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Week-3 - Plate Tectonics

This document summarizes key developments in the theory of plate tectonics. It discusses early papers from the 1900s that proposed concepts like continental drift and sea floor spreading. It then explains the basic components and mechanisms of plate tectonics, including the three main types of plate boundaries and how they result in different geological features. Finally, it provides evidence that has been used to support plate tectonics, such as matching fossil and rock formations between continents, seafloor magnetic patterns, and the reconstruction of past supercontinents like Pangea.

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Rashid Ahmedov
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
54 views

Week-3 - Plate Tectonics

This document summarizes key developments in the theory of plate tectonics. It discusses early papers from the 1900s that proposed concepts like continental drift and sea floor spreading. It then explains the basic components and mechanisms of plate tectonics, including the three main types of plate boundaries and how they result in different geological features. Finally, it provides evidence that has been used to support plate tectonics, such as matching fossil and rock formations between continents, seafloor magnetic patterns, and the reconstruction of past supercontinents like Pangea.

Uploaded by

Rashid Ahmedov
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Evolution of the Earth

General Geology
JEO 112E
Fall 2017-2018
Key Papers
Wegener (1912) – Continental drift: continents rafting through the upper
mantle.

Menard (1952), Dietz (1952) – fracture zones

Irving (1956), Runcorn (1956) – used paleomagnetic data to show polar


wandering and motion between plates.

Ewing and Heezen (1956) – presence of a rift valley at crest of most mid-ocean
ridges.

Dietz (1961) – coined the term “sea-floor spreading”

Hess (1962) – Plate tectonics: convecting mantle passively carries the


continents.

Vine and Matthews (1963) – magnetic stripes of the ocean sea floor are
created by the magnetization of oceanic crust as it is formed at the mid-
ocean ridges. The older crust moves away from the ridge as new crust
forms.
What is Plate Tectonics?
• If you look at a map of the world, you may notice that some of the
continents could fit together like pieces of a puzzle.
Plate Tectonics

• The Earth’s crust is divided into 12 major


plates which are moved in various directions.
• This plate motion causes them to collide, pull
apart, or scrape against each other.
• Each type of interaction causes a
characteristic set of Earth structures or
“tectonic” features.
• The word, tectonic, refers to the deformation of
the crust as a consequence of plate
interaction.
World Plates
How do we know what the Earth
is made of?

• Geophysical surveys: seismic, gravity, magnetics,


electrical, geodesy
– Acquisition: land, air, sea and satellite
– Geological surveys: fieldwork, boreholes, mines
Composition vs. Motion

We can look at the interior of the Earth based


on the composition of the rocks or based on the movement
What are tectonic plates made of?

• Plates are
made of rigid
lithosphere.
The lithosphere is made
up of the crust and the
upper part of the mantle.
Based on Composition

• Crust – solid, relatively low density silicate rock


• Mantle – Semi fluid, denser, mafic (iron and
magnesium bearing) rocks
• Core – Liquid then solid iron and nickel with traces of
heavier elements
Based on Motion

• It turns out that the upper section of


the mantle is adhered (stuck to the
underside side of the crust to form
what we call tectonic plates
Plate Types
• Oceanic plates: basalt
– Dark (black) and dense rock
type composed of silicates,
iron and magnesium

• Continental plates –
granite and andesite
– Light colored (pink, white
and gray) and low density
rock type composed almost
entirely of silicates.
Tectonic Plates

Today plate boundaries are determined by examining


the location of volcanoes and earthquakes.

Volcanoes result from the friction (heat) of the plates


motion.

