What is theory? Why does theory matters? What does it do for us?

Scholars and theorists have defined theories in varied ways and every different definition implies

how theory can do wonders for us. Theories have been defined as “set of interrelated

propositions” (Hoover, 1984), “set of systematic hunches” (Burgoon, 2012) “set of systematic

generalization” (Severin & Tankard Jnr., 1982) “set of ideas” (McQuial, 1983). These systematic

concepts, notion or ideas explain, understand and predict events, phenomenon and situations

(Hoover, 1984, McQuial, 1983, Garrison, 2000). Kerlinger (1979) defines a theory as “a set of

interrelated constructs (variables), definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic view

of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining natural

phenomena” (p. 64). There are so many theories in the fields of social sciences but sometimes it

becomes very difficult to give a strong theory because of lack of consensus on the definition of

theory (Sutton & Staw, 1995).

So, theories are an organized effort to look at the things happening around us. Theories

explains what, how, why and who, where, whenof any given situation (Gioia & Pitre, 1990,

Markus, 2002, Whetten, 1989). But this explanation through an orderly activity always requires a

scientific way of reaching at the conclusions drawn from a long list of empirical observations

(Severin & Tankard Jnr., 1982). This methodical approach is the reason that Wilbur Schramm

(1963) describes theories as “crap-detector” and they help differentiate between scientific and

unscientific assumptions.

We see the world around us and observe realities in it. Theories make sense out of all this

as they bring an order and direction both in what we are seeing and which creates confusions

(Kaplan, 1963). For scholars and researchers theories are like currency even if they seem to be
uncertain (Hambrick, 2007). They serve as a map also which guide us for future endeavors in

research and practice both (Bernath and Vidal, 2007).

Some scholars consider theory different from practice and they see this as a limitation of

theory but importance of theory is inevitable in practical world as they help in the growth of any

field and define its practicalities (Wacker, 1998). Theories are the heart of research and research

is the building block of any profession or field (Thompson, 2000). Theories in social sciences

cannot be generalized universally as scientific laws (Turner, n.d.). But they provide explanation

of human behaviors and ultimately suggest ways to change them (Glanz, n.d.).Thus theory offers

explanation of human state and means for improvement.

Otto Peters during a session at a workshop categorizes theories into descriptive,

explanatory, analytical, predictive and prescriptive (Bernath & Vidal, 2007). All these different

types are indicative of different functions a theory can perform. Theories are not only for

explanation and prediction but they are prescriptive in nature so give solutions as well. These

solutions are for both researchers and practitioners. Thus scope of theories range from an

individual to the society at large, within this sphere they improve existing knowledge, erase the

doubts and uncertainties of the present literature available and provide a starting point to us.

As compared to practice, theory deals with thinking and philosophy. It can be a

hypothesis that may be followed and tested. It may have capacity to enhance knowledge in

particular fields as developing explanation. It may be scientific and part of normal science

(Thomas, 1997).

It helps researchers and professionals to find out the answers of questions and clarify the

nature of people‟s behaviors. In quantitative research, a theory becomes the main framework for

the whole study. Questions or hypotheses are designed according to that theory then that are
examined to test the theory rather than developing a new one. In this way, theory may be verified

or extended through deductive approach. On the other hand, a theory can also be used in

qualitative researches for different purposes using inductive approach. First, it can be applied just

like in quantitative research. Target audience, questions or hypothesis are defined according to

the explanation of the theory. Second, a new theory can also be formed using qualitative

research. In mixed methods research, theories can be both tested or generated (Creswell, 2009).

Neuman (2000) divides theories into three categories: Micro-level, Macro-level and

Meso-level theories. Micro-level theory is about small numbers of people and timeframe. That is

not abstract in nature, for instance theory of Goffman (1967) describes face-to-face interaction of

people in rituals. Macro-level theory deals with larger aggregates including social institutions,

cultural systems or societies. That uses abstract concepts, such as theory of Lenski (1966) which

describes inequality among societies. Meso-level theory is usually rare. It is at intermediate level

including organisations, social movements or communities, for example, Collins (1988) theory

of control in organization. According to the requirements, theorists or researcher can select a

theory to study a particular phenomenon.

References

Bernath, U., & Vidal, M. (2007). The theories and the theorists: Why theory is important for

research. with B. Holmberg, M. G. Moore, & O. Peters. Distances et savoirs, 5(3).

Retrieved from http://ds.revuesonline.com/gratuit/DS5_3_08_entretien-conference.pdf

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods

approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand. Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Garrison, D. R. (2000). Theoretical challenges for distance education in the 21st century: A shift

from structural to transactional issues. The International Review of Research in Open and

Distance Learning.1(1).

Gioia, D. A., & Pitre, E. (1990). Multiparadigm perspectives on theory building. Academy of

Management Review, 15(4), 584–602.

Glanz, K. (n.d.) Social and Behavioral Theories. Retrieved Sep. 21, 2013, from

http://www.esourceresearch.org/Portals/0/Uploads/Documents/Public/Glanz_FullChapter

.pdf

Goffman, E. (1967). Interaction ritual: essays on face-to-face behavior. New York: Pantheon

Books.

