34.

Introduction to Matrix Algebra

34.1. Definition of Matrix
A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers in rows and columns, and enclosed in brackets, thus:

⎡ a11 a12 a13 a14 ⎤

⎢ a21 a22 a23 a24 ⎥
⎣ a31 a32 a33 a34 ⎦

The numbers are called elements of the matrix. The above matrix would be said to have three rows (first row:a11a12a13a14, and
so on) and four columns, and would be called a matrix of dimension 3 × 4. The elements are referred to by two subscripts;
thus, the element in row 2, column 3 is element a23. A matrix may have any number of rows and any number of columns; a
general matrix is said to have dimension m × n, thus, m rows and n columns.

34.2. Matrix Notation

Matrices are referred to by capital letters, thus: A, and by doubly subscripted lowercase letters enclosed in parentheses, thus:
(aij). If necessary for clarity, the dimension of the matrix is specified as a subscript, thus: Am × n.

34.3. Special Matrices

A matrix consisting of only one row is called a row matrix. A matrix consisting of only one column is called a column matrix. A
matrix with equal numbers of rows and columns is called a square matrix. For a square matrix of dimension n × n, the elements
a11, a22, . . . , ann are called the main diagonal elements. A matrix with all elements equal to zero is called a zero matrix. A zero
matrix of dimension m × n is denoted by 0m × n, or, if the dimension is clear from the context, simply 0.

Example

EXAMPLE 34.1

[5 −2 0 9] is a row matrix (dimension 1 × 4).

2
[ ] is a column matrix (dimension 2 × 1).
−3
Examples of square matrices are
⎡ −3 5 −4 ⎤
] , and ⎢ 2 2 −4 ⎥
0 0 0 0
[4], [ . [ ] is also a zero matrix of dimension 2 × 2.
0 0 ⎣ 0 9 −4 ⎦ 0 0

34.4. Matrix Equality

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
Two matrices are equal if and only if they have the same dimension and corresponding elements are equal, thus, given A = (aij)
and B = (bij), A = B if and only if the matrices have the same dimension and aij = bij for all i and j.

34.5. Matrix Addition

Given matrices of the same dimension m × n, A = (aij) and B = (bij), the matrix sum A + B is defined by A + B = (aij + bij), that is, A
+ B is a matrix of dimension m × n with each element being the sum of the corresponding elements of A and B. The sum of two
matrices of different dimension is not defined.

34.6. Additive Inverse and Subtraction

The additive inverse, or negative, of an m × n matrix A = (aij) is the m × n matrix − A = (−aij). Subtraction of two matrices of the
same dimension m × n, A = (aij) and B = (bij), is defined by A − B = (aij − bij), that is, A − B is a matrix of dimension m × n with
each element being the difference of the corresponding elements of A and B.

34.7. Properties of Matrix Addition

Given m × n matrices A, B, C, and O, the following laws can be shown to hold (O is a zero matrix):

1. COMMUTATIVE LAW: A + B = B + A

2. ASSOCIATIVE LAW: A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C

3. IDENTITY LAW: A + O = A

4. ADDITIVE INVERSE LAW: A + (−A) = O

34.8. Product of a Matrix and a Scalar

The product of a matrix and a scalar is defined as follows: Given an m × n matrix A = (aij) and a scalar (real number) c, then cA
= (caij), that is, cA is the m × n matrix formed by multiplying each element of A by c. The following properties can be shown to
hold (A and B both of order m × n):

c(A + B) = cA + cB (c + d)A = cA + dA (cd)A = c(dA)

34.9. SOLVED PROBLEMS

34.1.  State the dimension of the following matrices:
⎡4 3⎤
A = [ ] ; B = ⎢ 5 −2 ⎥ ; C = [
3 0 0 −3
].
4 ⎣6 4 ⎦ 4 2 2

A has 2 rows and 1 column; it is a 2 × 1 matrix.

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 B has 3 rows and 2 columns; it is a 3 × 2 matrix.

C has 2 rows and 3 columns; it is a 2 × 3 matrix

34.2.  Given the matrices

5 0 3 −2 −3 −2 −3
A=[ ], B = [ ], C = [ ], find
2 −3 −4 8 4 0 2
a.  A + B;

b.  −C;

c.  B + C;

d.  B − A.

a.  
5 0 3 −2 5 + 3 0 + (−2) 8 −2
A+B = [ ]+[ ]=[ ]=[ ]
2 −3 −4 8 2 + (−4) (−3) + 8 −2 5
b.  
−3 −2 −3 3 2 3
−C = − [ ]=[ ]
4 0 2 −4 0 −2
c.  Since B is a 2 × 2 matrix and C is a 2 × 3 matrix, B + C is not defined.

d.  
3 −2 5 0 3 − 5 (−2) − 0 −2 −2
B−A = [ ]−[ ]=[ ]=[ ]
−4 8 2 −3 (−4) − 2 8 − (−3) −6 11
34.3.  Verify the commutative law for matrix addition: for any two m × n matrices A and B, A + B = B + A.

Let A = (aij) and B = (bij). Since both A and B have dimension m × n, both A + B and B + A are defined and have dimension m ×
n. Then

A + B = (aij ) + (bij ) = (aij + bij ) and B + A = (bij ) + (aij ) = (bij + aij )

Since for all i and j, aij + bij and bij + aij are real numbers, aij + bij = bij + aij, Hence A + B = B + A.

34.4.  Verify the identity law for matrix addition: for any m × n matrix A, A + 0m × n = A.

Let A = (aij); by definition 0m × n is an m × n matrix with all entries equal to zero, that is, 0m × n = (0). Then A + 0m × n is defined
and has dimenmsion m × n, hence

A + 0m × n = (aij ) + (0) = (aij + 0) = (aij ) = A

34.5.  Given the matrices

−2 6 2 3 −2 −3 −2 −3
A=[ ], B = [ ], C = [ ], find
0 −3 4 −4 8 4 0 2
a.  −2A;

b.  0B;

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 c.  5B + 3A;

d.  −3C + 4A.

a.  
−2 6 2 (−2)(−2) (−2)6 (−2)2 4 −12 −4
−2A = −2[ ]=[ ]=[ ]
0 −3 4 (−2)0 (−2)(−3) (−2)4 0 6 −8
b.  
3 −2 0(3) 0(−2) 0 0
0B = 0[ ]=[ ]=[ ]
−4 8 0(−4) 0(8) 0 0
c.  Since 5B is a 2 × 2 matrix and 3A is a 2 × 3 matrix, 5B + 3A is not defined.

d.  
−3 −2 −3 −2 6 2 9 6 9 −8 24 8
−3C + 4A = −3[ ] + 4[ ]=[ ]+[ ]
4 0 2 0 −3 4 −12 0 −6 0 −12 16
1 30 17
= [ ]
−12 −12 10
34.6.  Verify: If both A and B are m × n matrices, then for any scalar c, c(A + B) = cA + cB.

First note that A + B, c(A + B), cA, cB, and hence cA + cB are all defined and of dimension m × n.

Let A = (aij) and B = (bij); then

c(A + B) = c((aij ) + (bij )) = c((aij + bij )) = (c(aij + bij ))

where the innermost multiplication is the product of two real numbers, and

cA + cB = c(aij ) + c(bij ) = (caij + cbij )

But by the distributive law for real numbers,

c(aij + bij ) = caij + cbij for any i and j. Hence

c(A + B) = cA + cB

34.10. SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS

 34.7.  Given

⎡ 3 4 −2 ⎤ ⎡ 4 2⎤ ⎡ 0 2 0⎤
⎢
A= 8 0 ⎥
2 B=, ⎢ 4 2 ⎥ ,C = ⎢ −3 −4 2 ⎥, find
⎣ 1 1 −2 ⎦ ⎣ −4 −2 ⎦ ⎣ 7 2 −1 ⎦
a.  A + B;

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 b.  A + C;

c.  B − B;

d.  2C;

Ans.

a.  Not defined;

b.  

⎡3 6 −2 ⎤
⎢ 5 −4 4 ⎥;
⎣8 3 −3 ⎦
c.  

⎡0 0⎤
⎢ 0 0 ⎥;
⎣0 0⎦

d.  

⎡ 0 4 0⎤
⎢ −6 −8 4⎥
⎣ 14 4 −2 ⎦

Schaum's Precalculus Supplementary Problem 34.7

This video presents the solution to various problems highlighting matrix

 addition and the product of a matrix and a scalar.

David Rader, Professor of Mathematics, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology

2020

34.8.  Given A, B, and C as in the previous problem, find (a) 3A + 2C; (b)
1
B; (c) −A − 2C.
4
Ans.

a.  

⎡ 9 16 −6 ⎤
⎢ 18 −8 10 ⎥;
⎣ 17 7 −8 ⎦
b.  

⎡ 1 1/2 ⎤
⎢ 1 1/2 ⎥ ;
⎣ −1 −1/2 ⎦

c.  

⎡ −3 −8 2⎤
⎢ −2 8 −6 ⎥
⎣ −15 −5 4⎦

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 ⎣ 15 5 4⎦
34.9.  Verify the associative law for matrix addition: for any three m × n matrices A, B, and C, A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C.

34.10.  Verify the additive inverse law for matrix addition: for any m × n matrix A,
A + (−A) = Om×n.
34.11.  Verify: for any two scalars c and d and any matrix A, (c + d ) A = cA + dA.

34.12.  Verify: for any two scalars c and d and any matrix A, (cd)A = c(dA).

34.13.  The transpose of an m × n matrix A is a matrix AT formed by interchanging rows and columns of A, that is, an n × m
matrix with the element in row j, column i being aij. Find the transposes of matrices

a.  

⎡ 3 4 −2 ⎤
A = ⎢8 0 2⎥;
⎣ 1 1 −2 ⎦

b.  

⎡ 4 2⎤
B=⎢ 4 2⎥.
⎣ −4 −2 ⎦

Ans.

a.  

⎡ 3 8 1⎤
=⎢ 4 0 1⎥;
⎣ −2 2 −2 ⎦
AT

b.  
4 4 −4
BT = [ ]
2 2 −2
34.14.  Verify: (a) (AT) T = A; (b) (A + B) T = AT + BT; (c) (cA) T = cAT.

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
35. Matrix Multiplication and Inverses
35.1. Definition of Inner Product
The inner product of a row of matrix A with a column of matrix B is defined, if and only if the number of columns of matrix A
equals the number of rows of matrix B, as the following real number: multiply each element of the row of A by the
corresponding element of the column of B and sum the results. Thus:

b1j
...........
b2j
ai ⋅ bj = ai1ai2 … aip . … … = ai1b1j + ai2b2j + ⋯ + aip bpj
⋯
...........
bpj

Example

EXAMPLE 35.1

Find the inner product of row 1 of

3 4
[ ] with column 2 of
6 −2
5 9 2
[ ].
0 7 8

9
[3 4] ⋅ [ ] = 3(9) + 4(7) = 55
7

35.2. Multiplication of Matrices

The product of two matrices is defined, if and only if the number of columns of matrix A equals the number of rows of matrix B,
as the following matrix AB: Assuming A is an m × p matrix and B is a p × n matrix, then C = AB is an m × n matrix with the
element in row i, column j, being the inner product of row i of matrix A with column j of matrix B.

Example

EXAMPLE 35.2

Let
3 4 5 9 2
A=[ ] and B = [ ]. Find AB.
6 −2 0 7 8
First note that A is a 2 × 2 matrix and B is a 2 × 3 matrix, hence AB is defined and is a 2 × 3 matrix. The element in row 1,
column 1 of AB is the inner product of row 1 of A with column 1 of B, thus:

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 5
[3 4] ⋅ [ ] = 3(5) + 4(0) = 15
0

Continuing in this manner, form

3(5) + 4(0) 3(9) + 4(7) 3(2) + 4(8) 15 55 38

AB = [ ]=[ ]
6(5) + (−2)(0) 6(9) + (−2)(7) 6(2) + (−2)(8) 30 40 −4

35.3. Properties of Matrix Multiplication

In general, matrix multiplication is not commutative, that is, there is no guarantee that AB should equal BA. In case the two
results are equal, the matrices A and B are said to commute. The following properties can be proved for matrices A, B, and C
when all products are defined:

1. ASSOCIATIVE LAW: A(BC) = (AB)C

2. LEFT DISTRIBUTIVE LAW: A(B + C) = AB + AC

3. RIGHT DISTRIBUTIVE LAW: (B + C)A = BA + CA

35.4. Identity Matrix

An n × n square matrix with all main diagonal elements equal to 1, and all other elements equal to 0, is called an identity matrix,
and is denoted I n, or, if the order is clear from the context, I. For any n × n square matrix A,

AIn = InA = A

Example

EXAMPLE 35.3

⎡1 0 0⎤
] ⋅ I3 = ⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥ .
1 0
I2 = [
0 1 ⎣0 0 1⎦

35.5. Inverses of Matrices

If A is a square matrix, there may exist another square matrix of the same size, B, such that AB = BA = I. If this is the case, B is
called the (multiplicative) inverse of A; the notation A−1 is used for B, thus,

AA− 1 = A− 1A = I

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
Not every square matrix has an inverse; a matrix that has an inverse is callednonsingular; a matrix that has no inverse is called
singular. If an inverse can be found for a matrix, this inverse is unique; any other inverse is equal to this one.

Example

EXAMPLE 35.4

Show that
−5 2
B=[ ] is an inverse for
3 −1
1 2
A=[ ].
3 5
Multiply the matrices to find AB and BA:

1 2 −5 2 1(−5) + 2(3) 1(2) + 2(−1) 1 0

AB = [ ][ ]=[ ]=[ ]=I
3 5 3 −1 3(−5) + 5(3) 3(2) + 5(−1) 0 1
−5 2 1 2 (−5)1 + 2(3) (−5)2 + 2(5) 1 0
BA = [ ][ ]=[ ]=[ ]=I
3 −1 3 5 3(1) + (−1)3 3(2) + (−1)5 0 1

Since
AB = BA = I , B = A− 1.

35.6. Calculating the Inverse of a Given Matrix

To find the inverse of a given nonsingular square matrix A, perform the following operations:

1. Adjoin to A the identity matrix of the same dimension to form a matrix schematically indicated by: [A | I].

2. Perform row operations on this matrix as in Gauss-Jordan elimination until the portion to the left of the vertical bar has
been reduced to I. (If this is not possible, a row of zeros will appear, and the original matrix A was in fact singular.)

3. The entire matrix will now appear as [I | A−1] and the matrix A−1 can be read at the right of the vertical bar.

Example

EXAMPLE 35.5

Find the inverse for the matrix

1 0
A=[ ].
1 1
First, form the matrix
1 0 ∣1 0
[ ∣ ]. One operation:
1 1 ∣0 1
R2 + (−1)R1 → R2, transforms the portion to the left of the bar into I2 and yields
1 0∣ 1 0
[ ∣ ]. Then
0 1 ∣ −1 1
1 0
[ ]
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 0 1 1 1
1 0
A− 1 = [ ] is read from the right side of the bar. Checking, note that
−1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
AA− 1 = [ ][ ]=[ ] and A− 1A = [ ][ ]=[ ].
1 1 −1 1 0 1 −1 1 1 1 0 1

35.7. SOLVED PROBLEMS

35.1. Given A = [3 8] and
5
B = [ ], find the inner product of each row of A with each column of B.
2
There is only one row of A and only one column of B. The inner product required is given by 3 · 5 + 8 · 2 = 31.

35.2. Given
⎡ 9⎤
] and B = ⎢ 5 ⎥, find the inner product of each row of A with each column of B.
2 1 4
A=[
−3 −1 6 ⎣ −2 ⎦

There is only one column of B.

The inner product of row 1 of A with this column is given by 2 · 9 + 1 · 5 + 4(−2) = 15. The inner product of row 2 ofA with
the column is given by (−3)9 + (−1)5 + 6(−2) = −44.

35.3. Find the order of AB and BA, given the following orders for A and B:

a.  A: 2 × 3, B: 3 × 2

b.  A: 2 × 3, B: 3 × 3

c.  A: 2 × 4, B: 4 × 3

d.  A: 3 × 2, B: 3 × 2

e.  A: 3 × 3, B: 3 × 3

f.  A: 1 × 3, B: 2 × 2

a.  A 2 × 3 matrix multiplied times a 3 × 2 matrix yields a 2 × 2 matrix forAB. A 3 × 2 matrix multiplied times a 2 × 3
matrix yields a 3 × 3 matrix for BA.

b.  A 2 × 3 matrix multiplied times a 3 × 3 matrix yields a 2 × 3 matrix forAB. A 3 × 3 matrix can only be multiplied times
a matrix with three rows, thus BA is not defined.

c.  A 2 × 4 matrix multiplied times a 4 × 3 matrix yields a 2 × 3 matrix forAB. A 4 × 3 matrix can only be multiplied times
a matrix with three rows, thus BA is not defined.

d.  A 3 × 2 matrix can only be multiplied times a matrix with two rows, thus neitherAB nor BA is defined.

e.  A 3 × 3 matrix multiplied times a 3 × 3 matrix yields a 3 × 3 matrix for bothAB and BA.

f.  A 1 × 3 matrix can only be multiplied times a matrix with three rows, thusAB is not defined. A 2 × 2 matrix can only be
multiplied times a matrix with two rows, thus BA is not defined.

