Lecture 2: BIOL2110

A NOTE ON PLAGIARISM
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Censored to
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guilty
 Chapters 2, 3, 7
of the text book!

Learning outcomes – to revise knowledge of…

§ Reproduction versus Sex
§ The cell cycle
§ Mitotis – identical daughter cells
§ Meiosis – haploid gametes
(chapter 2,3)
§ Recombination (chapter 7)
§ Somatic Cell
§ A “body cell” whose genes will not be passed to future generations
(NOT a reproductive cell)

§ Germ Cell
§ A reproductive cell capable when mature of being fertilized and
reproducing an entire organism.

§ Gamete
§ A mature male or female reproductive cell (usually haploid)
§ Germ cells (2n) divide via
meiosis to produce gametes
(sperm + egg) (n).

§ After fertilisation and zygote

formation – cells replicate via
mitosis (2n) and become
differentiated

§ Germ cells (2n) in the gonads

then produce gametic cells
(n) via meiosis (haploid)
N (23 chromosomes)

2N (46 chromosomes)

2N (46 chromosomes)

N (23 chromosomes)
§ Reproduction: 1 cell dividing in to 2/
§ Sex: 2 cells uniting in to 1

Sex is not necessary for reproduction – infact it slows it down!

It involves fusion of HAPLOID gametes to produce a DIPLOID zygote
Then, regeneration of HAPLOID cells from DIPLOID cells (meiosis)

Q: So why? Why not just clone cells/ be asexual?

A: Sex increases genetic variation
§ Provides the variation for natural selection act upon
§ Evolutionary potential, eliminate inbreeding effects,
§ Less risk of species extinction
§ Reduced chances of inheriting deleterious recessive
disorders
- e.g. you need two of the same recessive alleles (e.g. bb or
aa)– more likely when you have less genetic variation
THE CELL CYCLE
Takes ~24 hours

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Cell division to produce two genetically identical daughter cells
(same number of chromosomes)
mitos = a thread, chromosomes look like threads during cell division)
1. Interphase
2. Prophase
3. Prometaphase
4. Metaphase
5. Anaphase
6. Telophase
…followed by cytokinesis
1 2 3
6 5 4
CYTOKINESIS

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2.1 CELL CYCLE
AND MITOSIS
Animation (1.15)
a. The centromere
b. The kinetochore
c. The origin of replication
d. The telomere
e. Both a and b
 The centromere is the ‘region’
a. The centromere where the two chromatids are
b. The kinetochore constricted

c. The origin of replication Kinetochores are on each

d. The telomere outer side of each chromatid -
made of discs of proteins that
e. Both a and b the microtubules attach to.
a. prophase
b. prometaphase
c. metaphase
d. anaphase
e. telophase
a. prophase
b. prometaphase
c. metaphase
d. anaphase
e. telophase
 TABLE 2.1 Features of the cell cycle
Stage Major Features
G0 phase Stable, nondividing period of variable length.

Interphase

G1 phase Growth and development of the cell; G1/S checkpoint.

S phase Synthesis of DNA

G2 phase Preparation for division; G2 /M checkpoint.

M phase

Prophase Chromosomes condense and mitotic spindle forms.

Prometaphase Nuclear envelope disintegrates, and spindle microtubules anchor to kinetochores.

Metaphase Chromosomes align on the metaphase plate; spindle-assembly checkpoint.

Anaphase Sister chromatids separate, becoming individual chromosomes that migrate toward spindle poles.

Chromosomes arrive at spindle poles, the nuclear envelope re-forms, and the condensed
Telophase
chromosomes relax.

Cytokinesis Cytoplasm divides; cell wall forms in plant cells.

§ Chromosome number becomes reduced to half the diploid (2n) or
somatic number
§ Changes genetic information to increase diversity in the offspring

Meiosis involves TWO successive divisions:

Meiosis 1.Reductional division – chromosome number is halved

Meiosis II. Equational division: sister chromatids separate
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Meiosis I and Meiosis II
 PROPHASE I of meiosis – when recombination occurs!

Leptonema: Zygonema:
Chromosomes Pachynema: Diplonema: Diakinesis: nuclear
Chromosomes
condense Chromosomes Homologous envelope breaks
begin to pair and
form condense further chromosomes down. Spindle
and crossing separate, except fibers attach and
synaptomenal
complex over occurs at chiasmata chromosomes form
pairs
• Structure composed of
DNA and protein that
forms between
homologous chromosomes
involved in synapisis and
crossing over

• Recombination nodules
contain the enzymatic
machinery required for
crossing over
CHIASMATA
T

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Spindle fibres attach to kinetichores
‘chromosome disjunction’
Nuclei form, spindles disassemble, chromosomes
decondense (each has 2 sister chromatids)
Chromosomes attach to spindle fibers Chromosomes align at equatorial plane
from opposite poles
Centromeres split/ Chromosome disjunction
Daughter nuclei form.
CYTOKENEISIS OCCURS (membrane formation: Each
chromatid is now called a chromosome. Each daughter
nucleus contains a haploid set of chromosomes
MEIOSIS
animation
 TABLE 2.2 Major events in each stage of meiosis
Stage Major Features
Meiosis I

Prophase I Chromosomes condense, homologous chromosomes synapse, crossing over takes place, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and the
mitotic spindle forms.