Earthquakes occur where plate rub against one


another
Echo Sounding Device Used By Hess
Earthquakes
Earthquakes
Earthquakes
Earthquakes
Earthquakes
Earthquakes
Earthquakes

Location of worldwide earthquakes


Earthquakes

Earthquakes by depth.
Notice that the deep earthquakes occur only at subduction zones.
Volcano locations
Pacific Ring of Fire

Volcanism is
mostly focused
at plate margins
Aleutian Arc
Kamchatka Volcano
Other evidences

• Same fossils and


rocks found in
different parts of the
world
• Africa and South
America look like
pieces of a jigsaw
Tectonic Plates

Our first evidence of tectonic motion is based on similar fossils and


rock types on opposing sides of the ocean
Tectonic Plates
Plate Movement

• “Plates” of lithosphere are moved around by


the underlying hot mantle convection cells
Convection cells
Why do the Plates Move?
• No single idea explains everything but we can
identify several forces that contribute to the
movement of the plates.
– Slab pull
• The sinking of the cooled dense oceanic plates pulls on the
rest of the plate
– Ridge rises
• The material deposited on the top of the ridge slides downs
from the rise pushing on the plate
– Convection
• Movement within the mantle could be part of the driving force
behind the motion of the plates.
How Plates Move
Three types of plate boundary

• Divergent – plates
• Divergent move away from each
other

• Convergent • Convergent – plates


move toward one
another

• Transform • Transform – plate


moves sideways from
each other
Plate Boundaries
Plate Boundaries
Diergent plates
Mid-Oceanic Rdges
Divergent Boundaries

• Spreading ridges
– As plates move apart new material is erupted to
fill the gap
Spreading in recent lava
Tectonic Plates

Another source of
evidence is based
on seafloor ages
which get younger
as we approach
sea floor ridges
Tectonic Plates

Our final piece of


evidence is the
magnetic record
of the ocean floor.

This shows the


pattern of reversal
and we find a near
perfect mirror image
on opposing sides
of the ridge
Sea-Floor
Spreading
Tectonic Plates
Tectonic Plates
Tectonic Plates
Anatomy of a Mid-Ocean
Ridge
Convergent Boundaries

• There are three styles of convergent


plate boundaries
– Continent-continent collision
– Continent-oceanic crust collision
– Ocean-ocean collision
Convergent Plates
Continent-Oceanic Crust Collision

• Called SUBDUCTION
Convergent Plates
Subduction

• Oceanic lithosphere
subducts underneath the
continental lithosphere
• Oceanic lithosphere heats
and dehydrates as it
subsides
• The melt rises forming
volcanism
• E.g. The Andes
Sub-duction in recent lavas
Convergent Plates
The only subduction zone
in the Atlantic
Ocean-Ocean Plate Collision

• When two oceanic plates collide, one runs over the other
which causes it to sink into the mantle forming a
subduction zone.
• The subducting plate is bent downward to form a very deep
depression in the ocean floor called a trench.
• The worlds deepest parts of the ocean are found along
trenches.
– E.g. The Mariana Trench is 11 km deep!
Convergent Plates

Black arrows show subduction zones and


the direction of plate movement
Convergent Plates

Looking at the depth


of earthquakes shows
that angle that the
plate is being subducted
Ocean-Continent
collision
Convergent Plates
Himalayalar
Transform Boundaries

• Where plates slide past each other

Above: View of the San Andreas


transform fault
Transform Plates
Transform Plates

San Andreas
Fault
Transform faults in recent lavas
Mid-Plate Hotspots
Sewing machine
Mid-Plate Hotspots
Hot
Spots
Mid-Plate Hotspots
The Big Picture
Pangea
• What is Pangaea?
• Pangaea was a super continent at one time.
• Scientists use the similarity of rock types and fossil types that date
to the same age to support their theory that the continents were
connected to form a super continent.
• The map below give just one example of areas on different
continents that show the same fossils and rock types.
Pangea
Pangea
Tight-fit of Pangea (Lawver et al. 1998)
Pangea

The break up
of Pangea
Wilson
Cycle
Where are we going?

We appear to be headed for another


super continent as North America,
South America, Asia and Australia converge in the
ever shrinking Pacific Ocean

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