Griffin, E. (2012). A First Look at Communication Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Hambrick, D. C. (2007). The field of management‟s devotion to theory: Too much of a good

thing? Academy of Management Journal, 50(6), 1346-

1352.doi:10.5465/AMJ.2007.28166119.

Hoover, K. R. (1984). The Elements of Social Scientific Thinking (3rd ed.). New York: St.

Martin's Press.

Kaplan, A, (1963). The Conduct of Inquiry: Methodology for Behavioral Science. New York:

Harper & Row.

Kerlinger, F. N. (1979). Behavioral research: A conceptual approach. New York: Holt, Rinehart

& Winston.

Lenski, G.E. (1996). Power and privilege. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Markus, M. L., Majchrzak, A., & Gesser, L. (2002). A design theory for systems that support

emergent knowledge processes. MIS Quarterly, 26(3), 179–212.

McQuail, D. (1994). Mass Communication Theory: An Introduction (5th Edition). London: Sage

Publications.

National Cancer Institute (2005). Theory at a glance: A guide for health promotion practice (2nd

ed.). Retrieved fromhttp://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/cancerlibrary/theory.pdf

Neuman, W.L. (2000). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (4th

ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Schramm, W. (1963).Communication Research in United States. New York: Basic Books.

Severin, W.J., & Tankard, Jr., J. W. (1992). Communication Theories: Origins, Methods, and

Uses in the Mass Media. New York:Longman.

Sutton, R.I., & Staw, B.M. (1995). ASQ forum: What theory is Not. Administrative Science

Quarterly, 40(3), 371–384.

Thomas, G. (1997). What‟s the use of theory? Harvard Educational Review, 67(1), 75-104.

Thompson, N. (2000).Theory and Practice in Health and Social Welfare. Oxon, UK: Open

University Press.

Turner, S. (n.d.). Theory Development. Retrieved Sep. 20, 2013, from

http://www.esourceresearch.org/Portals/0/Uploads/Documents/Public/Turner_FullChapte

r.pdf

Wacker, J. G. (1998). A definition of theory: research guidelines for different theory-building

research methods in operations management. Journal of Operations Management, 16(4),

361-385.

Whetten, D. A. (1989). What constitutes a theoretical contribution. Academy of Management

Review,14(4),490-495.
 Q 2) Why should you learn theories like agenda setting, uses and

gratifications, political economy of mass media, information society and so

forth?
 Human beings have passed through six information revolutions so far: 1st after the

introduction of writing, started from Greece almost 8th century BC, 2nd after invention of printing

press in 1450 by Guttenberg which turned world into Guttenberg Galaxy (McLuhan, 1962), 3 rd

revolution of Mass media in the middle of 19th century, 4th revolution of entertainment at the end

of 19th century when entertainment became accessible to people, 5th revolution of

communication toolshed home in the middle of 20th century in which homes of common people

became hub of communication and entertainment tools and last 6th revolution of Information

highway with convergence of technologies (Fang, 1997) and rise of Prosumerism

(Ritzer &Jurgenson, 2010).

When we look at all these information revolutions in human history we come to know the

significance of communication particularly mass and mediated communications and their

penetration in human life. Because of this significance mass communication has been developed

into an academic field and it has been studied and researched in three different aspects, it is

studied for learning skills of communication practice, and then it is researched empirically and

studied critically and culturally as mass media (Chafee & Metzger, 2001). Mass Communication

theory has been evolved as an outcome of mass communication into an academic field.

Communication theory has been inclusive and multidisciplinary taking many contributions

ranging from literature, political science, psychology, sociology and even mathematics also and

this is why communication theory is rich in its content and diverse in its approach (Craig, 1999).

For the researchers of mass communication it is very important to know all the traditions

and approaches of its theory. Some scholars divide mass communication theory into paradigms

(Hall, 1982, Lowery &DeFleur, 1988), some deal with collection of issues (McQuail, 2013)

while some discuss the chronological order of mass communication research and theory (Baran&
Davis 2009) and some discuss traditions of mass communication theory as “metadicursive

model” (Craig, 1999). These paradigms, traditions and approaches are replete with different

theories. These theories study effects of media, power of media in shaping behaviors of people,

reception of audience, politics and power structures and their connection with citizens through

media, content and organizational structures of media.Learning of all these issues and theories

related to them will give a theoretical and conceptual background to the students of mass

communication theory and novice researchers for generating new theories and for practitioners

developing new set of knowledge.

Theories and theoretical knowledge can help practitioners. Like, among seven tradition

suggested by Craig (1999) semiotic is the study of signs, symbols, languages and their respective

use in communicating message. Learning this theory and knowing semiotic cues can lead TV,

film producers and advertisement experts towards more convincing and appealing texts

accordingly. In the same way normative theories, i) Authoritarian, ii) Libertarian, iii)

Communist, iv) Social Responsibility (Seibert, Peterson & Schramm, 1956) v) development

media theory and vi) media democratic participant theory (McQuail, 1983), also give the ideal

ways to operate media in certain political system and sets code of ethics and guidelines for media

organizations and practitioners.