35.4. Given

⎡ 9⎤
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 ⎡ 9⎤
] and B = ⎢ 5 ⎥, find AB and BA.
2 1 4
A=[
−3 −1 6 ⎣ −2 ⎦

Since A is a 2 × 3 matrix and B is a 3 × 1 matrix, AB is defined and is a 2 × 1 matrix. The element in row 1, column 1 ofAB is
the inner product of row 1 of A with column 1 of B. This was found in Problem 35.2 to be 15. The element in row 2, column
1 of AB is the inner product of row 2 of A with column 1 of B. This was found in Problem 35.2 to be −44. Hence

15
AB = [ ]
−44

Since B is a 3 × 1 matrix, it can only be multiplied times a matrix with 1 row, thusBA is not defined.

35.5. Given
5 2 1 6
A=[ ] and B = [ ], find AB and BA.
3 1 −8 4
Since A is a 2 × 2 matrix and B is a 2 × 2 matrix, AB is defined and is a 2 × 2 matrix. Find the inner product of each row ofA
with each column of B and form AB:

5(1) + 2(−8) 5(6) + 2(4) −11 38

AB = [ ]=[ ]
3(1) + 1(−8) 3(6) + 1(4) −5 22

Since B is a 2 × 2 matrix and A is a 2 × 2 matrix, BA is defined and is a 2 × 2 matrix. Find the inner product of each row ofB
with each column of A and form BA:

1(5) + 6(3) 1(2) + 6(1) 23 8

BA = [ ]=[ ]
(−8)5 + 4(3) (−8)2 + 4(1) −28 −12

Note that AB ≠ BA.

35.6. Explain why there is no commutative law for matrix multiplication.

Given two matrices A and B, there are a number of ways in which AB can fail to equal BA. First, either AB or BA may fail to
be defined (for example, if A is a 2 × 1 matrix and B is a 2 × 2 matrix, AB is undefined, while BA is defined). Second, both AB
and BA may be defined, but be of different orders (for example, if A is a 2 × 3 matrix and B is a 3 × 2 matrix, AB is a 2 × 2
matrix and BA is a 3 × 3 matrix). Finally, both AB and BA may be defined and of the same order, as in the previous problem,
but because AB involves the inner product of the rows of A with the columns of B, while BA involves the inner product of
the rows of B with the columns of A, AB ≠ BA.

35.7. Given
⎡ 2 1 0⎤
A = ⎢ 3 −2 5 ⎥ and B = [
4 4 −1
], find AB and BA.
⎣ −2 5 0 ⎦ −3 0 2

Since A is a 3 × 3 matrix and B is a 2 × 3 matrix, AB is not defined.

Since B is a 2 × 3 matrix and A is a 3 × 3 matrix, BA is defined and has order 2 × 3. Find the inner product of each row of B
with each column of A and form BA:

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 4(2) + 4(3) + (−1)(−2) 4(1) + 4(−2) + (−1)5 4(0) + 4(5) + (−1)0 22 −9 20
BA = [ ]=[ ]
(−3)(2) + 0(3) + 2(−2) (−3)(1) + 0(−2) + 2(5) (−3)0 + 0(5) + 2(0) −10 7 0

35.8. Given
3 1 8 3 −5 −1
A=[ ], B = [ ] , and C = [ ], verify the associative law for matrix multiplication (AB)C = A(BC).
0 −3 3 8 4 2
First find AB and BC:

3 1 8 3 27 17 8 3 −5 −1 −28 −2
AB = [ ][ ]=[ ] and BC = [ ][ ]=[ ]
0 −3 3 8 −9 −24 3 8 4 2 17 13

Hence

27 17 −5 −1 −67 7 3 1 −28 −2 −67 7

(AB)C = [ ][ ]=[ ] and A(BC) = [ ][ ]=[ ].
−9 −24 4 2 −51 −39 0 −3 17 13 −51 −39

Thus (AB)C = A(BC).

35.9. Given
3 1 8 3 −5 −1
A=[ ], B = [ ] , and C = [ ], verify the left distributive law for matrix multiplication A(B + C) =
0 −3 3 8 4 2
AB + AC.

First find B + C and AC. (AB was found in the previous problem.)

8 3 −5 −1 3 2 3 1 −5 −1 −11 −1
B+C = [ ]+[ ]=[ ] and AC = [ ][ ]=[ ]
3 8 4 2 7 10 0 −3 4 2 −12 −6

Hence

3 1 3 2 16 16 27 17 −11 −1 16
A(B + C) = [ ][ ]=[ ] and AB + AC = [ ]+[ ]=[
0 −3 7 10 −21 −30 −9 −24 −12 −6 −21 −

Thus A(B + C) = AB + AC.

35.10. Verify that I 3A = A for any 3 × 3 matrix A.

Let
⎡ a11 a12 a13 ⎤
A = ⎢ a21 a22 a23 ⎥. Then
⎣ a31 a32 a33 ⎦

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 ⎡ 1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ a11 a12 a13 ⎤ ⎡ 1a11 + 0a21 + 0a31 1a12 + 0a22 + 0a32 1a13 + 0a23 + 0a33 ⎤
I3A = ⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ a21 a22 a23 ⎥ = ⎢ 0a11 + 1a21 + 0a31 0a12 + 1a22 + 0a32 0a13 + 1a23 + 0a33 ⎥
⎣ 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ a31 a32 a33 ⎦ ⎣ 0a + 0a + 1a31 0a12 + 0a22 + 1a32 0a13 + 0a23 + 1a33 ⎦
11 21

⎡ a11 a12 a13 ⎤

= ⎢ a21 a22 a23 ⎥
⎣ a31 a32 a33 ⎦

Thus I 3A = A.

35.11. Show that
InX = X for any n × 1 matrix X.

Since
InA = A for any n × n matrix A, multiplying by I must leave each column of A unchanged. Since each column of A can be
viewed as an n × 1 matrix, multiplying by I n must leave any n × 1 matrix unchanged. Thus
InX = X.
35.12. Show that if A = [a11] is a 1 × 1 matrix with a11 ≠ 0, then A−1 = [1/a11].

Since
[a11][1/a11] = [a11(1/a11)] = [1] = I1 and
[1/a11][a11] = [(1/a11)a11] = [1] = I1, it follows that
[1/a11] = [a11]− 1.
35.13. Find A−1 given
1 3
A=[ ].
4 11
Form the matrix

1 3 ∣1 0
[A|I ] = [ ∣ ]
4 11 ∣ 0 1

Apply row operations on this matrix until the portion to the left of the vertical bar has been reduced to I.

1 3 ∣1 0 1 3∣ 1 0 1 0 ∣ −11 3
[ ∣ ] − 4R1 + R2 → R2 [ ∣ ] 3R2 + R1 → R1 [ ∣ ]
4 11 ∣ 0 1 0 −1 ∣ −4 1 0 −1 ∣ −4 1
1 0 ∣ −11 3
−R2 → R2 [ ∣ ] = [I |A− 1]
0 1 ∣ 4 −1

Thus
−11 3
A− 1 = [ ]
4 −1
35.14. Show that the matrix
2 5
A=[ ] has no multiplicative inverse.
4 10

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 Form the matrix

2 5 ∣1 0
[A|I ] = [ ∣ ]
4 10 ∣ 0 1

Applying row operations on this matrix to attempt to reduce the portion to the left of the vertical bar to I yields

2 5 ∣1 0 2 5∣ 1 0
[ ∣ ] − 2R1 + R2 → R2 [ ∣ ]
4 10 ∣ 0 1 0 0 ∣ −2 1

There is no way to produce a 1 in row 2, column 2 without destroying the 0 in row 2, column 1. Thus the portion to the left
of the vertical bar cannot be reduced to I and there is no inverse for A.

35.15. Show that if an inverse B exists for a given matrix A, this inverse is unique, that is, any other inverse C is equal to B.

Assume that both B and C are inverses of A, then BA = I and CA = I; hence BA = CA. Multiply both sides of this true
statement by B, then

(BA)B = (CA)B

By the associative law for matrix multiplication,

B(AB) = C(AB)

But, since B is an inverse for A, AB = I; hence BI = CI, thus, B = C.

35.16. Find A−1 given

⎡5 3 4⎤
A = ⎢2 2 3⎥.
⎣2 0 0⎦

Form the matrix

⎡ 5 3 4 ∣1 0 0 ⎤
[A|I ] = ⎢ 2 2 3 ∣∣ 0 1 0 ⎥
⎣ 2 0 0 ∣0 0 1 ⎦

Apply row operations on this matrix until the portion to the left of the vertical bar has been reduced to I.

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 ⎡ 5 3 4 ∣1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ 2 0 0 ∣0 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 0 ∣ 0 0 1/2 ⎤
⎢ 2 2 3 ∣ 0 1 0 ⎥ R1 ↔ R3 ⎢ 2 2 3 ∣ 0 1 0 ⎥ 2 R1 → R1 ⎢ 2 2 3 ∣∣ 0 1 0 ⎥
∣ ∣ 1
⎣ 2 0 0 ∣0 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ 5 3 4 ∣1 0 0 ⎦ ⎣ 5 3 4 ∣1 0 0 ⎦

R2 + (−2)R1 → R2 ⎡
1 0 0 ∣0 0 1/2 ⎤ ⎡1 0 0 ∣0 0 1/2 ⎤
⎢ 0 2 3 ∣0 1 −1 ⎥ 2 R2 → R2 ⎢ 0 1 3/2 ∣ 0 1/2 −1/2 ⎥
∣ 1 ∣
R3 + (−5)R1 → R3 ⎣
0 3 4 ∣ 1 0 −5/2 ⎦ ⎣0 3 0 −5/2 ⎦
∣
4 ∣1
⎡1 0 0 ∣0 0 1/2 ⎤ ⎡1 0 0 ∣0 0 1/2 ⎤
R3 + (−3)R2 → R3 ⎢ 0 1 1/2 −1/2 ⎥ R2 + 3R3 → R2 ⎢ 0 1 −4 −7/2 ⎥
∣ ∣
3/2 ∣ 0 0 ∣3
⎣ 0 0 −1/2 ∣∣ 1 −3/2 −1 ⎦ ⎣ ∣
0 3 −1/2 ∣ 1 −3/2 −1 ⎦
⎡1 0 0∣ 0 0 1/2 ⎤
(−2)R3 → R3 ⎢ 0 1 0 ∣ 3 −4 −7/2 ⎥ = [I |A− 1]
∣
⎣ 0 0 1 ∣ −2 3 2⎦

Thus
⎡ 0 0 1/2 ⎤
−1
= ⎢ 3 −4 −7/2 ⎥
⎣ −2 2⎦
A
3
35.17. Show that any system of m linear equations in n variables:

a11x1 + a12x2 + ⋯ + a1nxn = b1

a21x1 + a22x2 + ⋯ + a2nxn = b2
⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯
am1x1 + am2x2 + ⋯ + amnxn = bm

can be written as AX = B, where A is called the coefficient matrix of the system, and A, X, and B are given respectively by:

⎡ a11 a12 a13 ⋯ a1n ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ b1 ⎤

⎢ a21 a22 a2n ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ ⎢ b2 ⎥
A=⎢
⎢ ⎥
⎥ X=⎢
⎢ ⎥ B=⎢ ⎥
⎢⋯⎥ ⎢
⎢⋯⎥
a23 ⋯
⎢⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯⎥ ⎥ ⎥
⎣a ⋯ a ⎦ ⎣x ⎦ ⎣b ⎦
m1 am2 am3 mn n n

With A as the m × n matrix shown and X as the n × 1 matrix shown, the product AX is the m × 1 matrix:

⎡ a11x1 + a12x2 + ⋯ + a1nxn ⎤

⎢
⎢ + + + ⎥
⎥
⎢
⎢⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯ ⎥
a21x1 a22x2 ⋯ a2nxn
⎥
⎣a x +a x +⋯ +a x ⎦
m1 1 m2 2 mn n

Thus, by the definition of matrix equality, the matrix equation AX = B holds if and only if each entry of AX is equal to the
corresponding element of the m × 1 matrix B, that is, if and only if the system of equations is satisfied. That is, the matrix
equation is simply the system of equations written in matrix notation.

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 35.18. Show that if A is a nonsingular square matrix, then the matrix X that satisfies the matrix equation AX = B is given
by X = A−1B, where

⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ b1 ⎤
⎢ x2 ⎥ ⎢ b2 ⎥
X=⎢
⎢ ⎥ and B = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⋯⎥ ⎥ ⎢
⎢⋯⎥ ⎥
⎣x ⎦ ⎣b ⎦
n n

Let AX = B. Then, since A is nonsingular, A−1 exists; multiplying both sides of this equation by A−1 yields:

A− 1AX = A− 1B
IX = A− 1B
X = A− 1B

35.19. Use the result of the previous problem to solve the system of equations

x1 + x2 + x3 = b1
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = b2
x1 + x2 + 2x3 = b3

given (a) b1 = 3, b2 = 4, b3 = 5; (b) b1 = −7, b2 = 9, b3 = −6.

The given system of equations can be written as AX = B, with

⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ b1 ⎤
A = ⎢1 2 3⎥ X = ⎢ x2 ⎥ B = ⎢ b2 ⎥
⎣1 1 2⎦ ⎣ x3 ⎦ ⎣ b3 ⎦

To apply the result of the previous problem, first find A−1. Start by forming the matrix

⎡ 1 1 1 ∣1 0 0 ⎤
[A|I ] = ⎢ 1 2 3 ∣∣ 0 1 0 ⎥
⎣ 1 1 2 ∣0 0 1 ⎦

Apply row operations on this matrix until the portion to the left of the vertical bar has been reduced to I.

⎡ 1 1 1 ∣1 0 0 ⎤ R2 + (−1)R1 → R2 ⎡
1 1 1∣ 1 0 0⎤
⎢ 1 2 3 ∣∣ 0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 1 2 ∣∣ −1 1 0 ⎥
R1 + (−1)R3 → R1
⎣ 1 1 2 ∣0 0 1 ⎦ R3 + (−1)R1 → R3 ⎣
0 0 1 ∣ −1 0 1 ⎦
R2 + (−2)R3 → R2

⎡1 1 0∣ 2 0 −1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 0 ∣ 1 −1 1⎤
⎢ 0 1 0 ∣∣ 1 1 −2 ⎥ R1 + (−1)R2 → R1 ⎢ 0 1 0 ∣ 1
∣ 1 −2 ⎥
⎣ 0 0 1 ∣ −1 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 0 1 ∣ −1 0 1⎦

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 Thus
⎡ 1 −1 1⎤
A =⎢ 1
−1
1 −2 ⎥. Now the solutions of the given systems are given by X = A−1B. Hence
⎣ −1 0 1⎦
a.  

⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 −1 1 ⎤ ⎡ b1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 −1 1⎤⎡3⎤ ⎡ 4⎤
⎢ x2 ⎥ = ⎢ 1 1 −2 ⎥ ⎢ b2 ⎥ = ⎢ 1 1 −2 ⎥ ⎢ 4 ⎥ = ⎢ −3 ⎥ , that is, x1 = 4, x2 = −3, x3 = 2.
⎣ x3 ⎦ ⎣ −1 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ b3 ⎦ ⎣ −1 0 1⎦⎣5⎦ ⎣ 2⎦
b.  

⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 −1 1 ⎤ ⎡ b1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 −1 1 ⎤ ⎡ −7 ⎤ ⎡ −22 ⎤
⎢ x2 ⎥ = ⎢ 1 1 −2 ⎥ ⎢ b2 ⎥ = ⎢ 1 1 −2 ⎥ ⎢ 9 ⎥ = ⎢ 14 ⎥ , that is, x1 = −22, x2 = 14, x3 = 1.
⎣ x3 ⎦ ⎣ −1 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ b3 ⎦ ⎣ −1 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ −6 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
Note that, in general, this method of solving systems of linear equations is not more efficient than elimination methods,
since the calculation of the inverse matrix already requires all of the steps in a Gauss-Jordan elimination. However, the
method is useful if, as in this problem, several systems with the same coefficient matrix and different right-hand sides are
to be solved.

35.8. SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS

35.20. Given
1
A = [ ] and B = [2 4], find AB and BA.
3
Ans. 
2 4
AB = [ ], BA = [14]
6 12
35.21. Given
2 3 1 −2 3
A=[ ] and B = [ ], find AB and BA.
−4 5 4 0 6
Ans. 
14 −4 24
AB = [ ], BA is not defined
16 8 18
35.22. If A is a square matrix, A2 is defined as AA. Find A2 if A is given by:

a.  
1 −1
[ ];
−1 1
b.  

⎡ 2 0 1⎤
⎢ 1 3 2⎥
⎣ −3 −1 0 ⎦

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 Ans.

a.  
2 −2
[ ];
−2 2
b.  

⎡ 1 −1 2⎤
⎢ −1 7 7⎥
⎣ −7 −3 −5 ⎦

35.23. Given

3 1 8 3 −5 −1
A=[ ], B = [ ] , and C = [ ], verify the right distributive law for matrix multiplication (B + C)A =
0 −3 3 8 4 2
BA + CA.

Schaum's Precalculus Supplementary Problem 35.23

This video presents the verification of the right distributive law for matrix

 multiplication.

David Rader, Professor of Mathematics, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology

2020

35.24. An orthonormal matrix is defined as a square matrix A with its transpose equal to its inverse: AT = A−1. (See
Problem 34.13.) Show that

[ ]
1/√2 −1/√2
1/√2 1/√2

is an orthonormal matrix.

35.25. For square matrices I, A, B of order n × n, verify that (a) I −1 = I; (b) (A−1) −1 = A; (c) (AB) −1 = B−1A−1.

35.26. Find inverses for

a.  
3 0
[ ];
0 1/2
b.  
3 5
[ ];
−3 −2
c.  

⎡3 4 5⎤
⎢1 0 1⎥;
⎣4 4 6⎦

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 d.  

⎡ 3 3 1⎤
⎢ 2 −1 1⎥;
⎣ −2 −1 −2 ⎦

e.  

