UNIT 3

STUDENT MOTIVATION

Written by: Dr. Muhammad Ajmal Chaudhry

Reviewed by: Dr. Naveed Sultana

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 Unit Contents

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 OBJECTIVS

3.3 DEFINITION OF MOTIVATION

3.4 TYPES OF MOTIVATION

3.5 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

3.6 APPLICATION OF MOTIVATION IN EDUCATION

3.7 STUDENT MOTIVATION

3.8 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENT

MOTIVATION

3.9 EXERCISE

3.10 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

3.11 REFERENCES

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3.1 INTRODUCTION

In an ideal classroom, students pay attention, ask questions and want to learn. They do their
assignments without complaint and study without being persuaded and flattered. But, teachers
often have students who don’t seem motivated to work on the classroom tasks set out for them.
“They aren’t successful with every student, but with a positive approach to motivation, they can
influence many.” (Kauchak & Eggen, 2004) Therefore, teachers contribute a great deal to students’
desires to learn and to take responsibility for their learning.
Motivation is a crucial element to the learning process. Many researches clearly show a
positive correlation between motivation and achievement. Some students are highly motivated to
learn, and this interest continues throughout their years at school. Some other students, particularly
adolescents, see what happened at school as having no functional relevance to their lives. They
become increasingly bored, particularly with academic task and are generally uninterested in
anything that happens in the classroom. Teachers should recognize that there is tremendous
variation in the level of energy and interest students bring to the classroom activities.
“Some students are easy to teach because they are excited about learning and responsive
to the teacher’s idea. While, the others are completely unmotivated by what happens in the
classroom and have no interest in schoolwork.” (Krause, et. al, 2003)
Therefore, it is important for a teacher to be truly effective to help their students feel
motivated to learn and to achieve. A teacher must go beyond the materials and processes typically
used to stimulate and understand the underlying elements involved in the motivation to learn.
Teachers explain the differing motivational level among their students in ways that reflect
their own personal philosophy of learning and teaching. Some focus on the place of reward and
punishment in motivating students to learn. Other teachers are more concerned with students’
expectation of success, or the way in which they attribute failure.
“Factors that can also influence students’ motivation to learn include their observation of
peer achieving success or failure, their ability to regulate their own behavior and their need for
personal fulfillment.” (Krause, et. al, 2003)

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3.2 OBJECTIVES
After the completion of the unit you will be able to:
 Define and clarify the concept of motivation.
 Identify the types of motivation.
 Describe difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
 Explain different theories of motivation.
 Explain strategies that can increase motivation

3.3 Definition of Motivation

The word motivation is derived from a Latin word ‘movers’ which means to move. Thus;
motivation is an external force which accelerates a response or behavior. Motivation is a cause of
an organism’s behavior, or the reason that an organism carries out some activity. In a human being,
motivation involves both conscious and unconscious drives. Psychological theories must account
for a “primary” level of motivation to satisfy basic needs, such as those for food, oxygen, and
water, and for a “secondary” level of motivation to fulfill social needs such as companionship and
achievement. The primary needs must be satisfied before an organism can attend to secondary
drives.
Motivation is described by different psychologists differently as described below:-

 “The term motivation refers to the arousal of tendency to act to produce one or more
effect”Allport (1935 )

 “Motivation is constant, never ending, fluctuating and complex and it is an almost

universal characteristic of particularly every organismic state of affairs.” Maslow(1960 )

 “The process of arousing, sustaining and regulating activity”Crow.L.D.(1953 )

 “ The central factor in the effective management of the process of learning.”B.R.

Annandi(1981)

 “Motivation in school learning involves arousing, persisting, sustaining and directing

desirable behavior.” Lepper, Mark R.(1998)

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 The word motivation refers to getting someone moving. When we motivate ourselves or
someone else, we develop incentives or we set up conditions that start or stop behavior.
In education, motivation deals with the problem of setting up conditions so that learners
will perform to the best of their abilities in academic settings. We often motivate learners by
helping them develop an expectancy that a benefit will occur as a result of their participation in an
instructional experience.

