See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/228041875 Radio Frequency and Wireless Communications

Decision Making in Cognitive Radio: Automatic Threshold Estimation View project

Towards independent measurement of End to End Bit Error Rate in GSM network View project

Okechukwu Ugweje

Nile University of Nigeria

66 PUBLICATIONS 322 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Okechukwu Ugweje on 23 November 2017. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.1
Radio Frequency and Wireless Communications Security
Okechukwu Ugweje, The University of Akron
Introduction
Overview of RF Wireless Communication
Radio Wave Propagation
Wireless Communication Techniques
Cellular Communication
Elements of Wireless Communication Security
Security of Wireless LANs
Emerging Technologies and Security Standards
Concluding Remarks
Glossary
Cross References
References
Key Words: cellular systems, CDMA, emerging technology, multipath channels, propagation, radio frequency,
wireless communications, wireless network security.
Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview and summary of the fundamental meaning and concepts of
radio-frequency and wireless communication systems. It begins with a 2
summary of the history of wireless communications in general, from the first radio-frequency communication system
to current cellular mobile radio systems. It then proceeds with the concept of radio wave propagation, forms of
wireless communication systems and techniques, and the basic concept of cellular mobile radio communication. It
classifies wireless communications into categories of related technology by grouping related concepts together. It
also introduces security concepts for wireless communication systems in general and gives an example of security
issues using the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) 802.11 wireless local area network. Finally,
it reviews the current wireless technologies as well as emerging technologies.
INTRODUCTION
Radio-frequency (RF) wireless communication systems have been around for many years with applications ranging
from garage-door openers to satellite communication. The technologies cover a broad range of capabilities oriented
toward different uses and needs. These technologies have been advancing at an unprecedented rate, and their impact
is evident in our daily lives. Less wiring means greater flexibility and efficiency and reduced wiring costs. In many
parts of the world, wireless communication is the fastest growing area of the communication industry, providing a
valuable supplement and alternative to existing wired networks (“Cellular communications services,” n.d.). Based on
the number of users of wireless communication products and subscribers to services, it is now the preferred method
of communication (“Wireless Communications, Market & Opportunities,”2000). Many systems formerly carried
over the wire are now carried over wireless media. 3
The remarkable success of cellular mobile radio and other wireless technology has fundamentally changed the way
people communicate and conduct business. The wireless revolution has led to a new multi-billion-dollar wireless
communications industry. Linking service areas, wireless communication has altered the way business is conducted.
For example, with a laptop computer, a wireless modem, and a cellular phone, a business consultant can contact his
or her office and clients and conduct business while traveling. Field service and sales personnel can access corporate
databases to check inventory status, prepare up-to-the-minute price and delivery quotes, modify schedule activities,
and fulfill orders directly to the factory while traveling. Company personnel can use two-way paging services to stay
in close contact, even when traditional wired communication services are available. Handheld hybrid phone-
computer-fax machines feed information to wireless communication networks, allowing an executive to make
decisions while on a leisure outing.
For instance, wireless local area network (WLAN) devices allow users to move their laptops from place to place
within their office environment without the need for wires and without losing network connectivity. Ad hoc
networks, such as those enabled by Bluetooth, allow data synchronization with network systems and applications
sharing between devices. Bluetooth can also eliminate cables for printer and other peripheral device connections.
Handheld devices, such as personal digital assistants (PDA) and cell phones, allow remote users to synchronize
personal databases, and they provide access to network services such as wireless e-mail, Web browsing, and Internet
access. Moreover, these technologies offer dramatic cost savings and added capabilities to diverse applications
ranging from the retail setting to the manufacturing shop floor to first responders. 4
Risk is typically associated with wireless communications technology, because the airwaves can be accessed by
intruders. Potential risks include loss of confidentiality, loss of integrity, loss of resource availability, and loss of
proprietary information, to mention only a few. Malicious users may gain access to the network and intentionally
corrupt the data by spreading viruses, or they may simply launch attacks that prevent authorized users from
accessing the network. Even if data confidentiality or integrity is not compromised, unauthorized users may steal
bandwidth and cause a decrease in network performance or use a vulnerable wireless network as a platform for
launching a network attack on a third party. These risks are not peculiar to wireless systems, but the risks are
exacerbated by the nature of wireless connectivity.
This chapter presents a concise summary of the subject of radio frequency (RF) and wireless communications and
introduces the concept of security for wireless communications. This includes a discussion of the general concepts
and definitions of RF-based wireless communication, various forms and applications of RF wireless communication,
synopsis of radio wave propagation, the cellular communication systems, and a general introduction of the security
issues in wireless communications in general and WLAN in particular. Also presented is a summary of current and