⎡ 1 0 1 0⎤
⎢
⎢ 1⎥
⎥
⎢ ⎥
0 1 0
⎢ −1 0 1 0⎥
⎣ 0 −1 0 1⎦
Ans.

a.  
1/3 0
[ ];
0 2
b.  
1 −2 −5
[ ];
9 3 3
c.  no inverse exists;

d.  

1⎡
3 5 4⎤
⎢ 2 −4 −1 ⎥ ;
11 ⎣
−4 −3 −9 ⎦
e.  

⎡1 0 −1 0⎤
1⎢
⎢ 0 −1 ⎥
⎥
⎢ ⎥
0 1
2⎢1 0 1 0⎥
⎣0 1 0 1⎦
35.27. Use the result of Problem 35.26d to solve the system

3x + 3y + z = b1
2x − y + z = b2
−2x − y − 2z = b3

for (a)
b1 = −4, b2 = 0, b3 = 3; (b)
b1 = 11, b2 = 11, b3 = −11; (c)
b1 = 2, b2 = −1, b3 = 5.

Ans.

a.  
x = 0, y = −1, z = −1;

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 b.  
x = 9, y = −5, z = −1;
c.  
21 3 50
x= ,y= ,z=−
11 11 11

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
31. Gaussian and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
31.1. Matrix Notation
Elimination methods for solving systems of equations are carried out more efficiently by means of matrices. A matrix is a
rectangular array of numbers, arranged in rows and columns and enclosed in brackets, thus:

⎡ a11 a12 a13 a14 ⎤

⎢ a21 a22 a23 a24 ⎥
⎣ a31 a32 a33 a34 ⎦

The numbers are called elements of the matrix. The above matrix would be said to have three rows (first row:a11 a12 a13 a14,
and so on) and four columns, and would be called a matrix of dimension 3 × 4. The elements are referred to by two subscripts;
thus, the element in row 2, column 3 is element a23. A matrix may have any number of rows and any number of columns; a
general matrix is said to have dimension m × n, thus, m rows and n columns.

31.2. Row-Equivalent Matrices

Two matrices are said to be row-equivalent if one can be transformed into the other by successive applications of the
following row operations on matrices:

1. Interchange two rows. (Symbol: Ri ↔ Rj)

2. Replace a row by a nonzero multiple of itself. (Symbol: kRi → Ri)

3. Replace a row by itself plus a multiple of another row. (Symbol: kRi + Rj → Rj)

Note the exact correspondence to the operations that result in equivalent systems of equations (Chapter 30).

Example

EXAMPLE 31.1

Given the matrix

5 −2
[ ] , show the result of applying, in turn,
2 6
a. R1 ↔ R2;

b.
1
2
R1 → R1,
c. –5R1 + R2 → R2

a. R1 ↔ R2 interchanges the two rows to yield

2 6
[ ].
5 −2

1
R →R
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 b.
1
2
R1 → R1 replaces each element in the new first row 2 6 by one-half its value to yield
1 3
[ ].
5 −2
c. –5R1 + R2 → R2 replaces each element in the new second row by itself plus –5 times the corresponding element in the
first row –5 –15 to yield
1 3
[ ].
0 −17

31.3. Matrices and Systems of Linear Equations

To every linear system of m equations in n variables in standard form there corresponds a matrix of dimension m × n = 1 called
the augmented matrix of the system. Thus to the system:

3x + 5y − 2z = 4 ⎡ 3 5 −2 ∣ 4 ⎤
−2x − 3y = 6 corresponds the augmented matrix ⎢ −2 −3 0 ∣∣ 6 ⎥
2x + 4y + z = −3 ⎣ 2 4 1 ∣ −3 ⎦

The vertical bar has no mathematical significance and serves only to separate the coefficients of the variables from the
constant terms.

31.4. Row-Echelon Form of a Matrix

A matrix is in row-echelon form if it satisfies the following conditions:

1. The first nonzero number in each row is a 1.

2. The column containing the first nonzero number in each row is to the left of the column containing the first nonzero
number in rows below it.

3. Any row containing only zeros appears below any row having any nonzero numbers.

Example

EXAMPLE 31.2

Perform row operations to find a matrix in row-echelon form that is row-equivalent to the matrix
1 −1 ∣ 3
[ ∣ ]
3 2 ∣ −1

1 −1 ∣ 3 1 −1 ∣ 3 1 1 −1 ∣ 3
[ ∣ ] − 3R1 + R2 → R2 [ ∣ ] R2 → R2 [ ∣ ]
3 2 ∣ −1 0 5 ∣ −10 5 0 1 ∣ −2

31.5. Gaussian Elimination

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
31.5. Gaussian Elimination
Gaussian elimination (with back substitution) is the following process for solving systems of linear equations:

1. Write the system in standard form.

2. Write the augmented matrix of the system.

3. Apply row operations to this augmented matrix to obtain a row-equivalent matrix in row-echelon form.

4. Write the system of equations to which this matrix corresponds.

5. Find the solution of this system; it can be solved readily by substituting values from each equation into the one above it,
starting with the last nonzero equation.

Example

EXAMPLE 31.3

Solve the system

x−y = 3
by Gaussian elimination.
3x + 2y = −1
The system is in standard form. The augmented matrix of the system is
1 −1 ∣ 3
[ ∣ ], considered in the previous example.
3 2 ∣ −1
Reducing this to row-echelon form yields
1 −1 ∣ 3
[ ∣ ]. This matrix corresponds to the system
0 1 ∣ −2
x−y = 3
.
y = −2
Thus y = –2. Substituting this into the first equation yields x – (–2) = 3 or x = 1. Thus the solution of the system is (1, –2).

31.6. Reduced Row-Echelon Form

A matrix is in reduced row-echelon form (often called just reduced form) if it satisfies the conditions for row-echelon form and,
in addition, the entries above the first 1 in each row are all 0.

Example

EXAMPLE 31.4

Find a matrix in reduced form that is row-equivalent to the matrix

1 −1 ∣ 3
[ ∣ ] from Example 31.2.
0 1 ∣ −2

1 −1 ∣ 3 1 0∣ 1
[ ∣ ] R2 + R1 → R1 [ ∣ ]
0 1 ∣ −2 0 1 ∣ −2

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 Note that the solution of the system can be read off immediately after writing the system that corresponds to this matrix
(x = 1, y = –2).

31.7. Gauss-Jordan Elimination

Gauss-Jordan elimination is the following process for solving systems of linear equations:

1. Write the system in standard form.

2. Write the augmented matrix of the system.

3. Apply row operations to this augmented matrix to obtain a row-equivalent matrix in reduced row-echelon form.

4. Write the system of equations to which this matrix corresponds.

5. Find the solution of this system. If there is a unique solution, it can be read off immediately. If there are infinite solutions,
the system will be such that after assigning arbitrary real values to undetermined variables, the other variables are
immediately expressed in terms of these.

The process of finding a matrix in row-echelon form or reduced row-echelon form that is row-equivalent to a given matrix thus
plays a key role in solving systems of linear equations. This process is usually abbreviated as “Transform to row-echelon (or
reduced row-echelon) form.”

31.8. SOLVED PROBLEMS

31.1. Show the result of applying (a) R1 ↔ R3; (b)
1
− R2 → R2; (c) 2R2 + R1 → R1 to the matrix
3
⎡ 5 3 −2 ∣ 3 ⎤
⎢ −3 6 12 ∣∣ −3 ⎥ .
⎣ 1 0 −4 ∣ 5 ⎦

a. R1 ↔ R3 interchanges rows 1 and 3, yielding

⎡ 1 0 −4 ∣ 5 ⎤
⎢ −3 6 12 ∣∣ −3 ⎥ .
⎣ 5 3 −2 ∣ 3 ⎦

1
b. − R2 → R2 replaces row
3
1
2 by − times itself, yielding
3
⎡5 3 −2 ∣ 3 ⎤
⎢ 1 −2 −4 ∣∣ 1 ⎥ .
⎣1 0 −4 ∣ 5 ⎦
c. 2R2 + R1 → R1 adds row –6 12 24 |–6 to the existing row 1, yielding
⎡ −1 15 22 ∣ −3 ⎤
⎢ −3 6 12 ∣∣ −3 ⎥ .
⎣ 1 0 −4 ∣ 5 ⎦

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 31.2. Transform the matrix
⎡ 1 2 −2 ∣ 3 ⎤
⎢2 5 0 ∣∣ −7 ⎥ to row-echelon form.
⎣ 3 7 −2 ∣ −4 ⎦

The first element in row 1 is a 1. Use this to produce zeros in the first position in the lower rows:

⎡ 1 2 −2 ∣ 3 ⎤ R2 + (−2)R1 → R2 ⎡ 1 2 −2 ∣ 3 ⎤
⎢2 5 0 ∣∣ −7 ⎥ ⎢0 1 4 ∣∣ −13 ⎥
⎣ 3 7 −2 ∣ −4 ⎦ R3 + (−3)R1 → R3 ⎣ 0 1 4 ∣ −13 ⎦

The first nonzero element in row 2 is now a 1. Use this to produce a zero in the corresponding position in the last row.

⎡ 1 2 −2 ∣ 3 ⎤ ⎡ 1 2 −2 ∣ 3 ⎤
⎢0 1 4 ∣ −13 ⎥ R3 + (−1)R2 → R3 ⎢ 0 1
∣ 4 ∣∣ −13 ⎥
⎣0 1 4 ∣ −13 ⎦ ⎣0 0 0∣ 0⎦

This matrix is in row-echelon form, and is row-equivalent to the original matrix.

31.3. Generalize the procedure of the previous problem to a general strategy for transforming the matrix of an arbitrary
system to row-echelon form.

1. By interchanging rows if necessary, obtain a nonzero element in the first position in row 1. Replace row 1 by a multiple
to make this element a 1.

2. Use this element to produce zeros in the first position in the lower rows.

3. If this produces rows that are zero to the left of the vertical bar, or all zeros, move these rows to the bottom. If there are
no other rows, stop.

4. If there are nonzero elements in rows below the first, move the row with the leftmost nonzero element to row 2.
Replace row 2 by a multiple to make this element a 1.

5. Use this element to produce zeros in the corresponding position in any rows below row 2 that are nonzero to the left of
the vertical bar.

6. Proceed as in steps 3 to 5 for any remaining rows.

31.4. Solve the system

x + 2y − 2z = 3
2x + 5y = −7 by Gaussian elimination.
3x + 7y − 2z = −4
The augmented matrix of the system is the matrix of Problem 31.2. Transforming to row-echelon form yields the matrix

⎡ 1 2 −2 ∣ 3 ⎤ x + 2y − 2z = 3 (1)
⎢ 0 1 4 ∣ −13 ⎥ which corresponds to the system
∣ y + 4z = −13 (2)
⎣0 0 0 ∣ 0⎦ 0 = 0 (3)

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 This system has an infinite number of solutions. Letz = r, r any real number. Then from equation (2), y = –13 – 4r.
Substituting back into equation (1) yields:

x + 2(−13 − 4r) − 2r = 3
x = 10r + 29

Thus all solutions of the system can be written as (10r + 29, – 13 – 4r, r), r any real number.

31.5. Transform the matrix

⎡1 0 −1 1 2∣ 2⎤
⎢ 2 −3 ∣ −4 ⎥
∣
⎢
⎢
1 1 0 ⎥
⎥ to reduced row-echelon form.
⎢2 0 −1 1 3 ∣∣ 3 ⎥
⎣ 0 −2 −1 −3 9 ∣ 11 ⎦
The first element in row 1 is a 1. Use this to produce zeros in the first position in the lower rows:

⎡1 0 −1 1 2∣ 2⎤ ⎡1 0 −1 1 2∣ 2⎤
⎢ 2 −3 ∣ −4 ⎥ ⎢ 1 −5 ∣ −6 ⎥
∣ ∣
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
R2 + (−1)R1 → R2
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
1 1 0 0 1 1
⎢2 0 −1 1 3 ∣∣ 3 ⎥ R3 + (−2)R1 → R3 ⎢0 0 1 −1 −1 ∣∣ −1 ⎥
⎣ 0 −2 −1 −3 9 ∣ 11 ⎦ ⎣ 0 −2 −1 −3 9 ∣ 11 ⎦

Now the first nonzero element in row 2 is a 1. Use this to produce zeros in the position below it in the lower rows (only row
4 lacks a zero).

⎡1 0 −1 1 2∣ 2⎤ ⎡1 0 −1 1 2∣ 2⎤
⎢ 1 −5 ∣ −5 ⎥ ⎢ 1 −5 ∣ −6 ⎥
∣ ∣
⎢
⎢
0 1 1 ⎥
⎥ R4 + 2R2 → R4 ⎢
⎢
0 1 1 ⎥
⎥
⎢0 0 1 −1 −1 ∣∣ −1 ⎥ ⎢0 0 1 −1 −1 ∣∣ −1 ⎥
⎣ 0 −2 −1 −3 9 ∣ 11 ⎦ ⎣0 0 1 −1 −1 ∣ −1 ⎦

Now the first nonzero element in row 3 is a 1. Use this to produce a zero in the position below it in row 4.

⎡1 0 −1 1 2∣ 2⎤ ⎡1 0 −1 1 2∣ 2⎤
⎢ 1 −5 ∣ −6 ⎥ ⎢ 1 −5 ∣ −6 ⎥
∣ ∣
⎢
⎢
0 1 1 ⎥
⎥ R4 + (−1)R3 → R4 ⎢
⎢
0 1 1 ⎥
⎥
⎢0 0 1 −1 −1 ∣∣ −1 ⎥ ⎢0 0 1 −1 −1 ∣∣ −1 ⎥
⎣0 0 1 −1 −1 ∣ −1 ⎦ ⎣0 0 0 0 0∣ 0⎦

This matrix is in row-echelon form. To produce reduced row-echelon form, use the leading 1 in each row to produce zeros
in the corresponding position in the rows above, starting from the bottom row.

⎡1 0 −1 1 2∣ 2⎤ ⎡1 0 0 0 1∣ 1⎤
⎢ 1 −5 ∣ −6 ⎥ ⎢ 2 −4 ∣ −5 ⎥
∣ ∣
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
R1 + R3 → R1
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
0 1 1 0 1 0
⎢0 0 ∣
1 −1 −1 ∣ −1 ⎥ R1 + (−1)R3 → R2 ⎢0 0 1 −1 −1 ∣∣ −1 ⎥
⎣0 0 0 0 0∣ 0 ⎦ ⎣0 0 0 0 0∣ 0⎦

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 This matrix is in reduced row-echelon form.

31.6. Solve by Gauss-Jordan elimination:

x1 − x3 + x4 + 2x5 = 2
x1 + x2 + 2x4 − 3x5 = −4
2x1 − x3 + x4 + 3x5 = 3
−2x2 − x3 − 3x4 + 9x5 = 11

The augmented matrix of the system is the matrix of Problem 31.5. Transforming to reduced row-echelon form yields the
matrix

⎡1 0 0 0 −1 ∣ 1 ⎤ + x5 = 1 (1)
⎢ 0 2 −4 ∣ −5 ⎥
∣ x1
⎢
⎢
0 1 ⎥
⎥ which corresponds to the system
⎢0 1 −1 −1 ∣∣ −1 ⎥
x2 + 2x4 − 4x5 = −5 (2)
0
⎣0 0 0 0 0 ∣ 0 ⎦
x3 − x4 − x5 = −1 (3)

This system has an infinite number of solutions. Letx5 = r, x4 = s, r and s any real numbers. Then from equation (3), x3 = r +
s – 1; from equation (2), x2 = 4r – 2s – 5; and from equation (1), x1 = 1 – r. Thus all solutions can be written as (1 – r, 4r –
2s – 5, r + s – 1, s, r), r and s any real numbers.

31.7. Pumps A, B, and C, working together, can fill a tank in 2 hours. If only A and C are used, it would take 4 hours. If only
B and C are used, it would take 3 hours. How long would it take for each to fill the tank, working separately?

Let t1, t2, and t3 be the times for pumps A, B, and C, respectively. Then the rate at which each pump works can be written
as r1 = 1/t1, r2 = 1/t2, and r3 = 1/t3. Using quantity of work = (rate)(time), the following tabular arrangement can be made:

RATE TIME QUANTITY OF WORK

Pump A r1 2 2r1

Pump B r2 2 2r2

Pump C r3 2 2r3

Thus, if all three machines working together can fill the tank in 2 hours,

2r1 + 2r2 + 2r3 = 1 (1)

Similarly,

4r1 + 4r3 = 1 (2)

3r2 + 3r3 = 1 (3)

The system (1), (2), (3) has the augmented matrix

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 ⎡ 2 2 2 ∣1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 0 ∣ 1/6 ⎤
⎢ 4 0 4 ∣ 1 ⎥ which transforms to the reduced row echelon form ⎢ 0 1 0 ∣∣ 1/4 ⎥
∣
⎣ 0 3 3 ∣1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 0 0 ∣ 1/12 ⎦

Thus, r1 = 1/6 job/hr, r2 = 1/4 job/hr, and r3 = 1/12 job/hr. Therefore, t1 = 6 hr for pump A to fill the tank, t2 = 4 hr for pump
B to fill the tank, and t3 = 12 hr for pump C to fill the tank, working alone.

31.8. An investor has $800,000 that she wishes to divide among Certificates of Deposit (CDs) paying 6% interest, mutual
funds paying 10% interest, growth stocks paying 12% interest, and venture capital paying 14% interest. Fox tax reasons,
she wants to plan for an annual return of $78,000, and she wants to have the total of all other investments three times the
amount invested in CDs. How should she divide her investment?