Motivation is concerned with the factors that stimulate or inhibit the desire to engage in
behavior. It involves the processes that energize, direct and sustain behavior. It can be thought of
as an internal process that activates guides and maintains behavior overtime.
According to Krause, K.L, Bochner, S, & Duchesne, S(2003): “The concept of motivation
is linked closely to other constructs in education and psychology such as constructs of attention,
needs, goals and interests which are all contribute to stimulating students’ interest in learning and
their intention to engage in particular activities and achieve various goals.”
Baron, and Schunk, (1992) stated that “The definition of motivation is the force that energizes and
directs a behavior towards a goal.”
Tan O.S., Parsons, R.D., Hinson, S.L, & Brown, D.S, (2003) stated that “The concept of
motivation as applied when a person is energized to satisfy some need or desire. The person will
engage in, or be attracted toward activities that are perceived as having the potential to meet this
need or desire.”
3.4 Types of Motivation
Following are the types of motivation: extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation
Positive Motivation
This brings about positive response to the action that one needs to undertake in order to achieve
these goals.
Negative Motivation
It is being reinforced with fear, anxiety and such negative feelings in order to have tasks
and goals achieved.

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 Negative and Positive motivational forces could include coercion, desire, fear, influence is
framed, they could be either negative or positive forces that act as actuators. For instance a fear
(negative force) of bodily injury could be a motivation to implement the use of safety equipment
(positive force).
Extrinsic Motivation
Motivation is concerned with the factors that stimulate or inhibit the desire to engage in
behavior. Teachers use extrinsic motivation to stimulate learning or encourage students to perform
in a particular way. It is one of the most powerful motivations. It is operative when an individual
is motivated by an outcome that is external or somehow related to the activity in which she or he
is engaged. In other words, “Extrinsic motivation refers to rewards that are obtained not from the
activity, but as a consequence of the activity.”(Morris &Maisto, 2002)
This motivation arises from the use of external rewards or bribes such as food, praise, free time,
money or points toward an activity. These incentives are all external, in that they are separate from
the individual and the task.
Example: a child may does chores not because he enjoys them but because doing so earns an
allowance and students who are extrinsically motivated may study hard for a test in order to obtain
a good grade in the course.
Extrinsic motivation refers to motivation that comes from outside an individual. The
motivating factors are external, or outside, rewards such as money or grades. These rewards
provide satisfaction and pleasure that the task itself may not provide.

An extrinsically motivated person will work on a task even they have little interest in it
because of the anticipated satisfaction they will get from some reward. The rewards can be
something as minor as a smiley face to something major like fame or fortune. For example, an
extrinsically motivated person who dislikes math may work hard on a math equation because he
wants the reward for completing it. In the case of a student, the reward would be a good grade on
an assignment or in the class.

Extrinsic motivation does not mean, however, that a person will not get any pleasure from
working on or completing a task. It just means that the pleasure they anticipate from some external
reward will continue to be a motivator even when the task to be done holds little or no interest. An
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extrinsically motivated student, may dislikes an assignment, may finds it boring, or has no interest
in the subject, but the possibility of a good grade will be enough to keep the student motivated in
order for him or her to put forth the effort to do well on a task.

Intrinsic motivation
The motivation arises from internal factors such as a child’s natural feeling of curiosity,
exigent, confidence and satisfaction when performing a task. People who are involved in a task
because of intrinsic motivation appear to be engaged and even consumed, since they are motivated
by the activity itself and not some goal that is achieved at the end or as a result of the activity.
Intrinsic motivation is the ultimate goal in education at every level.
Example: Children play game for no other reward than the fun they get from the game itself or
students who are intrinsically motivated may study hard for a test because he or she enjoys the
content of the course.

Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the

task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on any external pressure. Intrinsic
motivation has been studied by social and educational psychologists since the early 1970s.
Research has found that it is usually associated with high educational achievement and enjoyment
by students. Explanations of intrinsic motivation has been given in the context of fritz Hieder’s
attribution theory, Bandura’s work on self-efficiency, and Deci and Ryan’s cognitive evaluation
theory.

Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:

 Attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control (e.g. the amount
of effort they put in),
 Believe they can be effective agents in reaching desires goals (i.e. the results are not
determined by luck),
 Are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good grades.