As Kerlinger (1979) explains theory as,“a set of interrelated constructs (variables),

definitions,and propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying

relations among variables, with the purpose ofexplaining natural phenomena”. So every theory of

mass communication also constitutes the same characteristic and feature while specifying any

given phenomena. These theories provide guidelines to researchers where to see, what to see and

how to see. Any old theory can become a base for the future research. In case of uses and
gratification theory, some researchers claimed that it has become irrelevant in the modern study

of communication but time has shown that with the advent of computer-mediated

communication U&G has regained its significance (Ruggiero, 2000).

Theories help us in learning certain terms and important phrases along with their

definitions. As in cultivation theory Gerbner& Gross (1976) has used the terms of “heavy

viewers” and “light viewers”. For future researchers knowing these terms and their definition

helps in formulating further study regarding effect of media content in shaping behaviors.

Theories are making sense of the world for us.In this age in spite of pervasive media

penetration in our daily routines, still people are divided between haves and haves not, elites and

ordinary people. Here in this situation, critical theories of mass communication derived from

Frankfurt School (North, 2008) and neo-Marxism, challenge present social, economic and

political systems which have led to this demarcation in societies. Learning of these critical

theories can lead researchers towards the development of new systems more conducive to human

development. Theorists can question the media elites and the way they surrender to influences of

advertisers and their biased political and economic motives if they learn and develop a

foundation of propaganda model by Chomsky and Herman(1988) and political economy theory

of Murdock (1989). Theories like agenda setting which states media does not tell what to think

but tell what to think about (McComb& Shaw 1972) ,can direct future researcher to suggest the

usage of thismedia power for advocacy of right causes rather than propaganda of government

policies and interests.

With the advancement of new technologies it is important to learn their new patterns so

diffusion of innovation theory (Rogers, 1983) can guide how new media technologies are

becoming the part of our daily routines and what is the outcome of this technology boom.
 Thus theories of mass communication not only decide the issues for research but they can

transform the media into change agent of society by giving the guidelines for the future practice

as well.

References
Baran, S.J, &Davis, D.K. (2006). Mass Communication Theory: Foundations, Ferment,

and Future (4th Ed.). Belmont, CA: Thompson Wads-Worth.

Chafee, S.H., & Metzger, M. J. (2001).The end of mass communication?Mass

Communication &Society, 4(4), 365-379.

Craig, R. T.(1999). Communication theory as a field.Communication Theory, 9(2), 119-

161.

Fang, I. (1997). A History of Mass Communication: Six Information Revolutions. Boston:

Focal Press.

Gerbner, G. & Gross, L. (1976).Living with television: The violence profile.Journal of

Communication, 26(2), 172-199.

Hall, S. (1982). The rediscovery of „ideology‟: Return of the repressed in media studies.

In M. Gurevitch, T. Bennett, J. Curren, & J. Woollacott (Eds.), Culture, Society, and the Media

(pp. 56-90). London: Methuen.

Herman, E.& Chomsky, N. (1988). Manufacturing Consent: The Political Eonomy of

Mass Media.New York: Pantheon Books.

Kerlinger, F. N. (1979). Behavioral research: A Conceptual Approach. New York: Holt,

Rinehart & Winston.

Lowery, S. A.,&DeFleur, M. L. (1988).Milestones in Mass Communication Research

(2nd Ed.). New York: Longman.

 McCombs, M., & Shaw, D. (1972). The agenda setting function of mass media. Public

Opinion Quarterly, 36(2), 176-187. doi: 10.1086/26799.

McLuhan, M. (1962).The Guttenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man.Toronto:

University of Toronto Press.

McQuail, D. (1983). Mass Communication Theory (1st Ed.). London: Sage.

McQuail, D. (2013). Communication research paradigms:Reflection on paradigm change

in communication theory and research.International Journal of Communication, 7, 216-229.

Murdock, G. (1989). Critical Activity and Audience Activity.In B. Dervin, L. Grossberg,

B. J. O‟Keefe & E. Wartella (Eds.).Rethinking communication, Vol. 2: Paradigm exemplars.

Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

North, D. (2008). The Frankfurt school vs. Marxism: The political and intellectual

Odyssey of Alex Steiner. World Socialist Web Site.Retrieved from

http://www.wsws.org/en/media/documents/legacy/FrankfurtSchool.pdf

Ritzer, G.,&Jurgenson, N.(2010).Production, consumption, prosumption: The nature of

capitalism in the age of the digital „prosumer‟”.Journal of Consumer Culture, 10(13), 13-33.

Rogers, E. M. (1983). Diffusion of Innovation (3rd Ed.). New York: Free Press.

Ruggiero, T. E. (2000). Uses and gratification theory in 21st century.Mass

Communication & Society, 3(1), 3-37.

Siebert, F. S., Peterson, E. D., & Schramm, W. L. (1956).Four Theories of Press: the

authoritarian, libertarian, social responsibility, & Soviet Communist concepts of what the press

should be and do. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press.