Let x1 = amount invested in CDs, x2 = amount invested in mutual funds, x3 = amount invested in growth stocks, and x4 =
amount invested as venture capital. Form a table:

AMOUNT INVESTED RATE OF INTEREST INTEREST EARNED

CDs x1 0.06 0.06x1

Mutual funds x2 0.1 0.1x2

Growth stocks x3 0.12 0.12x3

Venture capital x4 0.14 0.14x4

Since the total investment is $800,000, x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 800,000 (1)

Since the total income is $78,000, 0.06x1 + 0.1x2 + 0.12x3 + 0.14x4 = 78,000 (2)

Since the total of other investments is to equal three times the amount invested in CDs,

x2 + x3 + x4 = 3x1, or in standard form, − 3x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0 (3)

The system (1), (2), (3) has the following augmented matrix:

⎡ 1 1 1 1 ∣ 800, 000 ⎤
⎢ 0.06 0.1 0.12 0.14 ∣ 78, 000 ⎥
⎣ −3 1 1 1∣
∣
0⎦

Transforming this to reduced row-echelon form yields:

⎡1 0 0 0 ∣ 200, 000 ⎤
⎢ 0 1 0 −1 ∣ 300, 000 ⎥
⎣0 0 1 2 ∣ 300, 000 ⎦
∣

This corresponds to the system of equations:

x = 200, 000
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 x1 = 200, 000
x2 − x4 = 300, 000
x3 + 2x4 = 300, 000

This has an infinite number of solutions. Let x4 = r. Then all solutions can be written in the form (200000, 300000 + r,
300000 – 2r, r). Thus the investor must put $200,000 into CDs, but has a wide range of further options meeting the given
conditions. An amount r put into venture capital requires an amount $300,000 more in mutual funds, and an amount
$300,000 – 2r in growth stocks. As long as these are all positive, the conditions of the problem are satisfied; for example,
one solution would be to let r = 100,000, then x1 = $200,000 in CDs, x2 = $400,000 in mutual funds, x3 = $100,000 in growth
stocks, and x4 = $100,000 in venture capital.

31.9. SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS

31.9. Transform to row-echelon form:

2 5∣ 3
a. [ ∣ ]
4 −2 ∣ −6
2 5∣ 3
b. [ ∣ ]
4 10 ∣ −6
2 5 ∣3
c. [ ∣ ]
4 10 ∣ 6
Ans.

1 5/2 ∣ 3/2
a. [ ∣ ];
0 1∣ 1
1 5/2 ∣ 3/2
b. [ ∣ ];
0 0 ∣ −12
1 5/2 ∣ 3/2
c. [ ∣ ]
0 0∣ 0
31.10. Solve, using the information from the previous problem:

2x + 5y = 3
a.
4x − 2y = −6
2x + 5y = 3
b.
4x + 10y = −6
2x + 5y = 3
c.
4x + 10y = 6
Ans.

a. (–1, 1);

b. no solution:

3−5
( )
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 3 − 5r
c. ( , r), r any real number.
2

 31.11. Transform to reduced row-echelon form:

⎡2 3∣ 8⎤
a. ⎢ 3 −1 ∣ 12 ⎥
⎣5 2 ∣ 20 ⎦
∣

⎡ 2 3 −4 ∣ 8 ⎤
b. ⎢ 3 4 −5 ∣ 6 ⎥
⎣ 1 1 −1 ∣∣ 2 ⎦

⎡ 1 3 4 5 ∣1 ⎤
c. ⎢ 3 5 2 6 ∣ 7 ⎥
⎣ 4 8 6 11 ∣∣ 8 ⎦

Ans.

⎡ 1 0 ∣4 ⎤
a. ⎢ 0 1 ∣ 0 ⎥ ;
⎣ 0 0 ∣∣ 0 ⎦

⎡1 0 1 ∣2 ⎤
b. ⎢ 0 1 −2 ∣ 0 ⎥ ;
⎣0 0 0 ∣4 ⎦
∣

⎡ 1 0 −7/2 −7/4 ∣ 4 ⎤
c. ⎢ 0 1 9/4 ∣ −1 ⎥
∣
5/2
⎣0 0 0 0∣ 0⎦
∣

Schaum's Precalculus Supplementary Problem 31.11

This video presents the solutions to problems that involve the

 transformation of a matrix into row-echelon form.

David Rader, Professor of Mathematics, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology

2020

32.12. Solve, using the information from the previous problem:

2x + 3y = 8
a. 3x − y = 12
5x + 2y = 20
2x + 3y − 4z = 8
b. 3x + 4y − 5z = 6
x+y−z = 2

x + 3x + 4x + 5x = 1
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 x1 + 3x2 + 4x3 + 5x4 = 1
c. 3x1 + 5x2 + 2x3 + 6x4 = 7
4x1 + 8x2 + 6x3 + 11x4 = 8
Ans.

a. (4, 0);

b. no solution;

7s 7r 5s 9r
c. (4 + + , −1 − − , s , r), r and s any real numbers
2 4 2 4
31.13. A mixture of 140 pounds of nuts is to be made from almonds costing $4 per pound, pecans costing $6 per pound,
and brazil nuts costing $7.50 per pound. If the mixture will sell for $5.50 per pound, what possible combinations of nuts
can be made?

Ans.

If t = number of pounds of brazil nuts, then any combination of 105 – 1.75t pounds of pecans and 35 + 0.75t pounds of
almonds for which all three are positive; thus, 0 < t < 60, 105 > 105 – 1.75t > 0, and 35 < 35 + 0.75t < 80.

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
Video Reference
Quite confusion you might encounter on this topic, so here are some video reference
that will help you understand the process and difference between Gaussian
Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination.

Check out the links below:

https://youtu.be/2j5Ic2V7wq4

https://youtu.be/CsTOUbeMPUo
36. Determinants and Cramer's Rule
36.1. Notation for the Determinant of a Matrix
Associated with every square matrix A is a number called the determinant of the matrix, written det A or |A|. For a 1 × 1 matrix A
= [a11], the determinant is written |A| and its value is defined as |A| = a11 (Note: the vertical bars do not denote absolute value).

36.2. Determinant of a 2 × 2 Matrix

Let

A=[ ]. Then the determinant of A is written:

a11 a12
a21 a22
|A| = [ 11 12 ]; its value is defined as
a a
a21 a22
∣ a11 a12 ∣
∣ ∣ = a11a22 − a21a12.
∣ a21 a22 ∣
The determinant of an n × n matrix is referred to as an n × n determinant.

Example

EXAMPLE 36.1

∣3 7 ∣
∣ ∣ = 3 ⋅ 6 − 4 ⋅ 7 = −10.
∣4 6 ∣

36.3. Minors and Cofactors

For any n × n matrix (aij) with n > 1, the following are defined:

1.  The minor Mij of element aij is the determinant of the (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix found by deleting row i and column j from
(aij).

2.  The cofactor Aij of element aij is

Aij = (−1)i+j M ij . A cofactor is sometimes referred to as a signed minor.

Example

EXAMPLE 36.2

Find M12 and A12 for the matrix

8 2
[ ].
3 −5

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 Delete row 1 and column 2 to obtain

Then M12 = 3 and

A12 = (−1)1+ 2M 12 = (−1)3(3) = −3.

Example

EXAMPLE 36.3

Find M23 and A23 for the matrix

⎡ a11 a12 a13 ⎤
⎢ a21 a22 a23 ⎥.
⎣ a31 a32 a33 ⎦

Delete row 2 and column 3 to obtain . Hence:

∣ a11 a12 ∣
M 23 = ∣ ∣ = a11a32 − a31a12
∣ a31 a32 ∣
A23 = (−1)2+3M 23 = (−1)5(a11a32 − a31a12) = a31a12 − a11a32

36.4. Determinant of a 3 × 3 Matrix

The determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix is defined as follows:

∣ a11 a12 a13 ∣

|A| = ∣∣ a21 a22 a23 ∣∣ = a11A11 + a12A12 + a13A13
∣ a31 a32 a33 ∣

That is, the value of the determinant is found by multiplying each element in row 1 by its cofactor, then adding these results.
This definition is often referred to as expanding by the first row.

Example

EXAMPLE 36.4

Evaluate
∣ 3 1 −2 ∣
∣2 4 1 ∣∣ .
∣
∣3 6 5∣

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 ∣ 3 1 −2 ∣
∣2 4 ∣4 1 ∣ ∣2 1 ∣ ∣2 4 ∣
∣ 1 ∣∣ = 3(−1)1+ 1 ∣ ∣ + 1(−1)1+ 2 ∣ ∣ + (−2)(−1)1+3 ∣ ∣
∣6 5 ∣ ∣3 5 ∣ ∣3 6 ∣
∣3 6 5∣
= 3(4 ⋅ 5 − 6 ⋅ 1) − 1(2 ⋅ 5 − 3 ⋅ 1) − 2(2 ⋅ 6 − 3 ⋅ 4)
= 3 ⋅ 14 − 1 ⋅ 7 − 2 ⋅ 0
= 35

36.5. Determinant of an n × n Matrix

The determinant of an n × n matrix is defined as

|A| = a11A11 + a12A12 + ⋯ + a1nA1n

Again, the value of the determinant is found by multiplying each element in row 1 by its cofactor, then adding these results.

36.6. Properties of Determinants

The following can be proved in general for any n × n determinant.

1.  The value of the determinant may be found by multiplying each element in any one row or any one column by its
cofactor, then adding these results. (This is referred to as expanding by a particular row or column.)

2.  The value of a determinant is unchanged if the matrix is replaced by its transpose, that is, each row is rewritten as a
column. (This is referred to as interchanging rows and columns.)

3.  If each element in any one row or any one column is multiplied by c, the value of the determinant is multiplied by c.

4.  If a row operation

Ri ↔ Rj is performed on a determinant, that is, if any two rows are interchanged (or if any two columns are
interchanged), the value of the determinant is multiplied by −1.

5.  If two rows of a determinant are equal (that is, each element of rowi is equal to the corresponding element of row j), the
value of the determinant is 0. If two columns of a determinant are equal, the value of the determinant is 0.

6.  If any row or any column of a determinant consists entirely of zeros, the value of the determinant is 0.

7.  If a row operation

Ri + kRj → Ri is performed on a determinant, that is, the elements of any row are replaced by their sum with a constant
multiple of another row, the value of the determinant is unchanged. If an analogous column operation, written
Ci + kCj → Ci, is performed, the value of the determinant is also unchanged.

36.7. Cramer's Rule for Solving Systems of Equations

1.  Let

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 a11x + a12y = b1
a21x + a22y = b2

be a 2 × 2 system of equations. Define the determinants

∣ a11 a12 ∣ ∣ b1 a12 ∣ ∣ a11 b1 ∣

D=∣ ∣ D1 = ∣ ∣ D2 = ∣ ∣
∣ a21 a22 ∣ ∣ b2 a22 ∣ ∣ a21 b2 ∣

D is the determinant of the coefficient matrix of the system, and is referred to as the determinant of the system. D1 and D2
are the determinants found by replacing, respectively, the first and second columns of D with the constants bj. Cramer's
rule states that if, and only if, D ≠ 0, then the system has exactly one solution, given by

D1 D2
x= y=
D D

2.  Let

a11x1 + a12x2 + a13x3 = b1

a21x1 + a22x2 + a23x3 = b2
a31x1 + a32x2 + a33x3 = b3

be a 3 × 3 system of equations. Define the determinants

∣ a11 a12 a13 ∣ ∣ b1 a12 a13 ∣ ∣ a11 b1 a13 ∣ ∣ a11 a12 b1 ∣

D = ∣∣ a21 a22 a23 ∣∣ D1 = ∣∣ b2 a22 a23 ∣∣ D2 = ∣∣ a21 b2 a23 ∣∣ D3 = ∣∣ a21 a22 b2 ∣∣
∣ a31 a32 a33 ∣ ∣ b3 a32 a33 ∣ ∣ a31 b3 a33 ∣ ∣ a31 a32 b3 ∣

Again, D is the determinant of the coefficient matrix of the system, and is referred to as the determinant of the system. D1,
D2, and D3 are the determinants found by replacing, respectively, the first, second, and third columns of D with the
constants bj. Cramer's rule states that if, and only if, D ≠ 0, then the system has exactly one solution, given by

D1 D2 D3
x1 = x2 = x3 =
D D D

3.  Cramer's rule can be extended to arbitrary systems of n equations in n variables. However, evaluation of large
determinants is time-consuming; hence the rule is not a practical method of solving large systems (Gaussian or Gauss-
Jordan elimination is generally more efficient); it is of theoretical importance, however.

36.8. SOLVED PROBLEMS

36.1. Evaluate the determinants:

a.  

∣9 4 ∣
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 ∣9 4 ∣
∣ ∣;
∣3 8 ∣
b.  
∣ 8 4∣
∣ ∣;
∣ 16 8 ∣
c.  
∣3 8 ∣
∣ ∣
∣9 4 ∣
a.  
∣9 4 ∣
∣ ∣ = 9 ⋅ 8 − 3 ⋅ 4 = 60;
∣3 8 ∣
b.  
∣ 8 4∣
∣ ∣ = 8 ⋅ 8 − 16 ⋅ 4 = 0;
∣ 16 8 ∣
c.  
∣3 8 ∣
∣ ∣ = 3 ⋅ 4 − 9 ⋅ 8 = −60
∣9 4 ∣
36.2. Evaluate the determinants:

a.  
∣ 5 2 −2 ∣
∣ 3 4 0 ∣∣ ;
∣
∣ −4 2 6∣
b.  
∣ 5 2 −2 ∣
∣3 4 0 ∣∣
∣
∣ 8 6 −2 ∣
Use the definition of a 3 × 3 determinant (expanding by row 1):

a.  The value of the determinant is found by multiplying each element in row 1 by its cofactor, then adding the results:

∣ 5 2 −2 ∣
∣ 3 4 0 ∣ = ∣4 0 ∣ ∣ 3 0∣ ∣ 3 4∣
∣ ∣ 5(−1)1+ 1 ∣ ∣ + 2(−1)1+ 2 ∣ ∣ + (−2)(−1)1+3 ∣ ∣
∣2 6 ∣ ∣ −4 6 ∣ ∣ −4 2 ∣
∣ −4 2 6 ∣
= 5(4 ⋅ 6 − 2 ⋅ 0) − 2[3 ⋅ 6 − (−4) ⋅ 0] − 2[3 ⋅ 2 − (−4) ⋅ 4]
= 120 − 36 − 44
= 40

b.  Proceed as in (a):

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 ∣ 5 2 −2 ∣
∣3 4 ∣4 0∣ ∣3 0∣ ∣3 4 ∣
∣ 0 ∣∣ = 5(−1)1+ 1 ∣ ∣ + 2(−1)1+ 2 ∣ ∣ + (−2)(−1)1+3 ∣ ∣
∣ 6 −2 ∣ ∣ 8 −2 ∣ ∣8 6 ∣
∣ 8 6 −2 ∣
= 5[4 ⋅ (−2) − 6 ⋅ 0] − 2[3 ⋅ (−2) − 8 ⋅ 0] − 2(3 ⋅ 6 − 8 ⋅ 4) = −40 + 12 + 28 = 0

36.3.  Derive the following formula for a general 3 × 3 determinant:

∣ a11 a12 a13 ∣

∣ a a a23 ∣ = a a a33 − a a23a32 − a a a33 + a a23a31 + a13a a32 − a13a a31
∣ 21 22 ∣ 11 22 11 12 21 12 21 22
∣ a31 a32 a33 ∣

Expand the determinant by the first row:

∣ a11 a12 a13 ∣

∣ a a a23 ∣ = a (−1)1+ 1 ∣∣ a22 a23 ∣∣ + a (−1)1+ 2 ∣∣ a21 a23 ∣∣ + a13(−1)1+3 ∣∣ a21 a22 ∣∣
∣ 21 22 ∣ 11
∣ a32 a33 ∣ 12
∣ a31 a33 ∣ ∣ a31 a32 ∣
∣ a31 a32 a33 ∣
= a11(a22a33 − a32a23) − a12(a21a33 − a31a23) + a13(a21a32 − a31a22)
= a11a22a33 − a11a23a32 − a12a21a33 + a12a23a31 + a13a21a32 − a13a22a31

36.4.  Property 1 of determinants states that the value of a determinant may be found by expanding by any row or
column. Verify this for the above determinant for the case of expanding by the first column.

Multiply each element of the first column by its cofactor and add the results to obtain:

∣ a22 a23 ∣ ∣ a a13 ∣ ∣ a a13 ∣

a11A11 + a21A21 + a31A31 = a11(−1)1+ 1 ∣ ∣ + a21(−1)2+ 1 ∣ 12 ∣ a31(−1)3+ 1 ∣ 12 ∣
∣ a32 a33 ∣ ∣ a32 a33 ∣ ∣ a22 a23 ∣
= a11(a22a33 − a32a23) − a21(a12a33 − a32a13) + a31(a12a23 − a22a13)
= a11a22a33 − a11a32a23 − a21a12a33 + a21a32a13 + a31a12a23 − a31a22a13
= a11a22a33 − a11a23a32 − a12a21a33 + a12a23a31 + a13a21a32 − a13a22a31

where the last equality follows by rearranging the order of factors and terms by the commutative and associative laws for
multiplication and addition of real numbers. The last expression is precisely the quantity derived in Problem 36.3.