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3.5 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Different psychological perspectives explain motivation in four different ways. Let us
explore four of these perspectives; behavioral, humanistic, cognitive and social.
The Behavioral Perspective
According to the behaviorist view of learning, when children are rewarded with praise and
a gold star for doing their job correctly, they will look forward to the next mathematics lesson,
anticipating another rewards. At some time in the past, they must have been rewarded for similar
achievements and this experience acts as a motivator for future learning of a similar type.
For behaviorists, motivation is simply a product of effective contingent reinforcement.
So, they emphasize the use of extrinsic reinforcement to stimulate students’ task engagement. The
reinforcement can take the form of praise, a smile, an early mark or loss of privileges such as
missing out on sport.
“Almost all teachers use extrinsic reinforcement in some form to motivate students,
although they may not realize they are doing so and may not always use such reinforcement
effectively.” (Brody, 1992 in Krause, et. al, 2003)
The Humanistic Perspective
The humanist theory of motivation is interesting because it is not only linked to
achievement and education, but also has implications for students’ wefare and well-being through
its concern with basic needs. It stresses on students’ capacity for personal growth, freedom to
choose their destiny and positive qualities.
There are two theories of motivation from humanistic perspective:

(a) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow (1954) perceived motivation in terms of a hierarchy of needs that can also
conceiveas ‘motives’. According to Maslow’s model, once basic physiological needs have been
satisfied, efforts are directed toward achieving needs associated with safety, love and belonging,
and self-esteem.

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 Figure No. 2: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

b) Roger’s motivation theory

Carl Roger’s ideas are also influential in discussing the nature of motivation and its impact
to human lives.
Rogers argued that: Behaviour was influenced by the individual’s perception of both
personal and environmental factors. People should listen to their ‘inner voices’ or innate capacity
to judge what was good for themselves, rather than relying on feedback from external sources.
The Cognitive Perspective
“According to Santrock (2006) the cognitive perspective on motivation focuses on
students’ thought guide their motivation. It focuses on students’ internal motivation to achieve,
their attribution (perception about the causes of success or failure) and their beliefs that they can
effectively control their environment. It also stresses on the importance of goal setting, planning
and monitoring progress toward a goal.”

(a) Achievement Motivation

John Atkinson and David McClelland described the need for achievement as: “A stable
personality characteristic that drives some individuals to strive for success. Students who have a
high need for achievement are motivated to become involved in an activity if they believe that they
will be successful. They are moderate risk taker and tend to be attracted to tasks where the chances
of success are fifty-fifty; since there is a good chance they will be successful.
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They like to attempt a task, but not if they know there is substantial risk of failure.”

On the other hand, Krause described: “Students who have a need to avoid failure, rather
than a need to achieve success, will look for tasks that are either very easy and have little risk of
failure, or very difficult so that failure is not their fault.”

(b) Weiner Attribution Theory

Attribution theory is concerned with the way in which an individual’s explanations of success
and failure influence that individual’s subsequent motivation and behaviour. Students may
attribute success or failure to different causes, depending on their beliefs about who or what
controls their success or failure.
There are three important elements to note regarding the way in which students interpret the
cause of behavioral outcome. The three important elements are lotus of control, controllability and
stability.

3.6 APPLICATIONS OF MOTIVATION IN EDUCATION

Motivation is of particular interest to educational psychologists because of the crucial role it
plays in student learning. However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied in the specialized
setting of educations differs qualitatively from the more general forms of motivation studied by
psychologists in other fields.

Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and how they behave
towards subject matter. It can:

 Direct behavior towards particular goals

 Lead to increased effort and energy
 Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities
 Enhance cognitive processing
 Determine what consequences are reinforcing
 Lead to improved performance.

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Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need situated motivation,
which is found in environmental conditions that the teachers create.

Implication for Educators

Based on four perspectives discussed earlier, we can apply the theories of motivation in
classrooms to promote students’ motivation to learn and to achieve. There are several things that
teachers should emphasize in order to apply those approaches:
Behavioral approaches
 Remember that reinforcement to increase desired behavior motivates further learning of
this types.
 Recognize that student motivation is shaped by previous reinforcing experiences.
 Know that students’ maladaptive attribution of success andfailure, including learned
helplessness, can be modified.

Cognitive approaches
 Understand the underlying factors in students’behavior, studying students’ carefully and
using a variety of information sources to discover why students behave as they do.
 Accept that students are not always motivated to be successful, and that the risk of
attempting to succeed may be overwhelmed by the need to avoid failure.
 Realize that motivating students by focusing on increasing mastery in more effective
than emphasizing performance goals.
 Be aware of their own biases and how these might affect the way they attribute success
and failure in individual students.

Social Learning approaches

 Ensure that students experience success, not just failure.
 Remember that self-evaluation is influenced by observing others’ achievements, and by
encouragement and high arousal in challenging situations.
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  Recognize that motivation is affected by learners’ judgments about their own efficacy.