emerging wireless communication technologies. Of particular interest is the cellular mobile radio system, which has
become the most widespread RF wireless communication system.
RF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
RF wireless communication began at the turn of the 20th century, more than 100 years ago, when Marconi
established the first successful and practical radio system. His experiment in 1895 demonstrated the transmission of
radio signals a distance of 2 kilometers (Proakis & Salehi, 5
2002). He conducted additional experiments leading to 1901 when his radiotelegraph system transmitted radio
signals across the Atlantic Ocean, from England to Newfoundland, about 1,700 miles away (“Mobile Telephone
History,” n.d.). Only telegraphic codes were transmitted, however. On December 24, 1906, Reginald Fessenden
accomplished the first radio communication of human speech over a distance of 11 miles from Brant Rock,
Massachusetts, to ships in the Atlantic Ocean (“Mobile Telephone History,” n.d.). Radio was no longer limited to
telegraph codes; it was no longer just a wireless telegraph. This was a remarkable milestone highlighting the
beginning of the voice-transmitted age.
In the early years of RF wireless communication, radio broadcasting was the most deployed wireless communication
technology. The invention of the vacuum tube and vacuum triode hastened the advancement in radio transmission of
voice signals. Radio broadcast by way of amplitude modulation (AM) and, later by frequency modulation (FM), was
made possible. Amplitude modulation of the radio frequency was used to carry information until FM was introduced
in the late 1930s (Mark & Zhuang, 2003). After FM was introduced by Armstrong (Lathi, 1998), many other RF
wireless systems such as television, one- and two-way radio, and radar, were introduced between the late 1920s and
the mid-1950s. Another milestone was witnessed in the late 1970s, which marked the beginning of the growth in
cellular mobile radios and personal communication services. The first successful commercial analog cellular mobile
telephone was demonstrated in 1979 (Durgin, 2003). Currently, wireless communication of all kinds abounds in our
society.
System Architecture
In RF wireless communication systems, radio waves are used to transfer information between a transmitter (Tx) and
a receiver (Rx). RF systems can be classified as either terrestrial-based or 6
space-based systems. Terrestrial-based systems include microwave point-to-point, WLANs, and cellular mobile
radio, to mention only a few. Terrestrial microwave systems are limited in distance and line-of-sight (LOS)
propagation is the limiting factor. Relay towers with carefully aligned directional antennas are often used to provide
an unobstructed path over an extended distance. The data signal is processed, up- or down-converted, modulated or
demodulated, filtered, and amplified at the transceivers. The transmitted signal propagates through the air and is
attenuated by several propagation mechanisms (discussed later in the chapter).
Space-based systems (e.g., satellites) are similar to terrestrial microwave systems except that signals travel from
earth-based ground stations to a satellite (uplink), and a signal is sent back from the satellite to another earth-based
ground station (downlink). This achieves a far wider coverage area than the earth-based systems. The satellite system
could be in geostationary earth orbit, medium earth orbit, or low earth orbit.
A typical wireless communication system is shown in Figure 1. It consists of a source of information, a hardware
subsystem called the transmitter, the channel or means by which the signal travels, another hardware subsystem
called the receiver, and a destination of the information (the sink). 7
IF RF LO Filter High Power Amplifier Tx Antenna Amplifier Oscillator Data in Transmitter Processes IF RF
LO Filter Low Power Amplifier Rx Antenna Amplifier Oscillator Data out Receiver Processes Filter Pt, Gt
Propagation Effects (reflection, refraction, distortion, loss, scattering, absorption, etc) Pr, Gr Source Sink
Transmitter Receiver Channel
Figure 1: Simplified model of terrestrial-based RF wireless communication systems.
The source supplies the information to the transmitter in the form of audio, video, data, or combination of the three.
The Tx and Rx combination is used to convert the signal into a form suitable for transmission and then to convert the
signal back to its original form. This is achieved through the process of modulation (or encoding) at the Tx side and
demodulation (or decoding) at the Rx side. The channel is the medium by which the signal propagates, such as free
space, unshielded twisted pair, coaxial cable, or fiber-optic cable. In wireless communication the channel is the free
space. Noise and interference is added to the signal in the channel, which increases attenuation, distortion, and
eventually error in the received signal.
The transmitter and receiver are complex systems consisting of many internal components. A block diagram
representation of some of the components is shown in Figure 1. Components are denoted as transmitter processes,
receiver processes, amplifiers, mixers, local oscillators (LO), filters, and antennas. The transmitter processes
represents functions of the transmitter such as 8
modulation, encoding, analog-to-digital conversion, multiplexing, addressing, and routing information. The receiver
processes, on the other hand, denote the inverse functions such as demodulation, decoding, digital-to-analog
conversion, and demultiplexing, as well as addressing and routing information. Effective transmission and reception
of radio waves involves processes such as amplification and filtering of the signal at various internal stages, mixing
of the desired signal with a local oscillator signal, translating the signal from one frequency to another, and
transmission or reception of the RF energy through the antenna. The amplifier is characterized by its gain, noise
figure (or output power), and linearity (Weisman, 2003). The gain (in dB) of the amplifier is a measure of how much
bigger the output signal is than the input signal. The noise figure (or noise ratio) is a measure of the quality of the
receiver system. Mixers are commonly found in the Tx and Rx subsystems and are used to create new frequencies or