36.5. Find the value of

∣ 5 2 −3 ∣
∣ 4 0 1 ∣∣
∣
∣ −2 0 3∣
Use property 1 of determinants to expand by the second column. Then

∣ 5 2 −3 ∣
∣ 4 0 ∣ 4 1∣
∣ 1 ∣∣ = 2(−1)1+ 2 ∣ ∣ + 0(A32) + 0(A32) = −2[4 ⋅ 3 − (−2)1] = −28
∣ −2 3 ∣
∣ −2 0 3∣

where the cofactors A22 and A32 need not be evaluated, since they are multiplied by 0.

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 36.6. Property 2 of determinants states that the value of a determinant is unchanged if the matrix is replaced by its
transpose, that is, each row is rewritten as a column. Verify this for an arbitrary 2 × 2 determinant.

Consider the determinant

∣ a11 a12 ∣
∣ ∣ = a11a22 − a21a12 (by definition)
∣ a21 a22 ∣

The determinant of the transposed matrix is then

∣ a11 a21 ∣
∣ ∣
∣ a12 a22 ∣

But by the definition of the 2 × 2 determinant this must equal a11a22 − a12a21, which is clearly the same as a11a22 − a21a12.
Thus the value of the determinant is unchanged by interchanging rows and columns.

36.7.  Property 3 of determinants states that if each element in any one row or any one column is multiplied by c, the
value of the determinant is multiplied by c. Verify this for the first row of a 2 × 2 determinant.

Consider

∣ ca11 ca12 ∣ ∣a a ∣
∣ ∣ = ca11a22 − ca21a12 = c(a11a22 − a21a12) = c ∣ 11 12 ∣
∣ a21 a22 ∣ ∣ a21 a22 ∣

36.8.  Property 4 of determinants states that if any two rows are interchanged (or if any two columns are interchanged),
the value of the determinant is multiplied by −1. Verify this for the two rows of a 2 × 2 determinant.

Consider

∣ a11 a12 ∣
∣ ∣ = a11a22 − a21a12
∣ a21 a22 ∣

Now interchange the two rows to obtain

∣ a21 a22 ∣
∣ ∣
∣ a11 a12 ∣

By the definition of the 2 × 2 determinant, this must equal a21a12 − a11a22 = −1(a11a22 − a21a12). Thus interchanging the two
rows multiplies the value of the determinant by −1.

36.9. Property 7 of determinants states that if a row operation Ri + kRj→ Ri is performed on a determinant, that is, the
elements of any row are replaced by their sum with a constant multiple of another row, the value of the determinant is
unchanged. Verify this for the operation R1 + kR2→ R1 performed on a 2 × 2 determinant.

Consider

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 ∣ a11 a12 ∣
∣ ∣ = a11a22 − a21a12
∣ a21 a22 ∣

Now perform the operation R1 + kR2→ R1 to obtain

∣ a11 + ka21 a12 + ka22 ∣

∣ ∣ = (a11 + ka21)a22 − a21(a12 + ka22)
∣ a21 a22 ∣

Simplifying the last expression yields

(a11 + ka21)a22 − a21(a12 + ka22) = a11a22 + ka21a22 − a21a12 − ka21a22 = a11a22 − a21a12,

that is, the value of the original determinant has not been changed.

36.10. Property 7 is used to evaluate large determinants by generating rows or columns in which many zeroes appear.
Illustrate by applying property 7 to evaluate:

a.  
∣ 5 6 7∣
∣ 5 7 9 ∣∣ ;
∣
∣ 10 9 −1 ∣
b.  
∣1 2 3 4∣
∣ ∣
∣0 3 0 2∣
∣2 4 5 6 ∣∣
∣
∣3 7 8 2∣
Ans.

a.  
∣ 5 6 7∣ ∣5 6 7∣
∣ 5 7 9 ∣ R2 + (−1)R1 → R2 ∣0 1 2 ∣∣
∣ ∣ R3 + (−2)R1 → R3 ∣
∣ 10 9 −1 ∣ ∣ 0 −3 −15 ∣
The latter determinant can be efficiently evaluated by expanding by the first column:

∣5 6 7∣
∣0 1 2 ∣ = 5(−1)1+ 1 ∣∣ 1 2∣
∣ + 0(A21) + 0(A31) = 5[1(−15) − (−3)2] = −45
∣ ∣ ∣ −3 −15 ∣
∣ 0 −3 −15 ∣

b.  
∣1 2 3 4∣ ∣1 2 3 4 ∣
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣3 0 2 ∣ ∣3 0 2∣
∣0 3 0 2 ∣ R3 + (−2)R1 → R3 ∣0 3 0 2 ∣
∣2 = 1(−1) ∣ 0 −1 −2 ∣ = ∣ 0 −1 −2 ∣∣
1+ 1 ∣ ∣ ∣
∣ 4 5 6 ∣∣ R4 + (−3)R1 → R4 ∣0
∣ 0 −1 −2 ∣∣
∣ 1 −1 −10 ∣ ∣ 1 −1 −10 ∣
∣3 7 8 2∣ ∣0 1 −1 −10 ∣

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 Apply property 7 to the latter determinant to produce a second zero in column 2:

∣3 0 2∣ ∣3 0 2∣
∣ 0 −1 −2 ∣ R3 + (−1)R → R3 ∣ 0 −1 −2 ∣
∣ ∣ 2 ∣ ∣
∣ 1 −1 −10 ∣ ∣1 0 −8 ∣

This determinant can be efficiently evaluated by expanding by the second column:

∣3 0 2∣
∣ 0 −1 −2 ∣ = 0(A ) + (−1)(−1)2+ 2 ∣∣ 3 2∣
∣ + 0(A32) = (−1)[3(−8) − 1 ⋅ 2] = 26
∣ ∣ 12
∣ 1 −8 ∣
∣1 0 −8 ∣

36.11.  Show that the equation of the straight line through the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) can be expressed as:

∣ x y 1∣
∣ ∣
∣ x1 y1 1 ∣
∣ ∣
∣ x2 y2 1 ∣

Expanding the determinant by the first row yields

xA11 + yA12 + 1A13 = 0,

where the three cofactors do not contain the variables x and y; therefore, this is the equation of a straight line. Now set x =
x1 and y = y1. Then the value of the determinant is 0, by property 5 of determinants, since two rows are equal. Therefore,
the coordinates (x1, y1) satisfy the equation of the line, hence the point is on the line. Similarly, setting x = x2 and y = y2
shows that the point (x2, y2) is on the line. Hence the given equation is the equation of a straight line passing through the
two given points.

36.12.  Apply Cramer's rule for solving 2 × 2 system of equations to the systems:

a.  
3x + 4y = 5
;
4x + 3y = 16
b.  
5x − 7y = 3
3x + 8y = 5
a.  The determinant of the system is

∣3 4 ∣
D=∣ ∣ = −7
∣4 3 ∣

Therefore the system has exactly one solution, given by

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 ∣ 5 4∣ ∣3 5 ∣
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣
Dx ∣ 16 3 ∣ −49 Dy ∣ 4 16 ∣ 28
x= = = =7 y= = = = −4
D −7 −7 D −7 −7

b.  The determinant of the system is

∣ 5 −7 ∣
D=∣ ∣ = 61
∣3 8∣

Therefore the system has exactly one solution, given by

∣ 3 −7 ∣ ∣5 3 ∣
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣
Dx ∣5 8 ∣ 59 Dy ∣3 5 ∣ 16
x= = = y= = =
D 61 61 D 61 61

36.13.  Apply Cramer's rule for solving 3 × 3 systems of equations to the systems:

a.  
3x1 + 5x2 − x3 = 4
−x1 + 4x2 + 4x3 = 6
2x1 + 5x3 = −2
b.  
3x1 + 5x2 − x3 = 4
−x1 + 4x2 + 4x3 = 6
2x1 + 9x2 + 3x3 = 10
a.  The determinant of the system is

∣ 3 5 −1 ∣
D = ∣∣ −1 4 4 ∣∣ = 133
∣ 2 0 5∣

Therefore, the system has exactly one solution, given by

∣ 4 5 −1 ∣ ∣ 3 4 −1 ∣
∣ −1 4 4 ∣∣ ∣ −1 6 4 ∣∣
∣ ∣
D ∣ 2 0 5∣ 118 D ∣ 2 −2 5∣ 176
x1 = 1 = =− x2 = 2 = =
D 133 133 D 133 133
∣ 3 5 4∣
∣ −1 4 6 ∣∣
∣
D3 ∣ 2 0 −2 ∣ 6
x3 = = =−
D 133 133

b.  The determinant of the system is

∣ 3 5 −1 ∣
© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 ∣ 3 5 −1 ∣
D = ∣∣ −1 4 4 ∣∣ = 0
∣ 2 9 3∣

Therefore Cramer's rule cannot be used to solve the system. Gaussian elimination can be used to show that there are
infinite solutions, given by
24r − 14 22 − 11r
( , , r), for r any real number.
17 17

36.9. SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS

36.14. Evaluate the determinants:

a.  
∣ 11 12 ∣
∣ ∣;
∣ 13 14 ∣
b.  
∣ −5 8∣
∣ ∣;
∣ 25 −40 ∣
c.  
∣ cos t − sin t ∣
∣ ∣
∣ sin t cos t ∣
Ans.

a.  −2;

b.  0;

c.  1

36.15. Evaluate the determinants:

∣ 3 −4 −5 1∣
∣ 3 −4 −5 ∣ ∣ 0 −4 −5 ∣ ∣ ∣
0 4 0 1∣
∣
(a) ∣ 0 −4 ∣ ∣
0 ∣ ;(b) ∣ −4 0 8 ∣ ;(c) ∣∣
∣ .
∣3 1 7 1 ∣∣
∣3 1 7∣ ∣ −5 8 0∣
∣0 1 1 1∣
Ans.

a.  −144;

b.  320;

c.  123

36.16. Verify property 5 of determinants: if two rows of a determinant are equal (or if two columns of a determinant are
equal), the value of the determinant is 0. (Hint: consider what happens when the two rows or columns are interchanged.)

36.17. Verify property 6 of determinants: if one row of a determinant consists of all zeros, the value of the determinant is
0.

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
 36.18. Evaluate the determinants
∣i j k∣ ∣ i j k∣
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣
(a) ∣ 2 3 4 ∣ ;(b) ∣ 6 −12 8 ∣.
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣
∣ 5 −4 6 ∣ ∣ −9 18 −12 ∣
Ans.

a.  34i + 8j = 23k;

b.  0

36.19. Use properties of determinants to verify:

∣ 1 1 1∣
∣ ∣
(a) ∣ a b c ∣ = (a − b)(b − c)(c − a).
∣ ∣
∣ a2 b2 c2 ∣

36.20. Apply Cramer's rule to the solution of the systems

a.  
5x − 6y = 9
;
3x + 8y = −5
b.  
x1 − 2x2 − 5x3 = −28
2x1 + 6x2 + 5x3 = 44
−3x1 + 3x2 − 4x3 = 25
c.  
2x1 − 3x2 + 4x3 = 0
4x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 3
10x1 + x2 − 2x3 = 5
Ans.

a.  
21 26
x= ,y = − ;
29 29
b.  x1 = −4, x2 = 7, x3 = 2;

c.  Since the determinant of the system is 0, Cramer's rule does not yield a solution; Gaussian elimination shows that the
system has no solution.

Schaum's Precalculus Supplementary Problem 36.20

This video presents the solutions to problems which obtain the solution to

 linear systems of equations using Cramer's rule.

David Rader, Professor of Mathematics, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology

2020

© McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use, Privacy Notice and copyright information.
Video Reference
Quite confusion you might encounter on this topic, so here is a video reference that will
help you understand the process of solving a system of linear equations using
the Cramer's Rule.

Check out below:

https://youtu.be/TtxVGMWXMSE
UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Week 2: Laplace Transforms

A. Introduction

Laplace Transform is a mathematical method very useful in evaluating initial value problems
(IVP) or linear ordinary differential equations (ODE) in a much easier way. Its foundation was
developed by a French mathematician, Pierre Simon Marquis De Laplace. A century later, English
electrical engineer Oliver Heaviside developed the powerful practical Laplace Transform techniques
and were often called Heaviside Calculus.

Most applications include the mathematical analysis on electrical networks, springs, mixing
problems, signal processing, and other areas of engineering and physics.
(Kreyszig, 2011)

Examples of Ordinary Differential Equations (ODE):

Example of Initial Value Problems (IVP):

B. Laplace Transform Method

The process of solving an ODE using the Laplace Transform method is known as Operational
Calculus, a type of mathematics that converts calculus problems into algebraic problems. It is consist
of three steps, as shown on Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1. Method of Laplace Transforms

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 9

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Step 1. The given ODE is transformed into an algebraic equation called subsidiary equation.

Step 2. The subsidiary equation is solved by purely algebraic manipulations.

Step 3. The solution in step 2 is transformed back (inverse transform), resulting in the solution of
the given problem.

Concept: The Laplace transform method simplifies the process of solving ODEs by
eliminating the complex methods you learned in Calculus and Differential Equations. Instead,
ODEs are transformed then manipulated by purely algebra.

Notations:

f(t) – IVP or ODE function

F(s) – Laplace transform of the function function

𝓛(𝒇) – is read as “the Laplace of f(t)”

Note:
Original functions are denoted by lowercase letters and their transforms by the
same letters in capital, so that F(s) denotes the transform of f(t), and Y(s) denotes the
transform of y(t), and so on.

To find the Laplace transform of a function, f(t):

𝒔𝒕
𝑭(𝒔) = 𝓛(𝒇) = 𝒆 𝒇(𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝟎

To find the Inverse Laplace transform of F(s):

𝒇(𝒕) = 𝓛 𝟏 [𝑭(𝒔)]

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 10

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example 1: Let f(t) = 1 when t ≥ 0. Find F(s).

Example 2: Let f(t) = eat when t ≥ 0, where a is a constant. Find ℒ(𝑓).

Laplace Transform of Derivatives

First Derivative, f’(t):

Second Derivative, f’’(t):

Nth Derivative, f (n)(t):

Laplace Transform of Integrals

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 11

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

C. Table of Laplace Transforms

There is no need of always performing Laplace transformation manually using the equations given
above. For some functions, derived formulas are shown on Table 2.1., 2.2 and 2.3.

Table 2.1. General Formulas

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 12

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Table 2.2 Laplace Transform of Some Functions

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 13

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Table 2.3 Inverse Laplace Transform of Different Functions

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 14

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 15

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

D. Applications to Ordinary Differential Equations, Initial Value Problems

Laplace transform method are used to solve ODEs and initial value problems. As a general approach,
we consider an initial value problem

the problem is evaluated by following the steps shown in Figure 2.2 below:

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 16

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example:

E. Solved Problems

Example 1:

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 17

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example 2:

Find the Laplace transform of f(x) = 3 + 2x2.

Example 3:

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 18

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example 4:

Example 5:

No function of this form appears in the table. By completing the square in the denominator, we
have

This expression also is not found in table. However, if we rewrite the numerator as s + 4 = (s + 2)
+ 2 and then decompose the fraction, we have

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 19

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example 6:

To the linear factors s − 2 and s + 1, we associate respectively the fractions A/(s − 2) and B/(s + 1). We
set

and, upon clearing fractions, obtain

To find A and B, substitute s = −1 and then s = 2 into, we immediately obtain A = 5/3 and B = −2/3.
Thus,

5 2
= 𝑒 − 𝑒
3 3

Example 6:

Taking the Laplace transform of both sides of this differential equation and considering y(0) = 2.

Finally, taking the inverse Laplace transform of Y(s), we obtain

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 20

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example 7:

Taking the Laplace transform of both sides of this differential equation and considering y(0) = 2.

taking the inverse Laplace transform of Y(s), we obtain

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 21

Video References
Quite confusion you might encounter on this topic, so here are some video reference
from Khan Academy that will help you understand the process and difference
between Laplace Transform and its inverse.

Check out the links below:

https://youtu.be/OiNh2DswFt4

https://youtu.be/33TYoybjqPg
 Infinite Series
Introduction to Infinite Series
Series serve an important tool in engineering. It is beneficial in providing value
approximations, mathematical description for signals and other type of data.
This module will discuss the operation of number series on a wider application. Sequence
and Series’ were introduced in College Algebra where you encountered some of its kinds,
particularly Arithmetic and Geometric Series.
In this module, a short review is provided regarding those topics and followed by Power
series, Maclaurin Series, Taylor Series and Fourier Series. Make sure to know the
differences between them and know where these methods are applied.

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Solve the power series expansion of several functions
• Demonstrate evaluating a function using Maclaurin, Taylor and Fourier Series.
• Understand the difference between Taylor and MacLaurin series.
• Able to get the derivatives of the functions.
• Able to get the integrals of the functions.

Assigned Reading:
The following content is taken from the module for Advance Engineering
Mathematics by Bautista (2020). The module includes the following:
• Sequences and Series
• Power Series
• Taylor Series
• Fourier Series
Series and Sequences
Power Series
Power Series is an infinite series in which the terms contain a continuously increasing
powers of a variable. It is a standard method of solving linear ordinary differential
equations (ODE) and essential for computing values, graphing curves and proving
formulas.
It has a general formula:
Taylor Series
Taylor series is a power series expansion of a function f(x) in (x-a). It is a sequence of
derivatives. This is based on a theorem that relates an approximation of the value of a
continuous function at a point to the successive derivatives of the function evaluated at
the point.
It has a general formula

MacLaurin Series
Fourier Series
 Linear Programming
Introduction to Linear Programming
This weeks module will discuss a method very useful to real world problems. Such
problems include situations under manufacturing, production, and many other industries
where efficiency is a necessity.
For example, in a production industry, profit generated from the product sales is directly
affected by the cost of materials and time. If a company produces multiple products,
how many of each product must be manufactured to maximize the profit? Or to
minimize cost? Such is an example of an optimization problem and can be evaluated
using linear programming.