Humanist approaches

 Become more concerned with the wider implication of student welfare, not just with
student’s education.
 Be aware that some studentsare more concerned with feelings of safety, belonging and
self-esteem than with the demands of the school curriculum.
 Understand that students who feel a strong need for group belonging will experience
difficulties and lack motivation to learn if teacher acts in ways that conflict with group
mores.
 Acknowledge that teachers’ own beliefs and values can have a major impact on students’
motivation.
3.7 STUDENT MOTIVATION
Make it Real
In order to foster intrinsic motivation, try to create learning activities that are based on the
topics that are relevant to your student’s lives. Strategies include using local examples, teaching
with events in the news, using pop culture technology (iPods, cell phones, you tube videos) to
teach, or connecting the subject with your students’ culture, outside interests or social lives.

Provide Choices
Students can have increased motivation when they feel some sense of autonomy in the learning
process, and that motivation declines when students have no voice in the class structure. Giving
your students options can be as simple as letting them pick their lab partners or select from
alternative assignments, or as complex as “contract teaching” wherein students can determine their
own grading scale, due dates and assignments.

Balance the Challenge

Students perform best when the level of difficulty is slightly above their current level. If the
task is too easy, it promotes boredom and may communicate a message of low expectations or a

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sense that the teacher believes the student is not capable of better work. A task that is too difficult
may be seen as unattainable, may undermine self-efficacy, and may create anxiety. Scaffolding is
one instructional technique where the challenge level is gradually raised as students are capable of
more complex tasks.

Seek Role Models

If students can identify with role models they may be more likely to see the relevance in the
subject matter. For example, Weins et al (2003) found that female students were more likely to
cite a positive influence with a teacher as a factor becoming interested in science. In some cases,
you can be a role model but it’s unlikely that you will connect on that level with everyone in the
class due to differences in gender, age and social circles. However there can be many sources of
role models, such as invited guest speakers, fellow students or other peers.

Use Peer Models

Students can learn by watching a peer succeed at a task. In this context, a peer means someone
who the student identities with, not necessarily any other student. Peers may be drawn from groups
as defined by gender, ethnicity, social circles, interests, achievement level, clothing, or age.

Establish a Sense of Belonging

People have a fundamental need to feel connected or related to other people. In an academic
environment, research shows that students who feel they ‘belong’ have a higher degree of intrinsic
motivation and academic confidence. According to students, their sense of belonging is fostered
by an instructor that demonstrates warmth and openness, encourages student participation, is
enthusiastic, friendly and helpful, and is organized and prepared for class.

Adopt a Supportive Style

A supportive teaching style that allows for student autonomy can foster increased student
interest, enjoyment, engagement and performance. Supportive teacher behaviors include listening,
giving hints and encouragement, being responsive to student questions and showing empathy for
students.

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Example of supportive-style teacher behaviors

o Listening- carefully and fully attended to the student’s speech, as evidenced by verbal or
non-verbal signals of active, contingent, and responsive information processing.
o Asking what students want; such as, “which problem do you want to start with?”
o Allowing students to work in their own way
o Allowing students to talk
o Using explanatory statements as to why a particular course of action might be useful, such
as “How about we try the cube, because it is the easiest one.”
o Using praise as informational feedback, such as “Good Job” and “That’s great.”
o Offering encouragements to boost or sustain the student’s engagement, such as “almost”
“you’re close,” and “you can do it.”
o Offering hints, such as “Laying the map on the table seems to work better than holding it
in your lap” and “It might be easier to work on the bottom of the map first.”
o Being responsive to student-generated questions, such as “yes, you have a good point” and
“yes, right, that was the second one.”
o Communicating with empathic statements to acknowledge the student’s perspective or
experience, such as “yes, this one is difficult” and”I know its sort hard to tell.”
o Talking
o Holding or monopolizing learning materials
o Giving the solutions or answers before the students had the opportunity to discover the
solution themselves.
o Uttering directive or commands, such as “Do it like this,” “Start this way,” or “Use pencil.”
o Making statements that the student should, must, has to, got to, or ought to do something,
such as “you should keep doing that” and “you ought to….”
o Asking controlling questions, such as “can you move it like I showed you?” and “Why
don’t you go ahead and show me?”
o Making statements communicating a shortage of time, such as “We only have a few
minutes left.”

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 o Using praise as contingent reward to show approval of the student or the student’s
compliance with the teacher’s directions, such as “you’re smart” or” you are really good at
playing with blocks.”
o Criticizing the students or the student’s lack of Compliance with the teacher’s directions,
such as “No, no, no, you shouldn’t do that.”