Metaphase I Homologous pairs of chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate.

Anaphase I The two chromosomes (each with two chromatids) of a homologous pair separate and move toward opposite poles.

Telophase I Chromosomes arrive at the spindle poles.

Cytokinesis The cytoplasm divides to produce two cells, each having half the original number of chromosomes.

Interkinesis In some types of cells, the spindle breaks down, chromosomes relax, and a nuclear envelope re-forms, but no DNA synthesis takes place.

Meiosis II

Prophase II* Chromosomes condense, the spindle forms, and the nuclear envelope disintegrates.

Metaphase II Individual chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate.

Anaphase II Sister chromatids separate and move as individual chromosomes toward the spindle poles.

Telophase II Chromosomes arrive at the spindle poles; the spindle breaks down and a nuclear envelope re-forms.

Cytokinesis The cytoplasm divides.

*Only in cells in which the spindle has broken down, chromosomes have relaxed, and the nuclear envelope has re-formed in telophase I. Other types of cells proceed
directly to metaphase II after cytokinesis.
NOTE:
DAUGHTER CELLS ARE NOT GENETICALLY
IDENTICAL AFTER MEIOSIS

• Homologous chromosomes exchange

material by crossing over
• Random assortment of homologous pairs

Understanding this is critical for biology as it

explains how genetic variation occurs
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 GENETIC VARIATION via MEIOSIS

….Alignment in metaphase I
determines what genes you
get from one parent or the
other!

note – this image excludes recombination

GENETIC VARIATION IN
MEIOSIS
Animation (2 min)
a. prophase of meiosis I.
b. anaphase of meiosis I.
c. prophase of meiosis II.
d. metaphase of mitosis.
e. both a and c.
a. prophase of meiosis I.
b. anaphase of meiosis I.
c. prophase of meiosis II.
d. metaphase of mitosis.
e. both a and c.
a. Crossing over
b. Random assortment of maternal and
paternal chromosomes
c. Distribution of differing numbers of
chromosomes to daughter cells
d. Both a and b
e. All of the above
a. Crossing over
b. Random assortment of maternal and
paternal chromosomes
c. Distribution of differing numbers of
chromosomes to daughter cells
d. Both a and b
e. All of the above
 TABLE 2.3 Comparison of mitosis, meiosis I, and meiosis II
Event Mitosis Meiosis I Meiosis II
Cell division Yes Yes Yes

Reduction in chromosome No Yes No

number

Genetic variation produced No Yes No

Crossing over No Yes No

Random distribution of No Yes No

maternal and paternal
chromosomes

Metaphase Individual chromosomes line Homologous pairs line up Individual chromosomes line
up up

Anaphase Chromatids separate Homologous chromosomes Chromatids separate

separate

Mitosis similar to Meiosis II!

 Measuring Recombination – a way to map the location
of genes: Crossing over
Allele

chiasmata

centromere
 MULTIPLE
CROSSOVERS
CAN HAPPEN
DURING
RECOMBINATION

Singles more
common than
doubles…and so
on…
 Where are the genes located/ how inherited?
THE TEST CROSS
• Phenotype does not tell you genotype
• A test cross is used to identify if a dominant trait is
homozygous or heterozygous
• Involves crossing a heterozygote (unknown genotype)
with a known recessive homozygote
• With independent assortment (no linkage) for two genes,
we expect a 1:1:1:1 offspring ratio
• Deviation from this ratio indicates loci are close
together (e.g. in linkage disequilibrium)
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TEST CROSS Dominant traits Heterozygote Rr/Ll Recessive rl/rl Recessive traits
WITH TWO TRAITS

Colour:
red (R) /white (r)
Length:
Long (L)/short (l)

Need many individuals

Is it a 1:1:1:1
ratio?

Measure of how close together the genes are - directly related to freq. recombination 53
 RECOMBINATION MAPPING WITH A TWO-POINT
TESTCROSS
Examine ratio of
phenotypes (must be
observable tratis!)

heterozygote recessive
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• The Recombination Frequency between vg
and b is 18%
• This is equal to 18 map units, or 18 centiMorgans
(cM) on the genetic map.

The closer loci are

the lower the
likelihood of
recombination

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RECOMBINATION MAPPING WITH A THREE-POINT TESTCROSS

From any tri-hybrid only

8 gamete genotypes are
possible 2X2X2 = 8

We expect an equal ratio if

the loci are fully
independent

Double cross-overs are least

frequent – middle gene
differs from parental
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§ Mitosis generates two identical daughter cells – somatic cells - diploid
§ Meiosis has two cell division stages - haploid
§ Meiosis
is essential for generating genetic variation via recombination –
gametic cells
§ Recombination occurs at chiasmata on chromosomes in prophase I of
meiosis, with help from the synaptomenal complex
§ Test crosses (two point/three point) are useful for determining genotypes
of traits (heterozygous or homozygous)
§ We expecta 1:1:1:1 ratio of genotypes if genes show independent
assortment (i.e are not linked/close together on the chromosome).
§ The recombination rate tells us how close genes are/ if independent
Next Lecture:
Mendelian Genetics
Chapter 3

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