After completion of the course the student should be able to:

• Generate an objective function and constraint expressions from an optimization
problem.
• Graph an inequality expression
• Solve an optimization problem in terms of the objective function and a set of constraints.
• Solve optimization problems using graphical method
• Solve optimization problems using the simplex method.

Assigned Reading:
The following content is taken from the module for Advance Engineering
Mathematics by Bautista (2020). The module includes the following:
• Optimization terms and definitions
• Linear Programming using Graphical Method
• Linear Programming using Simplex Method
Definitions

Linear Programming using Graphical Method

 Practice Exercise 9
Instructions
• Use a clean piece of paper. (preferably bond paper)
• Hand-write your solutions and answers. (Make your penmanship readable)
• Box your final answers.
• Submit a 2-page output in pdf format.
UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

V. Linear Programming using Simplex Method

Another method of solving optimization problems is through Simplex method. Objective
functions have a range of basic feasible solutions – from minimum to maximum – as shown in the
previous examples. In the graphical method, we are limited by the number of corner points and
the assumptions of inequalities. To find either the maximum of minimum of an objective function,
Simplex method is a more accurate method which provides a systematic process using iterations.
It determines the extreme values to optimize an objective function.

In this method, inequalities of the constraints are converted into equalities by augmenting
a slack variable. To simplify the process, a table is used to organize the operations in a matrix
form, then performing row operations. Let’s define first the fundamental terms used.

 Slack Variables
➢ Any variable added to the constraints to make it an equation. This represents an unknown
value that will make the left side of the equation equal to the constant on the right.
➢ One slack variable is given on each constraint.

Example:

𝑥 + 𝑦 ≤ 5 ⟶ 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑆1 = 5
Slack Variable

 Simplex Tableau
➢ Or the initial simplex table.
➢ A matrix whose elements are the coefficients of all the variables of the objective function
and constraints arranged in the standard form.

 Basic Variables
➢ Or Active variables.
➢ Columns that contain only one nonzero element.

 Non-basic Variables
➢ Or Inactive variables.
➢ Columns that contain one or more nonzero element.
➢ After performing the simplex method, these variables are equated to zero.

One important aspect within the process of simplex method is pivoting. This is the same
process you have learned on performing row operations on matrices converting to row-echelon
form. (refer to Week 1: Matrices)

The following examples used are the same examples from the previous section so you can
compare graphical method and simplex method in solving optimization problems. The step-by-
step procedure of simplex method is integrated on the examples.

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 48

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example 1b. Linear Programming – Simplex Method

Determine what values of x and y will maximize the objective function

𝑃 = 3𝑥 + 5𝑦

Remember this...
•The third
subject to the following constraints constraint is also
known as the non-
𝑥 + 𝑦 ≤ 15 negativity
constraint, and is
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 ≤ 36 not used in the
process of simplex
𝑥 ≥ 0; 𝑦 ≥ 0 method.

SOLUTION:

Step 1. Convert the constraints inequalities into equations using slack variables,
and equate the objective function to zero.

𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑺𝟏 = 15
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑺𝟐 = 36
𝑃 − 3𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 0
Step 2. Generate the simplex tableau using the coefficients of the variables and the constants K.

x y S1 S2 P K
1 1 1 0 0 15
2 3 0 1 0 36
-3 -5 0 0 1 0

Step 3. Select the pivot column by identifying the most negative element of the last row. (If all elements
are positive, the problem is already maximized, no further process.)

The most negative element is –5.

x y S1 S2 P K
1 1 1 0 0 15
2 3 0 1 0 36
-3 -5 0 0 1 0

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 49

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Step 4. Select the pivot row by dividing each element on the constant column by the corresponding element
on the pivot column (ratio). The least positive ratio is the pivot row. The intersection indicates the
pivot element, it must be positive and nonzero.

x y S1 S2 P K ratio
1 1 1 0 0 15 15/1 = 15
2 3 0 1 0 36 36/3 = 12 least ratio

-3 -5 0 0 1 0

Therefore, the pivot row is the second row.

x y S1 S2 P K
1 1 1 0 0 15
2 3 0 1 0 36
-3 -5 0 0 1 0

The pivot element is 3.

Step 5. Perform row operations to make the pivot element equal to 1 and the remaining element on the
pivot column equal to 0. This can be done by dividing the entire row with the pivot element.

Divide the entire pivot row by 3.

x y S1 S2 P K
1 1 1 0 0 15
2/3 1 0 1/3 0 12
-3 -5 0 0 1 0

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 50

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Make other elements on the pivot column zero by performing row operations.

For the first row,

Formula:
New value = old value – (parallel pivot row element *
parallel pivot column element)

2 1
For x; 1 − ( ∗ 1) =
3 3

For y; 1 − (1 ∗ 1) = 0
x y S1 S2 P K
For S1; 1 − (0 ∗ 1) = 1
1/3 0 1 -1/3 0 3
2/3 1 0 1/3 0 12 For S2;
1
0 − ( ∗ 1) = −
1
3 3

For P; 0 − (0 ∗ 1) = 0

For K; 15 − (12 ∗ 1) = 3

For the last row,

2 1
For x; −3 − ( ∗ −5) =
3 3

x y S1 S2 P K For y; −5 − (1 ∗ −5) = 0

1/3 0 1 -1/3 0 3 For S1; 0 − (0 ∗ −5) = 0

2/3 1 0 1/3 0 12 1 5
For S2; 0 − ( ∗ −5) =
3 3
1/3 0 0 5/3 1 60
For P; 1 − (0 ∗ −5) = 1

For K; 0 − (12 ∗ −5) = 60

Step 6. If the last row (which does not include the slack variable columns) still contains a negative element,
repeat the process starting from step 3. Otherwise, the solution can be found. This is done by
identifying the basic variables and equating it to the corresponding element on the constant
column. All non-basic variables are zero.

x y S1 S2 P K Basic Non-basic

1/3 0 1 -1/3 0 3 𝑦 = 12 𝑥=0

𝑆1 = 3 𝑆2 = 0
2/3 1 0 1/3 0 12 𝑃 = 60

1/3 0 0 5/3 1 60 The values of x and y that provide the

maximum for the objective polynomial is
(0,12).
Basic Variables
The maximum value of P is 60.

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 51

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example 2b. Linear Programming – Simplex Method

Determine how many shirt and pants should the company produce to maximize the sales.
The given data from Example 2a is as follows:

Objective Function

𝑍 = 18𝑆 + 20𝑃
Constraints

4𝑆 + 5𝑃 ≤ 27,000
15𝑆 + 5𝑃 ≤ 43,200
SOLUTION:

Step 1. Slack Variables

4𝑆 + 5𝑃 + 𝑺𝟏 = 27,000
15𝑆 + 5𝑃 + 𝑺𝟐 = 43,200
𝑍 − 18𝑆 − 20𝑃 = 0
Step 2. Simple Tableau

S P S1 S2 Z K
4 5 1 0 0 27,000
15 5 0 1 0 43,200
-18 -20 0 0 1 0

Step 3. Pivot Column

S P S1 S2 Z K
4 5 1 0 0 27,000
15 5 0 1 0 43,200
-18 -20 0 0 1 0

Step 4. Least Ratio, Pivot Row, and Pivot Element

S P S1 S2 Z K ratio
4 5 1 0 0 27,000 5,400 least ratio

15 5 0 1 0 43,200 8,640
-18 -20 0 0 1 0

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 52

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

S P S1 S2 Z K
4 5 1 0 0 27,000
15 5 0 1 0 43,200
-18 -20 0 0 1 0

Step 5. Row Operation

Divide the entire pivot row by 5.

S P S1 S2 Z K
4/5 1 1/5 0 0 5,400
15 5 0 1 0 43,200
-18 -20 0 0 1 0

New value = old value – (parallel pivot row element *

For the second row, parallel pivot column element)

4
For S; 15 − ( ∗ 5) = 11
S P S1 S2 Z K 5

4/5 1 1/5 0 0 5,400 For P; 5 − (1 ∗ 5) = 0

11 0 -1 1 0 16,200 For S1;

1
0 − ( ∗ 5) = −1
5

For S2; 1 − (0 ∗ 5) = 1

For Z; 0 − (0 ∗ 5) = 0

For K; 43,200 − (5,400 ∗ 5) = 16,200

4
For the last row, For S; −18 − ( ∗ −20) = −2
5

S P S1 S2 Z K For P; −20 − (1 ∗ −20) = 0

4/5 1 1/5 0 0 5,400 1

For S1; 0 − ( ∗ −20) = 4
5
11 0 -1 1 0 16,200
For S2; 0 − (0 ∗ −20) = 0
-2 0 4 0 1 108,000
For Z; 1 − (0 ∗ −20) = 1

For K; 0 − (5,400 ∗ −20) = 108,000

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 53

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Step 6. Last row still contains a negative element. Repeat from step 3.

Pivot Column

S P S1 S2 Z K
4/5 1 1/5 0 0 5,400
11 0 -1 1 0 16,200
-2 0 4 0 1 108,000

Least Ratio Pivot Row and Pivot Element

S P S1 S2 Z K ratio S P S1 S2 Z K
4/5 1 1/5 0 0 5,400 6,750 4/5 1 1/5 0 0 5,400
11 0 -1 1 0 16,200 1,473 11 0 -1 1 0 16,200
-2 0 4 0 1 108,000 -2 0 4 0 1 108,000

Divide by 11,
S P S1 S2 Z K
4/5 1 1/5 0 0 5,400
1 0 -1/11 1/11 0 1,473
-2 0 4 0 1 108,000

For the first row, For the last row,

S P S1 S2 Z K S P S1 S2 Z K
0 1 3/11 -4/55 0 4,222 0 1 3/11 -4/55 0 4,222
1 0 -1/11 1/11 0 1,473 1 0 -1/11 1/11 0 1,473
0 0 42/11 2/11 1 110,946

Basic Non-basic
S P S1 S2 Z K
𝑆 = 1,473 𝑆1 = 0
0 1 3/11 -4/55 0 4,222
𝑃 = 4,222 𝑆2 = 0
1 0 -1/11 1/11 0 1,473 𝑍 = 110,946

0 0 42/11 2/11 1 110,946 Therefore, the maximum sales will be achieved if the
company produces
1,473 shirts and 4,222 Pants.
Basic Variables Maximum sales is $110,946.

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 54

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example 3b. Linear Programming – Simplex Method

Determine what values of x and y will minimize the objective function

𝑃 = 4𝑥 + 6𝑦
subject to the following constraints

𝑥+𝑦 ≥8
6𝑥 + 𝑦 ≥ 12
𝑥 ≥ 0; 𝑦 ≥ 0
SOLUTION:

To solve a minimization problem, convert the given objective function and constraints into a
maximization problem. This is done by applying matrix transpose on the coefficients.

Applying transpose of matrix

Constraints
1 1 8 1 6 4
[6 1 12] ⇒ [1 1 6]
Objective Function 4 6 1 8 12 1

Write the new given using another set of variables, a, b, and C.

Maximize 𝑪 = 𝟖𝒂 + 𝟏𝟐𝒃
subject to the following constraints

𝒂 + 𝟔𝒃 ≤ 𝟒
𝒂+𝒃≤𝟔
Perform Simplex Method.

Step 1. Slack Variables. Use the original variables (x and y).

𝑎 + 6𝑏 + 𝒙 = 4
𝑎+𝑏+𝒚= 6
𝐶 − 8𝑎 − 12𝑏 = 0
Step 2. Simple Tableau

a b x y C K
1 6 1 0 0 4
1 1 0 1 0 6
-8 -12 0 0 1 0

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 55

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Step 3. Pivot Column

a b x y C K
1 6 1 0 0 4
1 1 0 1 0 6
-8 -12 0 0 1 0

Step 4. Least Ratio, Pivot Row, and Pivot Element

a b x y C K ratio
1 6 1 0 0 4 2/3 least ratio

1 1 0 1 0 6 6
-8 -12 0 0 1 0

a b x y C K
1 6 1 0 0 4
1 1 0 1 0 6
-8 -12 0 0 1 0

Step 5. Row Operation

Divide the entire pivot row by 6.

a b x y C K
1/6 1 1/6 0 0 2/3
1 1 0 1 0 6
-8 -12 0 0 1 0

For the second row, For the last row,

a b x y C K a b x y C K
1/6 1 1/6 0 0 2/3 1/6 1 1/6 0 0 2/3
5/6 0 -1/6 1 0 16/3 5/6 0 -1/6 1 0 16/3
-6 0 2 0 1 8

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 56

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Step 6. Last row still contains a negative element. Repeat from step 3.

Pivot Column

a b x y C K
1/6 1 1/6 0 0 2/3
5/6 0 -1/6 1 0 16/3
-6 0 2 0 1 8

Least Ratio Pivot Row and Pivot Element

a b x y C K ratio a b x y C K
1/6 1 1/6 0 0 2/3 4 1/6 1 1/6 0 0 2/3
5/6 0 -1/6 1 0 16/3 32/5 5/6 0 -1/6 1 0 16/3
-6 0 2 0 1 8 -6 0 2 0 1 8

Multiply by 6,
a b x y C K
1 6 1 0 0 4
5/6 0 -1/6 1 0 16/3
-6 0 2 0 1 8

For the first row, For the last row,

a b x y C K a b x y C K
1 6 1 0 0 4 1 6 1 0 0 4
0 -5 -1 1 0 2 0 -5 -1 1 0 2
0 36 8 0 1 32

b Interpretation:
a x y C K
From the original given, the values of x and y is the
1 6 1 0 0 4 element at the bottom of its column.
0 𝒙=𝟖
0 -5 -1 1 2
𝒚=𝟎
0 36 8 0 1 32 The minimum value of P is the maximum value of C,
𝑷 = 𝟑𝟐

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 57

 Linear Programming

Video References
You might be confused with what you encountered in this topic, so here are some video
references that will help you understand the Simplex Method.

Check out the links below:

https://youtu.be/fk0eIRbd4e0

https://youtu.be/8_D3gkrgeK8
UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Week 5: Vector Analysis

I. Introduction
This week’s module will expand your knowledge about vectors. The first time you
encounter vectors is probably on your Physics subjects. It concentrates on the general information
such as its definitions, functions and operations. However, this time we will see vectors from
another perspective with the application of more advance mathematics, particularly Calculus.

II. Objectives
After completion of the course the student should be able to:

1. Demonstrate dot and cross products.

2. Perform vector differentiation.
3. Solve vector problems involving gradient, divergence and curl.

III. Vector Fundamentals

 Scalar Quantity
➢ A quantity which possess magnitude but without direction.
➢ Examples include mass, time, density, temperature, etc.

 Vector Quantity
➢ A quantity which possess magnitude and direction.
➢ Examples include force, displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc.

Vector Notation
P

Arrow OP – Direction
P A – Magnitude
O

Figure 5.1. Vector

O
Representation

 Unit Vector
➢ A vector having a unit magnitude, e.g. ax, ay, az or i, j, k
➢ Any vector A may be looked upon as the product of a unit vector a in its direction by the
positive scalar A.
𝐴
𝑎𝐴 =
|𝐴|

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 71

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

 Components of a Vector
➢ The sum or resultant of A1i, A2j, and A3k is the

Source: Access Engineering

vector A
➢ This can be written as

𝐴 = 𝐴1 𝒊 + 𝐴2 𝒋 + 𝐴3 𝒌
The magnitude of A is

|𝐴| = √𝐴1 2 + 𝐴2 2 + 𝐴3 2

Figure 5.2. Vector

Components

Example 5.1. Unit Vector

Find a unit vector parallel to the resultant vectors of 𝑟1 = 2𝒊 + 4𝒋 − 5𝒌 and 𝑟2 = 𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 3𝒌.

SOLUTION:

𝑅 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑅 3𝒊 + 6𝒋 − 2𝒌
𝑎𝑅 = =
= (2𝒊 + 4𝒋 − 5𝒌) + (𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 3𝒌) |𝑅| 7
= 3𝒊 + 6𝒋 − 2𝒌

|𝑅| = |3𝒊 + 6𝒋 − 2𝒌| 𝑎𝑅 = 0.43𝒊 + 0.86𝒋 − 0.29𝒌

|𝑅| = 7

IV. Dot and Cross Product

 Dot Product
➢ Or Scalar Product (refer to Table 5.1)
➢ The direct product of two vectors A and B is the scalar quantity

Remember this...
obtained by multiplying the product of magnitudes of the vectors
•The expression
by the cosine of the angle between them. 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 is read as A
dot B
⃗𝑨 ∙ ⃗𝑩
⃗ = 𝑨𝑩𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
•The expression
Example 5.2. Scalar Product 𝐴 × 𝐵 is read as
If 𝐴 = 2𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 5𝒌 and 𝐵 = 4𝒊 + 𝒋 + 6𝒌, solve for the scalar A cross B.
product.

SOLUTION:

⃗ = 𝐴1 𝐵1 + 𝐴2 𝐵2 + 𝐴3 𝐵3
𝐴∙𝐵
= 2(4) + 3(1) + 5(6)
= 41

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 72

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example 5.3. Angle between 2 Vectors by dot product

Find the angle between 𝐴 = 2𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 𝒌 and 𝐵 = 6𝒊 − 3𝒋 + 2𝒌.

