CL217 – Semester 1

Dr Gráinne El Mountassir
[email protected]
CL217 Semester 1- Topics

•  Occurrence of water in soils

•  Hydraulic gradient & Permeability
•  Seepage
•  Effective stress
•  Influence of seepage on effective stress
•  Case studies
•  Groundwater control methods
CL217 Semester 1- Topics

•  Occurrence of water in soils

•  Hydraulic gradient & Permeability
•  Seepage
•  Effective stress
•  Influence of seepage on effective stress
•  Case studies
•  Groundwater control methods
Water Flow in Soils
Occurrence of Water in Soils
Ø  From the engineering point of view there are two main groups:

v  Pore Water
Not strongly affected
ü  Free water by soil-inter par;cle
ü  Capillary water interac;ons

v  Adsorbed water
adsorbed water

- -
1nm
- -
- - 50
- - nm
free water
- -
- - double layer
- - water
pores

grains
Water flow in soils
Occurrence of Water in Soils
Ø  Because free water is completely under the influence of gravity, it
occupies the lowest possible posi;on in a permeable deposit. Therefore
water accumula;ng in soil pores in the lowest levels consist of free water.
This is known as groundwater.
Ø  Groundwater zones are generally assumed to be fully saturated, i.e. the
pores are completely filled with water, no air present.
Water flow in soils
Occurrence of Water in Soils
Ø  Some definiIons (I)
ü  The top of the ground water zone is called the water table, this is also known
as the phreaIc surface, (pressure head = 0).

ü  Above the water table there is a zone containing capillary water and adsorbed
water (held water) called the moisture zone.
Borehole
Ground level (G.L.)

Moisture zone

Water table

Groundwater
Water flow in soils
Occurrence of Water in Soils
Ø  Some definiIons (II)
ü  Aquifers: a permeable material through which the groundwater actually
flows is called an aquifer, as shown below. Sand and gravel are very good
aquifers due to their high porosity and permeability.
Water flow in soils
Occurrence of Water in Soils
Ø  Some definiIons (III)
ü  PotenIometric surface is an imaginary surface formed by measuring the
level to which water will rise in wells of a par;cular aquifer. It is a measure of
the pressure head in an aquifer.
ü  For unconfined aquifers the poten;ometric surface coincides with the water
table/phrea;c surface (pressure head = 0).
ü  For confined aquifers the poten;ometric surface is above the aquifer top
boundary and occasionally above the ground surface.

Potentiometric surface in aquifers

9
Water flow in soils
Occurrence of Water in Soils
Ø  Some definiIons (IV)
ü  A perched water table can be produced by the presence of an impermeable
layers, such as a clay layer as shown below. These condi;ons may result in an
intermiQent well flow. If you bore through the impermeable layer, the
perched water will be lost.
Water Flow in Soils

Below the water table, if the pore water is at rest (i.e sta;c),
the distribuIon of pore water pressure is hydrostaIc.

Pore water pressure,

u = ρw gh = γ w hw
γ w = 9.81kN / m 3

Ground level (G.L.)

Water table

Groundwater
Water Flow in Soils

Local changes in pore water pressure from the hydrosta;c value will cause water
to flow through the voids between soil par;cles. This is known as seepage.

In many cases, groundwater condi;ons result in flow of water through the
porous medium (seepage). A good example is where there is a difference in
water levels at either side of a structure.

Concrete dam ExcavaIon

Water Flow in Soils
Ø  Bernoulli’s equaIon
A statement of the conserva;on of energy in a form useful for solving problems
involving fluids.

For a non-viscous, incompressible fluid in steady flow, the sum of pressure,

poten;al and kine;c energies per unit volume is constant at any point.

u2 A2
Work done = Force x Distance

‘Flow work’ done = Pressure x Area x

Distance fluid travels
L
z2 ‘Flow work’ done = u1 A1L
u1 A1 Pressure Energy

z1
DATUM
Water Flow in Soils
Ø  Bernoulli’s equaIon
A statement of the conserva;on of energy in a form useful for solving problems
involving fluids.

For a non-viscous, incompressible fluid in steady flow, the sum of pressure,

poten;al and kine;c energies per unit volume is constant at any point.

u2 A2
1 2 1
Kinetic Energy = mv = ρ1 A1Lv12
2 2
L
z2
u1 A1

z1
DATUM
Water Flow in Soils
Ø  Bernoulli’s equaIon
A statement of the conserva;on of energy in a form useful for solving problems
involving fluids.

For a non-viscous, incompressible fluid in steady flow, the sum of pressure,

poten;al and kine;c energies per unit volume is constant at any point.

u2 A2

Potential Energy = mgh = ρ1 A1Lgz1

L
z2
u1 A1

z1
DATUM
Water Flow in Soils
Ø  Bernoulli’s equaIon
A statement of the conserva;on of energy in a form useful for solving problems
involving fluids.

For a non-viscous, incompressible fluid in steady flow, the sum of pressure,

poten;al and kine;c energies per unit volume is constant at any point.