3.8 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF

STUDENT’S MOTIVATION
According to JereBrophy (1987), motivation to learn is a competence acquired “through
general experience but stimulated most directly through modeling, communication of
expectations, and direct instruction or socialization by significant others (especially parents and
teachers)”.
Children’s home environment shapes the initial constellation of attitudes they develop toward
learning. When parents nurture their children’s natural curiosity about the world by welcoming
their questions, encouraging exploration, and familiarizing them with resources that can enlarge
their world, they are giving their children the message that learning is worthwhile and frequently
fun and satisfying.
When children are raised in a home that nurtures a sense of self-worth, competence,
autonomy, and self-efficacy, they will be more apt to accept the risks inherent in learning.
Conversely, when children do not view themselves as basically competent and able, their freedom
to engage in academically challenging pursuits and capacity to tolerate and cope with failure are
greatly diminished.
Once children start school, they are being forming beliefs about their school-related
successes and failures. The sources to which children attribute their successes (commonly effort,
ability, luck, or level of task difficulty) and failures (often lack of ability or lack of effort) have
important implications for how they approach and cope with learning situations.
The beliefs teachers themselves have about teaching and learning and the nature of the expectations
they hold for students also exert a powerful influence (Raffini). As Deborah Stipek (1998) notes,
“To a very large degree, students expect to learn if their teachers expect them to learn”.

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 School’s wide goals, policies, and procedures also interact with classroom climate and
practices to affirm or alter students’ increasingly complex learning-related attitudes and beliefs.
Developmental changes comprise one more strand of the motivational web. For example, although
young children tend to maintain high expectations for success even in the face of repeated failure,
older students do not. And although younger children tend to see effort as uniformly positive, older
children view it as a “double- edged sword” (Ames). To them, failure following high effort appears
to carry more negative implication—especially for their self-concept of ability--than failure that
results from minimal or no effort.
According to Carol Ames (1990, 1992), there are six areas that can influence students’
motivation to learn:
Task students are asked to do.
The strength of our motivation in a particular situation is determined by our expectation
that we can success and the value of that success. To understand how an academic task can affect
student’s motivation, we need to analyze them. Tasks can be interesting or boring for students.
And tasks have different value for students.

The autonomy students are allowed in working.

Give students a range of options that set valuable tasks for them, but also allow them to follow
personal interest. The balance must be just right. Too much autonomy is bewildering and too little
is boring.
How students are recognized for their accomplishments.
Students should be recognized for improving on their own personal best, for tackling
difficult tasks, for persistence, and for creativity.

Grouping Practices.
Motivation can greatly influenced by the ways we relate to the other people who are also
involved in accomplishing a particular goal. When the task involves complex learning and problem
skills, cooperation leads to higher achievement than competition, especially for students with low
abilities. The interaction with peers that the students enjoy so much becomes a part of learning

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process. The need for belonging described by Maslow is more likely to be met and motivation is
increased.

Evaluation Procedures.
The greater the emphasis on competitive evaluation and grading, the more students will
focus on performance goals rather than mastery. Low-achieving students who have little hope of
either performing well or mastery the task may simply want to get it over with.
How can teachers prevent students from simply focusing on the grade or doing the work “just to
get finished”? The answer is to de-emphasize grades and emphasize learning in the class. Students
need to understand the value of the work or how the information will be useful in solving problems
they want to solve. One way to emphasize learning rather than grades is to use self-evaluation.

Scheduling of time in the classroom.

Most teachers know that there is too much work and not enough time in the school day.
Even if they become engrossed in a project, students must stop and turn their attention to another
subject when the bell rings or the schedules demands. Furthermore, students must progress as a
group. So, scheduling often interferes with motivation by making students move faster or slower
and interrupting their involvement. Therefore, teacher should be able to give extended period when
everyone, even the teachers engage in activity or to have some sort of block scheduling in which
teachers work in teams to plan larger blocks of time.

Strategize with Struggling Students

When students are struggling with poor academic performance, low self-efficiency or low
motivation, one strategy that may help is to teach them how to learn. That is, to outline specific
strategies for completing an assignment, note-taking or reviewing for an exam.