SOLUTION:

For the scalar product,

⃗ = 2(6) + 2(−3) + (−1)2 = 4

𝐴∙𝐵 Therefore, the angle between A and B is,

The magnitude of A is, ⃗ = 𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

𝐴∙𝐵

𝐴 = √22 + 22 + (−1)2 = 3 4 = (3 ∙ 7) cos 𝜃

The magnitude of B is, 𝜃 = 79.02°

𝐵 = √62 + (−3)2 + (2)2 = 7

Table 5.1. Properties of Dot Product

Properties of Dot Product

𝐴∙𝐵 =𝐵∙𝐴 Commutative Law for Dot Products
𝐴 ∙ (𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 + 𝐴 ∙ 𝐶 Distributive Law
𝑚(𝐴 ∙ 𝐵) = (𝑚𝐴) ∙ 𝐵 = 𝐴 ∙ (𝑚𝐵) = (𝐴 ∙ 𝐵)𝑚 m is scalar

𝑖∙𝑖 =𝑗∙𝑗 =𝑘∙𝑘 =1

𝑖∙𝑗 =𝑗∙𝑘 =𝑖∙𝑘 =0

⃗ = 𝐵1 𝒊 + 𝐵2 𝒋 + 𝐵3 𝒌, then
If 𝐴 = 𝐴1 𝒊 + 𝐴2 𝒋 + 𝐴3 𝒌 and 𝐵
⃗ = 𝐴1 𝐵1 + 𝐴2 𝐵2 + 𝐴3 𝐵3
𝐴∙𝐵
𝐴 ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐴1 2 + 𝐴2 2 + 𝐴3 2
⃗ = 𝐵1 2 + 𝐵2 2 + 𝐵3 2
⃗ ∙𝐵
𝐵

If 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 = 0 and A and B are not null vectors, then A and B are perpendicular.

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 73

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

 Cross Product
➢ Or Vector Product (refer to Table 5.2)
➢ The product of two vectors A and B is the vector quantity obtained by multiplying the product
of magnitudes of the vectors by the sine of the angle between them.

⃗𝑨 × ⃗𝑩
⃗ = 𝑨𝑩𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝒖, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋

where: u – a unit vector indicating the direction of A×B.

 the cross product of vector A and vector B results to vector C with a direction perpendicular
to the plane of A and B.

⃗𝑪 = ⃗𝑨 × ⃗𝑩
⃗

Table 5.2. Properties of Cross Product

Properties of Cross Product

𝐴 × 𝐵 = −𝐵 × 𝐴 Commutative Law for Dot Products
𝐴 × (𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴 × 𝐵 + 𝐴 × 𝐶 Distributive Law
𝑚(𝐴 × 𝐵) = (𝑚𝐴) × 𝐵 = 𝐴 × (𝑚𝐵) = (𝐴 × 𝐵)𝑚 m is scalar

𝑖×𝑖 =𝑗×𝑗 =𝑘×𝑘 =0

𝑖 × 𝑗 = 𝑘, 𝑗 × 𝑘 = 𝑖, 𝑖×𝑘 =𝑗

⃗ = 𝐵1 𝒊 + 𝐵2 𝒋 + 𝐵3 𝒌, then
If 𝐴 = 𝐴1 𝒊 + 𝐴2 𝒋 + 𝐴3 𝒌 and 𝐵
𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
⃗ = |𝐴1
𝐴×𝐵 𝐴2 𝐴3 |
𝐵1 𝐵2 𝐵3

If 𝐴 = 𝐵, or if A is parallel to B, then sin 𝜃 = 0, and 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 0.

The magnitude of 𝐴 × 𝐵 is the same as the area of a parallelogram with sides A and B.

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 74

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

If 𝜃 = 0°, then

Source: Access Engineering

⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 sin 0 = 0
𝐴×𝐵
If 𝜃 = 90°, then

⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 sin 90 = 𝐴𝐵
𝐴×𝐵

Figure 5.3. Cross

Product

Example 5.4. Vector Product

Solve for the cross product of 𝐴 = 2𝒊 + 4𝒋 + 3𝒌 and 𝐵 = 𝒊 + 5𝒋 − 2𝒌.

SOLUTION:
𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
⃗ = |2 4 3 |
𝐴×𝐵
1 5 −2

4 3 2 3 2 4
=| |𝒊 − | |𝒋 + | |𝒌
5 −2 1 −2 1 5

⃗ = −23𝒊 + 7𝒋 + 6𝒌
𝐴×𝐵

Table 5.3. Multiplying 3 vectors

Triple Product Properties

(𝐴 ∙ 𝐵)𝐶 ≠ 𝐴(𝐵 ∙ 𝐶)
𝐴 ∙ (𝐵 × 𝐶) = 𝐵 ∙ (𝐶 × 𝐴) = 𝐶 ∙ (𝐵 × 𝐴)

⃗ = 𝐵1 𝒊 + 𝐵2 𝒋 + 𝐵3 𝒌 , and 𝐶 = 𝐶1 𝒊 + 𝐶2 𝒋 + 𝐶3 𝒌, then
If 𝐴 = 𝐴1 𝒊 + 𝐴2 𝒋 + 𝐴3 𝒌 , 𝐵
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
⃗ × 𝐶 ) = |𝐵1
𝐴 ∙ (𝐵 𝐵2 𝐵3 |
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

𝐴 × (𝐵 × 𝐶) ≠ (𝐴 × 𝐵 ) × 𝐶
𝐴 × (𝐵 × 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∙ 𝐶)𝐵 − (𝐴 ∙ 𝐵)𝐶
(𝐴 × 𝐵) × 𝐶 = (𝐴 ∙ 𝐶)𝐵 − (𝐵 ∙ 𝐶)𝐴

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 75

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

V. Vector Differentiation
Some vectors are functions of time. If vector A depends on a scalar variable t, then A can be
represented as A(t) which is

𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡)𝒊 + 𝑎𝑦 (𝑡)𝒋 + 𝑎𝑧 (𝑡)𝒌

Finding its derivative with respect to t, we have

𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
{𝐴(𝑡)} = 𝒊 {𝑎𝑥 (𝑡)} + 𝒋 {𝑎𝑦 (𝑡)} + 𝒌 {𝑎𝑧 (𝑡)}
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Example 5.5. Derivative of a Vector

𝑑2 𝐴
If 𝐴 = (3𝑢2 + 4)𝒊 + (2𝑢 − 5)𝒋 + 4𝑢3 𝒌. Find 𝑑𝑢2 .

SOLUTION:

The first derivative is,

𝑑𝐴
= 6𝑢𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 12𝑢2 𝒌
𝑑𝑢
The second derivative,

𝑑2 𝐴
= 6𝒊 + 24𝑢𝒌
𝑑𝑢2

 Partial Differentiation of Vectors

➢ If a vector is a function of two independent variables, the rules of differentiation follow the usual
pattern.

If vector 𝐹 = 𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋 + 𝑧𝒌, then x, y, z will also be functions of independent variables u and v.

Then,

as a function of u as a function of v

𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌 = 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣

𝜕2𝐹 𝜕2𝑥 𝜕2𝑦 𝜕2𝑧 𝜕2𝐹 𝜕2𝑥 𝜕2𝑦 𝜕2𝑧

= 𝒊+ 2𝒋+ 2𝒌 = 𝒊+ 2𝒋+ 2𝒌
𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 2 𝜕𝑣 2 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣

𝝏𝟐 𝑭 𝝏𝟐 𝒙 𝝏𝟐 𝒚 𝝏𝟐 𝒛
= 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌
𝝏𝒖𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒖𝝏𝒗
For small finite changes du and dv,
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹
𝑑𝐹 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑑𝑣
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 78

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example 5.6. Partial Derivative of a Vector

For 𝐹 = 2𝑢𝑣𝒊 + (𝑢2 − 2𝑣)𝒋 + (𝑢 + 𝑣 2 )𝒌. Solve for the following:
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹 𝜕2 𝐹 𝜕2 𝐹
a) 𝜕𝑢
b) 𝜕𝑣 c) 𝜕𝑢2 d) 𝜕𝑢𝜕𝑣

SOLUTION:
𝜕𝐹
a) 𝜕𝑢
= 2𝑣𝒊 + 2𝑢𝒋 + 𝒌

𝜕𝐹
b) = 2𝑢𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 2𝑣𝒌
𝜕𝑣

𝜕2 𝐹
c) 𝜕𝑢2
= 2𝒋

𝜕2 𝐹 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
d) 𝜕𝑢𝜕𝑣
= 𝜕𝑢 {𝜕𝑣} = 𝜕𝑢 {2𝑢𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 2𝑣𝒌} = 2𝒊

VI. Gradient of a Scalar Function

The Gradient is used to obtain a vector function from scalar function.

If a scalar function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is continuously differentiable

with respect to its variables x, y, z, throughout the region, then the
gradient of f is defined as the vector

Remember this...
𝝏𝒇 𝝏𝒇 𝝏𝒇 •The given
𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒇 = 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌 function f is a
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
scalar function,
and applying
grad to f results
Example 5.7. Gradient to a vector
function.
Find the gradient of 𝑓 = 2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 .

SOLUTION:
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓 = 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

= 4𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 𝒊 + 2𝑥 2 𝑧 3 𝒋 + 6𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 𝒌

 Nabla Notation
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓 = 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
can be written as
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓 = {𝒊 +𝒋 + 𝒌 }𝑓
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 79

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
where 𝜕𝑥
𝒊 + 𝜕𝑦 𝒋 + 𝜕𝑧 𝒌 is called a vector differential operator and is denoted by the
symbol ∇ (read as ‘del’ or ‘nabla’). Thus,

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻≡𝒊 +𝒋 +𝒌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
and
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝛻𝑓 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓 = 𝒊 +𝒋 +𝒌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Example 5.8. Gradient on a Point

If 𝑓 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 + 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 2, determine grad f at the point P(1, 3, 2).

SOLUTION:
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝜕𝑥
= 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 + 𝑦 2 𝑧 2 at P(1, 3, 2) 𝜕𝑥
= 48 + 36 = 84
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝜕𝑦
= 𝑥 2 𝑧 3 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 at P(1, 3, 2) 𝜕𝑦
= 8 + 24 = 32

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
= 3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 at P(1, 3, 2) = 36 + 36 = 72
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

Therefore,

𝛻𝑓 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓 = 84𝒊 + 32𝒋 + 72𝒌

VII. Divergence of a Vector Function

The Divergence is used to obtain a scalar function from a vector
function.
The operator ∇ ∙ can be applied to a vector function 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
to give a divergence of F. Remember this...

If 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐹𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐹𝑧 𝒌, •The given
function F is a
vector function,
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 and applying div
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐹 = ∇ ∙ 𝐹 = (𝒊 +𝒋 + 𝒌 ) ∙ (𝐹𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐹𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐹𝑧 𝒌)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 to F results to a
scalar function.
𝜕𝐹𝑥 𝜕𝐹𝑦 𝜕𝐹𝑧
= 𝒊∙𝒊+ 𝒋∙𝒋+ 𝒌∙𝒌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Since 𝑖 ∙ 𝑖 = 𝑗 ∙ 𝑗 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑘 = 1, therefore
𝝏𝑭𝒙 𝝏𝑭𝒚 𝝏𝑭𝒛
𝒅𝒊𝒗 𝑭 = 𝛁 ∙ 𝑭 = + +
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 80

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example 5.9. Divergence

Find the divergence of 𝐴 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝒊 − 𝑥𝑦𝑧𝒋 + 𝑦𝑧 2 𝒌.

SOLUTION:
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
∇∙𝐴= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
∇ ∙ 𝐴 = 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 + 2𝑦𝑧

VIII. Curl of a Vector Function

The Curl is used to obtain a vector function from a vector function.

If 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐹𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐹𝑧 𝒌,

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹 = ∇ × 𝐹 = (𝒊 +𝒋 + 𝒌 ) × (𝐹𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐹𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐹𝑧 𝒌)

Remember this...
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
•Curl acts on a
𝒊 𝒋 𝒌 vector function
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏 and gives
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍 𝑭 = 𝛁 × 𝑭 = || |
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛| another vector
function as
𝑭𝒙 𝑭𝒚 𝑭𝒛 result.

Example 5.10. Curl

If 𝐴 = (𝑦 4 − 𝑥 2 𝑧 2 )𝒊 + (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝒋 − 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧𝒌, determine curl
A at the P(1, 3, -2).

SOLUTION:
𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹 = ∇ × 𝐹 = || |
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 |
𝑦 − 𝑥2𝑧2
4
𝑥 + 𝑦2
2
−𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 4
∇ × 𝐹 = 𝒊 { (−𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧) − (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )} − 𝒋 { (−𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧) − (𝑦 4 − 𝑥 2 𝑧 2 )} + 𝒌 { (−𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧) − (𝑦 − 𝑥 2 𝑧 2 )}
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

∇ × 𝐹 = 𝒊(−𝑥 2 𝑧) − 𝒋(−2𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 2𝑥 2 𝑧) + 𝒌(2𝑥 − 4𝑦 3 )

at point P(1, 3, -2),

∇ × 𝐹 = 𝒊(2) − 𝒋(12 − 4) + 𝒌(2 − 108)

∇ × 𝐹 = 2𝒊 − 8𝒋 − 106𝒌

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 81

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Table 5.4. Summary Table

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 Acts on Scalar, result

Gradient 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓 = ∇𝐹 = 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 is a Vector

𝜕𝐹𝑥 𝜕𝐹𝑦 𝜕𝐹𝑧 Acts on Vector,

Divergence 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐹 = ∇ ∙ 𝐹 = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 result is a Scalar

𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 Acts on Vector,
Curl 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹 = ∇ × 𝐹 = || ||
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 result is a Vector
𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑧

 Multiple Operations

Example 5.11. Multiple Operations

If 𝐴 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝒊 + 𝑦𝑧 3 𝒋 − 𝑧𝑥 3 𝒌, determine 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴.

SOLUTION:

First, solve for the divergence of A,

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴 = ∇ ∙ 𝐴 = (𝒊 +𝒋 + 𝒌 ) ∙ (𝑥 2 𝑦𝒊 + 𝑦𝑧 3 𝒋 − 𝑧𝑥 3 𝒌)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 + 𝑥 3

Then, solving for the gradient,

𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴) = ∇(∇ ∙ A) = ∇(2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 + 𝑥 3 )

= (2𝑦 + 3𝑥 2 )𝒊 + 2𝑥𝒋 + 3𝑧 2 𝒌

Table 5.5. Properties of Grad, Div, and Curl

Properties on Multiple Operations

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓 = ∇ × (∇𝑓) = 0

𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹 = ∇ ∙ (∇ × F) = 0

𝜕2𝑓 𝜕2𝑓 𝜕2𝑓

𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓 = ∇ ∙ (∇𝑓) = + +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
= ∇2 𝑓 (known as the Laplacian of f)

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 82

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Week 6: Z-Transforms

I. Introduction
This week’s module will let you learn another mathematical method, the Z-Transforms.
Differential equations are used to mathematically represent arbitrary phenomena into functions.
For example, the sine wave signal shown in Figure 6.1a can generally be represented as 𝑓(𝑥) =
sin 𝜃, but for an arbitrary or non-periodic signals like noise and music such as shown in Figure
6.1b and 6.1c, these can be represented by Ordinary Differential
Equations (ODE). As what you have learned in Week 2, the method of
Source: Wikipedia

Laplace Tranforms simplifies the process of mathematical evaluation.

(a)

(c)
(b)

Figure 6.1. Signal Waveforms: (a) Sine Wave,

(b) Noise Waveform, (c) Music Waveform

Laplace Transforms are utilized for functions that are continuous in nature such as sound
and light, varying its value every point in time or commonly known as analog. However, for
functions which are discrete in nature, like the signals used in computers and other modern
systems, it is represented by Difference Equations and we use the Z-Transforms. This method is
used in simplifying the analysis of functions which are discrete-time or digital, or has a constant
value for a period of time.

II. Objectives
After completion of the course the student should be able to:

1. Evaluate the Z-transform of a sequence.

2. Validate the derived transforms of specified sequences.
Remember this...

•Difference
III. Z-Transform Definition Equations are
expressions that
Z-Transforms parallels the method of Laplace Transforms. involve
The latter converts differential equations into algebraic expressions sequences where
its terms are
and similarly, Z-transforms converts difference equations into related by their
algebraic expressions, thus simplifying the analysis of discrete signals. differences.

