COURSE: THERMODYNAMICS

COURSE CODE: FD-201

CLASS: SE (FOOD ENGINNERING)

SEMESTER: FALL 2020

TEACHER: SALMAN ALI KHAN

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 A substance that has a fixed chemical composition
throughout is called a pure substance.
 For Example, Water, nitrogen, helium, and carbon dioxide
are all pure substances.
 A pure substance does not have to be of a single chemical
element or compound, however.
 A mixture of various chemical elements or compounds also
qualifies as a pure substance as long as the mixture is
homogeneous.
 Air, for example, is a mixture of several gases, but it is
often considered to be a pure substance because it has a
uniform chemical composition.

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 However, a mixture of oil and water is not a pure substance.
 Since oil is not soluble in water, it will collect on top of the
water, forming two chemically dissimilar regions.
 A mixture of two or more phases of a pure substance is still
a pure substance as long as the chemical composition of all
phases is the same.
 A mixture of ice and liquid water, for example, is a pure
substance because both phases have the same chemical
composition.
 A mixture of liquid air and gaseous air, however, is not a
pure substance since the composition of liquid air is
different from the composition of gaseous air, and thus the
mixture is no longer chemically homogeneous.

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 There are many practical situations where two phases
of a pure substance coexist in equilibrium.
 Water exists as a mixture of liquid and vapor in the
boiler and the condenser of a steam power plant.
 The refrigerant turns from liquid to vapor in the freezer
of a refrigerator.

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 Consider a piston–cylinder device containing liquid water at
20 oC and 1 atm pressure (state 1, Fig. 3–5). Under these
conditions, water exists in the liquid phase, and it is called a
compressed liquid, or a subcooled liquid, meaning that it is
not about to vaporize.
 Heat is now transferred to the water until its temperature rises
to, say, 40oC. As the temperature rises, the liquid water
expands slightly, and so its specific volume increases.
 To accommodate this expansion, the piston moves up slightly,
the pressure in the cylinder remains constant at 1 atm.
 Water is still a compressed liquid at this state since it has not
started to vaporize.

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 As more heat is transferred, the temperature keeps
rising until it reaches100oC (state 2, Fig. 3–6).
 At this point water is still a liquid, but any heat addition
will cause some of the liquid to vaporize.
 That is, a phase-change process from liquid to vapor is
about to take place.
 A liquid that is about to vaporize is called a saturated
liquid.
 Therefore, state 2 is a saturated liquid state.

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 Once boiling starts, the temperature stops rising until the
liquid is completely vaporized.
 That is, the temperature will remain constant during the
entire phase-change process if the pressure is held constant.
 During a boiling process, the only change we will observe
is a large increase in the volume and a steady decline in the
liquid level as a result of more liquid turning to vapor.
 Midway about the vaporization line (state 3, Fig. 3–7), the
cylinder contains equal amounts of liquid and vapor.

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 As we continue transferring heat, the vaporization
process continues until the last drop of liquid is
vaporized (state 4, Fig. 3–8).
 At this point, the entire cylinder is filled with vapor that
is on the borderline of the liquid phase.
 Any heat loss from this vapor will cause some of the
vapor to condense (phase change from vapor to liquid).
 A vapor that is about to condense is called a saturated
vapor.
 Therefore, state 4 is a saturated vapor state.

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 A substance at states between 2 and 4 is referred to as a
saturated liquid–vapor mixture since the liquid and vapor
phases coexist in equilibrium at these states.
 One the phase-change process is completed, we are back to
a single phase region again (this time vapor), and further
transfer of heat results in an increase in both the
temperature and the specific volume (Fig. 3–9).
 At state 5, the temperature of the vapor is, let us say, 300oC,
and if we transfer some heat from the vapor, the
temperature may drop somewhat but no condensation will
take place as long as the temperature remains above 100oC
(for P =1 atm).

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 A vapor that is not about to condense (i.e., not a
saturated vapor) is called a superheated vapor.
 Therefore, water at state 5 is a superheated vapor. This
constant-pressure phase-change process is illustrated on
a T-v diagram in Fig. 3–10.

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 It probably came as no surprise to you that water started to
boil at 100oC. Strictly speaking, the statement “water boils
at 100oC” is incorrect. The correct statement is “water boils
at 100oC at 1 atm pressure.”
 The only reason water started boiling at 100oC was because
we held the pressure constant at 1 atm (101.325 kPa).
 If the pressure inside the cylinder were raised to 500 kPa by
adding weights on top of the piston, water would start
boiling at 151.8oC.

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 At a given pressure, the temperature
at which a pure substance changes
phase is called the saturation
temperature Tsat.
 Likewise, at a given temperature,
the pressure at which a pure
substance changes phase is called
the saturation pressure Psat.

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 The amount of energy absorbed or released during a phase-
change process is called the latent heat. However, it does
not affect the temperature of a substance.
 More specifically, the amount of energy absorbed during
melting is called the latent heat of fusion and is equivalent
to the amount of energy released during freezing.
 Similarly, the amount of energy absorbed during
vaporization is called the latent heat of vaporization and is
equivalent to the energy released during condensation.
 The magnitudes of the latent heats depend on the
temperature or pressure at which the phase change occurs.

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 When an object is heated, its temperature rises as heat
is added. The increase in heat is called sensible heat.
Similarly, when heat is removed from an object and its
temperature falls, the heat removed is also called
sensible heat.
 It is the energy moving from one system to another that
changes the temperature rather than changing its phase.

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