Examples of learning strategies

Specific Learning Strategies:

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  Pre-action phase (preparing for task)- take a reasonable risk, work toward goals that are
challenging but attainable, work in manageable, bite-size pieces, take responsibility for
your actions, believe In your own effort and capability, set a plan and work from it.
 Action phase- search the environment, ask questions, visualize it (?)
 Reaction phase (after one task, preparing for the next one) - use feedback from prior
tasks; monitor your own actions, giving yourself instructions.

3.9 EXERCISE
Read the statements carefully and encircle the correct option.

1. The word “motivation” refers to the definitions below except:

a. The factors that establish the activities engaged by students.
b. The force that energizes directs and sustains behavior towards a goal.
c. The internal process that activates guides and maintains behavior overtime.
d. The constructs of attention, needs, goals and interests that stimulating students.’
e. Interest in learning and their intention to engage in activities.

2. For behaviorists, motivation is simply a product of effective contingent __________.

According to Humanistic views of motivation, effective teachers handle their problem
students by:
a. First, building a personal relationship with them
b. Warning them before punishing any infractions of rules.
c. Establishing rules for the class at the beginning of the school year.
d. Trying to understand their need for achievement.

3. Almost all teachers use ______________reinforcement to stimulate students’ task

engagement that take the form of praise, a smile, an early mark or loss of privileges such
as missing out on sport.
a. reinforcement – internal
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 b. incentive – internal
c. reinforcement – external
d. incentive - external

4. Which of the following are considered to be activities that are intrinsically motivating?
a. Activities perceived as challenging.
b. Activities in which learners feel like they have a sense of control.
c. Activities in which learners feel like they’re likely to be reinforced
d. Activities that have novel or surprising results.

5. According to Humanistic views of motivation, effective teachers handle their problem

students by:
a. First, building a personal relationship with them
b. Warning them before punishing any infractions of rules.
c. Establishing rules for the class at the beginning of the school year.
d. Trying to understand their need for achievement.

3.10 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Q1: Define and describe the term motivation
Q2: What are different types of motivation? Discuss in detail.

Q3: What are the different factors that influence student motivation?

Q4: Write a brief note on the theories of motivation

Q5: Review the key concepts in motivation such as extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and
consider how these apply to you.
Q6: Compare the behavioral and humanistic perspectives on motivation.
Q7: How can teacher’s expectations affect students’ motivation?
Q8: What strategies a teacher can use in the classroom to motivate students?

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3.11 REFERENCES

Ames, Carole A.(1990). “Motivation: What Teachers Need to know.” Teachers College Record
91,3 (Spring 1990): 409-21..

Condry, J., and J. Chambers.(1978). “Intrinsic Motivation and the Process of Learning.In The
Hidden Costs of Reward, edited by M.R. Lepper and D. Greene. 61-84. Hillsdale, New
Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Eggen, P. &Kauchack, D. 2004. Educational psychology:windows on classrooms. 6th ed. New

Jersey:Pearson.
F. Tuzzolino and B.R. Annandi,(1981). “A need Hierarchy Framework for Assessing Corporate
Social Responsibility,” Academy of Management Review, pp. 21-28.

Krause, K. L., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S.( 2003). Educational psychology for learning and
teaching. Australia:Thomson.

Lepper, Mark R.(1998) “Motivational Considerations in the Study of Instruction.” Cognition and
Instruction .289-309.

Maehr, Martin L., and Carol Midgley.(1991). “Enhancing Student Motivation: A School wide
Approach.”.

Maslow, A.H.(1960). “A Theory of Human Motivation,” in Robert A. Sutermeister, people and

productivity, New York: McGraw Hill Book Co,. 2nd edition, 1960
Morris, C.G. &Maisto, A.A. 2002.Psychology:An introduction. 11th ed. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
Plotnik, R,. 1999. Introduction to psychology. 5th ed. Belmont:Brooks/Cole - Wadsworth.
Santrock, J.W. 2006. Educational psychology: Classroom update: Preparing for
PRAXIS TM and practice. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw Hill.

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Stipek, Deborah.(1988) Motivation To Learn: From Theory To Practice. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Tan O.S., Parsons, R.D., Hinson, S.L., &Sardo-Brown, D. 2003. Educational

psychology: A practitioner-researcher approach. Australia: Thomson.

Woolfolk, A. 2004.Educational psychology. 9th ed. Boston:Pearson.

Web links

www.googlescholar.com

www.google.com

www.motivation-tools.com

www.motivation-for-dreams.com

www.wikipedia.org

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation

http://www.ehow.com/list_7223299_benefits-extrinsic-motivation_.html#ixzz17og6zjlj

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