serpentinite diapirs and associated metasomatism.