translate existing frequencies to new ones. They are sometimes called up or down converters. The most common
translation of frequency is from intermediate frequency (IF) to RF and vice versa. The mixer performs this function
by effectively multiplying two signals at two frequencies. A signal source that provides one of the inputs to the
mixer is the LO. A common type of LO is a voltage-controlled oscillator. A function of the filter is frequency
selectivity. Filters select signals based on their frequency components. Regardless of the construction, all filters can
be classified as low pass, high pass, band pass, or band stop). These names are descriptive of the function of the
filter. For example, a low pass filter will select signals with low frequency and reject signals with high frequency. A
special type of filter commonly used in RF systems is the duplexer, a frequency-dependent device that may be used
as a separator or a combiner of signals. The duplexer facilitates the use of one antenna for both transmission and 9
reception. The sink or destination (receiver) can vary as much as the source (transmitter) insofar as the type of
information processed.
In the RF propagation channel, external noise in the form of manmade noise (generated by electrical manmade
objects), atmospheric noise, and extraterrestrial noise is introduced. Atmospheric noise is produced by electrical
activities of the atmosphere. This type of noise is predominant in the range 0–30 MHz and is inversely proportional
to its frequency. Extraterrestrial noise is produced by activities of the cosmos, including the sun. The RF propagation
channel is time variant, hence the effectiveness of any system may vary because of the effects of atmospheric
electrical activities (mostly solar ionization), weather, and random human-made noise sources. This time-variant
channel requires careful consideration in the design of any wireless communications system.
In wireless communication, radio waves are used to transfer information, and because radio waves propagate in
space, they are susceptible to some security risks. An intruder can intercept the signal or gain access to network
services, without being an authorized user. The specific risk associated to wireless communication is presented later.
Radio Spectrum Classification
Radio frequencies or radio waves constitute the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum extending from 3 kHz to
300 GHz. The entire RF spectrum is classified into different bands and ranges, based on propagation properties.
Baseband signals or source signals (e.g., audio signals) are in the low-frequency range below 30 kHz. This range of
frequencies is classified as very low frequency (VLF), which must be translated into RF before transmission.
Radio waves are also described by their wavelength, as belonging to a particular wavelength range such as
shortwave, medium-wave, or millimeter-wave. The higher the 10
frequency, the lower the wavelength, because  = c/fc, where c = 3.0  108 m/s is the speed of light, and fc is the
carrier frequency. The wavelength is related to the realizable antenna length, L, system bandwidth, B, and other
practical system parameters. In general, higher frequency radio waves produce smaller , require shorter L, have
lower bandwidth efficiency,  (assuming high bandwidth; Haykin, 2000, p. 347), are more susceptible to fading, are
less susceptible to atmospheric electrical activity, and suffer from atmospheric thermal and weather distortion.
Bandwidth efficiency is the number of information bits transmitted per second per unit of bandwidth (Hz) or the
ratio of the bit rate to channel bandwidth expressed in bit per second per hertz (b/s/Hz). Considering that
, (1) 2 log1 bits/s/Hz b s b R M B BT BT    
it can be seen that as ρ increases, the required bandwidth decreases, if the bit rate Rb is constant. M is the symbol
level and T is the period. Any digital system will become less bandwidth efficient if its BTb value is increased. The
capacity (C) of a digital communication system is directly related bandwidth efficiency because , where S is the
signal power and N is the noise power. Bandwidth efficient systems transmit more information bit per bandwidth. 
 10 1 / C/B log bits/s/Hz max S N   
The characteristics and applications of radio frequencies are summarized in Table 1. Within each frequency range,
several bands of frequencies can be designated for communication. These bands are commonly identified by either fc
or a letter symbol, as illustrated in Figure 2 (Acosta, 1999; Federal Communications Commission [FCC], 1997). For
example, in practical applications, one could describe an RF system as operating in the C, X, K, or K A band instead
of 11
using the actual frequency numbers. A complete list of the radio-frequency allocation can be found at
http://www.rfm.com/corp/new868dat/fccchart.pdf.
Because of the congestion or unavailability of usable spectrum at the lower frequency bands (below 20 GHz) and the
recent demand for multimedia communication at high data-rate capabilities, system designers have directed their
attention toward the use of SHF and EHF for communication (Acosta, 1999). Currently, there is a great deal of
research on developing RF systems operating at frequencies above 20 GHz (K A band and above; National
Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1998).
This interest in the EHF band is justified because of its potential benefits, such as the availability of usable spectrum,
high data-rate capability, reduced interference, and high achievable gain with narrow beam widths of small antennas
(Ippolito, 1989). The drawback, however, is that at these frequencies atmospheric distortion, especially rain
attenuation (absorption of the RF signal), is severe (Acosta & Horton, 1998; Xu, Rappaport, Boyle, & Schaffner,
2000). The severity of the meteorological effects increases with increasing frequency. At some frequency bands, the
meteorological effects can cause a reduction in received signal amplitude, depolarization of the radio wave, and
increase in thermal noise (Ippolito, 1989).
Table 1 Frequenc Propagati   L Typical
Radio- y range on use
Frequency characteri
Band stics
Classificati
ons and
Characteri
stics
Frequenc
y band