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 87

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

The Z-transform of a discrete-time function is defined as,

+∞

𝑿(𝒛) = ∑ 𝒙[𝒏]𝒛−𝒏

Source: Lumen Learning

𝒏=−∞
Where:
x[n] – discrete-time function (sequence)

z – complex variable, 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝑤 = 𝑟∠𝜃 (refer to Fig. 6.2)

n – integer

Given a sequence 𝑓(𝑘) = 𝑓(0), 𝑓(1), 𝑓(2), …, the Z- Figure 6.2. Polar Complex Plane
transform is given as
𝑓(1) 𝑓(2) 𝑓(3)
𝑍[𝑓(𝑘)] = 𝑓(0) + + 2 + +⋯
𝑧 𝑧 3
+∞ +∞
𝑓(𝑘)
= ∑ 𝑘 𝑜𝑟 ∑ 𝑓(𝑘)𝑧 −𝑘
𝑧
𝑘=0 𝑘=0

Example 6.1. Z-Transform of Impulse Sequence

Solve for the Z-transform of the impulse sequence shown in the figure. The discrete-time
function is given as

Source: Quora
1, 𝑛=0
𝛿[𝑛] = {
0, 𝑛≠0
SOLUTION:

Suppose we analyze the sequence at 𝑛 = −3

Figure 6.3. Impulse Sequence
to 𝑛 = 3, then we have a sequence of function

𝛿[−3] = 0, 𝛿[−2] = 0, 𝛿[−1] = 0, 𝛿[0] = 1, 𝛿[1] = 0, 𝛿[2] = 0, 𝛿[3] = 0

Applying the Z-transform formula using 𝑥[𝑛] as 𝛿[𝑛],

𝛿[−3] 𝛿[−2] 𝛿[−1] 𝛿[0] 𝛿[1] 𝛿[2] 𝛿[3]
𝑍{𝛿[𝑛]} = + −2 + −1 + 0 + 1 + 2 + 3
𝑧 −3 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
Simplifying and substituting the values,
0 0 0
𝑍{𝛿[𝑛]} = 0𝑧 3 + 0𝑧 2 + 0𝑧 + 1 + + 2 + 3
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
𝑍{𝛿[𝑛]} = 1

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 88

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example 6.2. Z-Transform of Step Sequence

Solve for the Z-transform of the step sequence shown in the figure. The discrete-time
function is given as

Source: Quora
1, 𝑛≥0
𝑢[𝑛] = {
0, 𝑛<0

SOLUTION:

Suppose we analyze the sequence at 𝑛 = −3 to Figure 6.4. Step Sequence

𝑛 = 3, then we have a sequence of function

𝑢[−3] = 0, 𝑢[−2] = 0, 𝑢[−1] = 0, 𝑢[0] = 1, 𝑢[1] = 1, 𝑢[2] = 1, 𝑢[3] = 1

Applying the Z-transform formula using 𝑥[𝑛] as 𝑢[𝑛],

𝑢[−3] 𝑢[−2] 𝑢[−1] 𝑢[0] 𝑢[1] 𝑢[2] 𝑢[3]
𝑍{𝑢[𝑛]} = + −2 + −1 + 0 + 1 + 2 + 3
𝑧 −3 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
Simplifying and substituting the values,
1 1 1
𝑍{𝑢[𝑛]} = 0𝑧 3 + 0𝑧 2 + 0𝑧 + 1 + + 2 + 3
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
1 1 1
=1+ + 2+ 3
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
Simplifying the series, (refer to Sidebox 6.1)
Sidebox 6.1. Geometric Sum
1 The sum of a geometric series given by,
=
1
1−𝑧 𝑆 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + +𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯

or can be simplified using the formula,

𝒂
𝑧 𝑺=
𝑍{𝑢[𝑛]} = 𝟏−𝒓
𝑧−1
𝑖𝑓 |𝑟| < 1

where: r – common ratio

_______________________________________
On the example,

𝑎=1

1
𝑟=
𝑧

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 89

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

IV. Region of Convergence (ROC)

➢ Refers to an area located on a complex plane where the plot of
the z-transform summation converges.
➢ It represents the range of values for the complex variable ‘z’ for
which the Z-transform is finite or convergent.

Remember this...
➢ A ring or disc figure centered at the origin of the complex plane. •Some values of 'z'
causes the
transforms of the
discrete-time
sequence to
Example 6.3. Z-Transform and ROC of a Finite Sequence diverge or to be
Solve for the Z-transform of the given finite sequence. Also locate its infinite.
Region of Convergence (ROC).
̌ 2, 5, 7]
𝑥[𝑛] = [3,

Inverted hat on 3 denotes the

term is located at n = 0.
SOLUTION:
3

𝑋(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑥[𝑛]𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=0
Figure 6.5. Problem Sequence
0 −1 −2 −3
= 𝑥(0)𝑧 + 𝑥(1)𝑧 + 𝑥(2)𝑧 + 𝑥(3)𝑧
Substituting values from the sequence,

= 3𝑧 0 + 2𝑧 −1 + 5𝑧 −2 + 7𝑧 −3
2 5 7
𝑋(𝑧) = 3 + + 2 + 3
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧

For the Region of Convergence (ROC), the minimum to maximum limits are from 0 to ∞,

𝐼𝑓 𝑧 = 0, 𝑋(𝑧) = ∞
𝐼𝑓 𝑧 = ∞, 𝑋(𝑧) = 3
𝑋(𝑧) must not be equal to ∞. Therefore,

𝑹𝑶𝑪 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒛 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝒛 = 𝟎.

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 90

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example 6.4. Z-Transform and ROC of a Finite Sequence

Solve for the Z-transform of the given finite sequence. Also
locate its Region of Convergence (ROC).

𝑥[𝑛] = [1, 2, 3, 1̌]

SOLUTION:
0

𝑋(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑥[𝑛]𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=−3
Figure 6.6. Problem Sequence

= 𝑥(−3)𝑧 3 + 𝑥(−2)𝑧 2 + 𝑥(−1)𝑧1 + 𝑥(0)𝑧 0

Substituting values from the sequence,

= 1𝑧 3 + 2𝑧 2 + 3𝑧1 + 1𝑧 0

𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑧 3 + 2𝑧 2 + 3𝑧 + 1

For the Region of Convergence (ROC), the minimum to maximum limits are from 0 to ∞,

𝐼𝑓 𝑧 = 0, 𝑋(𝑧) = 1
𝐼𝑓 𝑧 = ∞, 𝑋(𝑧) = ∞
𝑋(𝑧) must not be equal to ∞. Therefore,

𝑹𝑶𝑪 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒛 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝒛 = ∞.

Example 6.5. Z-Transform and ROC of a Finite Sequence

Solve for the Z-transform of the given finite sequence. Also
locate its Region of Convergence (ROC).

𝑥[𝑛] = [1, 1, 1̌, 1]

SOLUTION:
1

𝑋(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑥[𝑛]𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=−2
Figure 6.7. Problem Sequence

= 𝑥(−2)𝑧 2 + 𝑥(−1)𝑧1 + 𝑥(0)𝑧 0 + 𝑥(1)𝑧 −1

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 91

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Substituting values from the sequence,

= 1𝑧 2 + 1𝑧1 + 1𝑧 0 + 1𝑧 −1
1
𝑋(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 1 +
𝑧

For the Region of Convergence (ROC), the minimum to maximum limits are from 0 to ∞,

𝐼𝑓 𝑧 = 0, 𝑋(𝑧) = ∞
𝐼𝑓 𝑧 = ∞, 𝑋(𝑧) = ∞
𝑋(𝑧) must not be equal to ∞. Therefore,

𝑹𝑶𝑪 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒛 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝒛 = ∞ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒛 = 𝟎.

Example 6.6. Z-Transform and ROC of an Infinite Sequence

Solve for the Z-transform of the given infinite sequence. Also locate its ROC. (Refer to Table 6.1)

𝑥[𝑛] = (0.5)𝑛 𝑢(𝑛)

SOLUTION:

Using the item no. 5 on Table 6.1,

1
∝𝑛 𝑢[𝑛] →
1 −∝ 𝑧 −1
Substituting values from the sequence,
1
𝑋(𝑧) =
1 − 0.5𝑧 −1
Simplifying further,
𝑧
𝑋(𝑧) =
𝑧 − 0.5

For the ROC, based on the table we have

|𝑧| > 0.5

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 92

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

V. Table of Z-Transforms
For infinite discrete sequences, you can refer to the table of some common Z-Transform
pairs below.

Table 6.1. Table of Common Z-

Transform Pairs

Discrete-time
Transforms ROC
Sequence

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 93

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example 6.7. Z-Transform and ROC of an Infinite Sequence

Solve for the Z-transform of the given infinite sequence. Also locate its ROC.

𝑥[𝑛] = (0.2)𝑛 𝑢(𝑛) + (0.8)𝑛 𝑢(−𝑛 − 1)

SOLUTION:

Using the item no. 5 and no. 6 on Table 6.1,

1 1
∝𝑛 𝑢[𝑛] → and −∝𝑛 𝑢[−𝑛 − 1] →
1−∝𝑧 −1 1−∝𝑧 −1

Substituting values from the sequence,

1 1
𝑋(𝑧) = −1
+ (− )
1 − 0.2𝑧 1 − 0.8𝑧 −1
Simplifying further,
𝑧 𝑧
𝑋(𝑧) = −
𝑧 − 0.2 𝑧 − 0.8

For the ROC, based on the table we have

𝑅𝑂𝐶 1: |𝑧| > 0.5

𝑅𝑂𝐶 2: |𝑧| < 0.8

Therefore,

0.5 < |𝑧| < 0.8

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 94

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Week 7: Complex Numbers and Functions

I. Introduction
This last module will let you learn about Complex Numbers and its geometric
representations on a complex plane. There are two notations for complex numbers: rectangular
form and polar form, to which both will be discussed including the conversion in between. Most
of the mathematical operations and manipulations done on simple mathematical equations are
also applied in complex numbers, with a slight degree of difficulty.

There is a vast application of complex numbers particularly on Electrostatics, Heat

conduction, Fluid analysis and more.

II. Objectives
After completion of the course the student should be able to:

1. Demonstrate the conversion of complex numbers from rectangular form to polar form, and
vice versa.
2. Solve problems involving the operations of complex numbers.

III. Definition of Complex Numbers and Basic Operations

Complex numbers are multidimensional numbers essential for analyzing and solving cubic
equations. Generally, it is simply an ordered pair of x and y which has a form of

Where:
𝒛 = (𝒙, 𝒚)
z – complex number
It can also be presented in a rectangular
form such as x – real part of z

𝒛 = 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚 iy – imaginary part of z

If 𝑥 = 0, the complex number is said to be i – imaginary unit, equal to √−1

a purely imaginary number.

 Addition of Complex Numbers

(𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 ) + (𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 ) = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) + 𝑖(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )

Example 7.1. Addition of Complex Numbers

Solve for the sum of 𝑧1 = 8 + 3𝑖 and 𝑧2 = 9 − 2𝑖

SOLUTION:

𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = (8 + 9) + (3 − 2)𝑖 = 17 + 𝑖

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 98

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

 Subtraction of Complex Numbers

(𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 ) − (𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 ) = (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) + 𝑖(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )

Example 7.2. Subtraction of Complex Numbers

Solve for the difference of 𝑧1 = 8 + 3𝑖 and 𝑧2 = 9 − 2𝑖

SOLUTION:

𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = (8 − 9) + (3 + 2)𝑖 = −1 + 5𝑖

 Multiplication of Complex Numbers

(𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 )(𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 ) = (𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 ) + 𝑖(𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 )

Example 7.3. Multiplication of Complex Numbers

Solve for the product of 𝑧1 = 8 + 3𝑖 and 𝑧2 = 9 − 2𝑖

SOLUTION:

𝑧1 𝑧2 = (8 + 3𝑖)(9 − 2𝑖)

= 72 − 16𝑖 + 27𝑖 − 6𝑖 2

since 𝑖 = √−1, then 𝑖 2 = −1,

= 78 + 11𝑖

 Division of Complex Numbers

𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦2
= 2 2
+𝑖
𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥2 2 + 𝑦2 2

Example 7.4. Division of Complex Numbers

Solve for the quotient of 𝑧1 = 8 + 3𝑖 and 𝑧2 = 9 − 2𝑖

SOLUTION:
𝑧1 8 + 3𝑖
=
𝑧1 9 − 2𝑖
(8 + 3𝑖)(9 + 2𝑖) 66 + 43𝑖 66 43
= = = + 𝑖
(9 − 2𝑖)(9 + 2𝑖) 81 + 4 85 85

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 99

UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

 Complex Plane
1. A Cartesian coordinate plane where the x-axis is represented as the real axis, while the y-
axis as the imaginary axis.

Imaginary axis

Source: Medium.com
Real axis

Figure 7.1. Complex Plane

 Complex Conjugate
1. The complex conjugate of a complex number is defined as

Source: Wikipedia
𝒛̅ = 𝒙 − 𝒊𝒚
2. Obtained geometrically by reflecting the point z in the real axis
as shown in Figure 7.2.

 Properties of Complex Conjugate

Figure 7.2. Complex Conjugate

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 100
UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

IV. Polar Form of Complex Numbers

The polar form of complex numbers utilizes the polar coordinates: magnitude r and angle
θ. It is generally represented in

Where:
𝒛 = 𝒓∠𝜽 z – complex number
r – absolute value or modulus of z
Source: Lumen Learning

θ – angle or argument of z

The conversion from the rectangular coordinates is as

follows. From Figure 7.3

𝒙 = 𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
𝒚 = 𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

Figure 7.3. Polar Complex Plane For the absolute value of r,

𝒓 = √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐
For the angle,
𝒚
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 =
𝒙
Therefore,

𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚 = 𝒓𝒄𝒊𝒔𝜽 = 𝒓∠𝜽

Example 7.5. Polar form to Rectangular form

Express 2𝑐𝑖𝑠 300 in rectangular form.

SOLUTION:

2𝑐𝑖𝑠 300 = 2(cos 300 + 𝑖 sin 300) Therefore,

1 √3
1 2(cos 300 + 𝑖 sin 300) = 2 ( − 𝑖)
cos 300 = 2 2
2
= 1 − 𝑖√3
√3
sin 300 = −
2

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 101
UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example 7.6. Rectangular form to Polar form

Express 2 + 2𝑖 in polar form.

SOLUTION:

Step 1. Plot the complex number in the complex plane.

From 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 2 + 2𝑖,

𝑥=2
𝑦=2 r

θ
x

Step 2. Solve for the modulus r.

𝑟 = √22 +22 = 2√2

Step 3. Solve for the argument θ referenced from the +x-axis.

𝑦 2
tan 𝜃 = = =1
𝑥 2

𝜃 = 45° 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 + 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

Therefore,

2 + 2𝑖 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

= 2√2(cos 45 + 𝑖 sin 45)

= 2√2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 45 = 2√2 ∠45

 Multiplication of Complex Numbers in Polar form

For 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ) and 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 )

𝑧1 𝑧2 = [𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 )] ∗ [𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 )]

= 𝑟1 𝑟2 [cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )]
= 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 (𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )
= 𝑟1 𝑟2 ∠ (𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 102
UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example 7.7. Multiplication of Complex Numbers in Polar form

Solve for the product of 𝑧1 = 3 𝑐𝑖𝑠 45 and 𝑧2 = 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 135.

SOLUTION:

𝑧1 𝑧2 = 2(3)𝑐𝑖𝑠 (45 + 135)

= 6 𝑐𝑖𝑠 180 = 6∠ 180

 Division of Complex Numbers in Polar form

For 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ) and 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 )

𝑧1 [𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 )]

=
𝑧2 [𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 )]
𝑟1
= [cos(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )]
𝑟2
𝑟1
= 𝑐𝑖𝑠 (𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
𝑟2
𝑟1
= ∠ (𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
𝑟2

Example 7.8. Division of Complex Numbers in Polar form

Solve for the quotient of 𝑧1 = 10 𝑐𝑖𝑠(−60) and 𝑧2 = 5 𝑐𝑖𝑠 150.

SOLUTION:
𝑧1 10
= 𝑐𝑖𝑠 (−60 − 150)
𝑧2 5
= 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 (−210) = 2 ∠ (−210)

V. De Moivre’s Theorem
One important aspect of this theorem applies on the powers and roots of complex numbers.

 Powers of Complex Numbers

If 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) is a complex number and the power n is a real number, then

[𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)]𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)

[𝑟 𝑐𝑖𝑠 𝜃]𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cis 𝑛𝜃)

= 𝑟 𝑛 (∠ 𝑛𝜃)

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 103
UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example 7.9. Powers of Complex Numbers

8
Evaluate (1 + 𝑖√3) and express the results in rectangular form.

SOLUTION:

Converting from rectangular to polar,

1 + 𝑖√3 = 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 60

Remember this...
Substituting to the equation, •If the angle
exceeds 360
8 degrees, subtract
(1 + 𝑖√3) = (2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 60)8
360 for degrees or
2π for radians to
Using De Moivre’s theorem, get a smaller
angle.
= 𝑟 𝑛 (cis 𝑛𝜃)

= 28 𝑐𝑖𝑠 (8 ∗ 60)
= 256 𝑐𝑖𝑠 480
= 256 𝑐𝑖𝑠 120
Converting from polar to rectangular,

256 𝑐𝑖𝑠 120 = −128 + 𝑖 128√3

 Roots of Complex Numbers

If n is any positive integer and r is a positive real number, then the nonzero complex number
𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) has exactly n distinct nth roots, given by

𝑛 𝑛 𝜃 + 2𝜋𝑘 𝜃 + 2𝜋𝑘
√𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) = √𝑟 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
𝑛 𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝜃 + 2𝜋𝑘 Where: 𝑘 = 𝑛 − 1
√𝑟(𝑐𝑖𝑠 𝜃) = √𝑟 (𝑐𝑖𝑠 )
𝑛
𝑛 𝜃 + 2𝜋𝑘
= √𝑟 ∠ (radian angle)
𝑛
or

𝑛 𝜃 + 360𝑘
= √𝑟 ∠ (degree angle)
𝑛

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 104
UNIVERSITY OF NUEVA CACERES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Example 7.10. Powers of Complex Numbers

Solve for the two square roots of 4𝑖. Express your answer in rectangular form.

SOLUTION:

Given values are,

Square root means 𝒏 = 𝟐 2 Square roots mean 2 values of 𝒌: 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏

Converting from rectangular to polar,

𝜋
4𝑖 = 4 𝑐𝑖𝑠
2
𝜋
Since 𝑟 = 4 and 𝜃 = , then
2
𝜋
𝜃 + 2𝜋𝑘 2 + 2𝜋𝑘
= √4 𝑐𝑖𝑠 2
𝑛
√𝑟 𝑐𝑖𝑠
𝑛 2
𝜋
= 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 + 𝜋𝑘
4
For 2 square roots, let 𝑘 = 0, 1

If 𝑘 = 0 then, If 𝑘 = 1 then,
𝜋 𝜋
= 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 + 𝜋(0) = 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 + 𝜋(1)
4 4
𝜋 5𝜋
= 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠 = 2 𝑐𝑖𝑠
4 4
In rectangular form, In rectangular form,

= √2 + 𝑖√2 = −√2 − 𝑖√2

ADVANCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS V.1.0 BY: ART IAN G. BAUTISTA, ECE 105