1
Total Energy = ρ1 A1Lgz1 + ρ1 A1Lv12 + u1 A1L
2
Potential Energy + Kinetic Energy + Pressure Energy

ρ1 A1Lgz1 1 ρ1 A1Lv uAL 2

v12 u
Total Energy + + 1 1 1 z1 + + 1
per weight of fluid =
ρ1gA1L 2 ρ1gA1L ρ1gA1L = 2g ρ1g

ρ gA1L
Weight of fluid = 1
Water Flow in Soils
Ø  Bernoulli’s equaIon
If no energy is supplied or extracted from the fluid, then :
energy entering = energy exiIng (assuming there is no fric;on)
If fluid is incompressible then ρ1 = ρ 2 = ρ w
Therefore for a non-viscous, incompressible fluid in steady flow, the sum of
pressure, poten;al and kine;c energies per unit volume is constant at any
point.

u1 v12 u2 v22
h = z1 + + = z2 + + u2 A2
ρ w g 2g ρ w g 2g

L
z2
u1 A1

z1
DATUM
Water Flow in Soils
Ø  Bernoulli’s equaIon

In the ground, seepage veloci;es in soils are normally very

small, so velocity head can be neglected.
2
u v
h = z + +
ρw g 2g
Total Eleva;on Pressure Velocity
Head Head Head Head

Therefore:
u
h = z +
γw
Total Eleva;on Pressure
Head Head Head
Water Flow in Soils
Bernoulli’s equation – Application to soils

A
B

Datum

Flow in a direc;on from A to B means that the total head at A is higher than the total head at
B, hA > hB.

Flow has to overcome the soil resistance and thus energy is dissipated. So there is a HEAD
LOSS, Δh.
Water Flow in Soils
Ø  Hydraulic Gradient Δh
uA
γw uB
γw
hA A
B
hB
ZA ZB
L
Datum
From Bernoulli’s equa;on:
uA uB where Δh = head loss between A and B.
+ zA = + z B + Δh
γw γw
Δh
i=
The hydraulic gradient ‘i ’ is defined as: L
Darcy’s Law
Henry Darcy (1803-1858) on the basis of a series of experiments
carried out at Dijon, France, proposed (Darcy, 1856*) what is
now known as Darcy’s Law, which governs the flow of water
through a porous medium.

His Law is a foundaIon stone for several fields of study,
including ground-water hydrology, civil engineering, soil
physics, and petroleum engineering

MoIvaIons of Darcy’s research: To improve the

drinking water supply

* Henry Darcy, 1856. Détermina5on des lois d'écoulement de l'eau à

travers le sable. Les Fontaines Publiques de la Ville de Dijon, Paris,
Victor Dalmont, pp.590–594
hQp://biosystems.okstate.edu/darcy
Darcy’s Law

Soil sample:
▼ A is Cross-sec;onal Area
L is Length

Soil sample
•  Total Head at T: hT = H1
T •  Total Head at B: hB = H2
•  Steady state flow condiIons
H1
L •  H1 and H2 maintained constant
A during the test
•  q is measured (volume of water
B
flowing per unit ;me = flow rate)

▼
Datum q H2
Darcy’s Law
▼

•  Darcy carried out several tests with different kind of

Soil sample
soils considering different values for the following
parameters: A, L, H1 and H2 T

H1
L
•  Darcy observed that q is directly propor;onal to: A

•  Head difference hT – hB = h B

•  Cross-sec;onal Area A ▼

Datum H2
Q
•  and inversely propor;onal to:
•  Sample length L
q

•  That is: h T - hB
q ∝A
L
i i

•  The constant of propor;onality is a soil parameter known as coefficient

of permeability (k )
Darcy’s Law
The coefficient of permeability (k ) is a measure of the ease with which water can
flow through the voids between soil par;cles. In general, the smaller the par;cles,
the smaller the size of the pores and therefore the lower the coefficient of
permeability.
q: flow rate [m3/s]
q = Ak i A: cross-sec;onal area [m2]
i: hydraulic gradient [-]
k: is the coefficient of permeability [m/s]
v: discharge velocity [m/s]
Coefficient of permeability (m/s)

The range of variaIon of coefficient of permeability is enormous!

Darcy’s Law
The coefficient of permeability (k ) is a measure of the ease with which water can
flow through the voids between soil par;cles.

q = Ak i
q: flow rate [m3/s]
A: cross-sec;onal area [m2]
i: hydraulic gradient [-]
k: is the coefficient of permeability [m/s]
ü  Discharge velocity (v) v: discharge velocity [m/s]

q v is calculated considering the total area

v = =k i (A) (soil par;cles and voids)
A
Darcy’s Law

ü  Seepage velocity (vs)

At parIcle level the water seeping through a soil follows a very
tortuous path. The seepage velocity (vs) at which the water flows
through the soil pores is obtained as follows:

q = vA = v s Av v: discharge velocity [m/s]

vs: seepage velocity [m/s] Av
q vA A: cross-sec;onal area of soil [m2]
vs = = Av: cross-sec;onal area of voids in soil [m2]
Av Av n: porosity[-]

Vv Av vs
n= ≈
V A
Therefore: A

v ki
vs = =
n n v
Darcy’s Law

The coefficient of permeability (also known as hydraulic conduc;vity) varies with

temperature as the viscosity of water varies with temperature. The coefficient of
permeability is generally expressed at a temperature of 20ºC. It can be es;mated at
any other temperature, as follows:

µT k : coefficient of permeability [m/s]
k20 = kT
µ 20 K : absolute permeability [m2]
γf : fluid unit weight [kN/m3]
µf : fluid dynamic viscosity [kN.s/m2]

K absolute permeability [m2]. K is an absolute coefficient depending only on the

characteris;c of the pore skeleton. Coefficient of permeability (hydraulic conduc;vity)
is related to the absolute permeabilty by:
γf
k= K
µf
Darcy’s Law Assumptions

•  The main assump;on is that the flow must be laminar

•  The soil is fully saturated.
•  Rigid soil skeleton (no pore-structure changes occur).
•  The soil is homogeneous (i.e. soils proper;es do not vary with posi;on in the soil).
•  The soil is isotropic (i.e. soils proper;es do not depend on the direc;on of analysis).
Darcy’s Law

Most natural soil deposits are anisotropic, with the coefficient of permeability
having a maximum value in the direc;on parallel to stra;fica;on and a
minimum value in the direc;on perpendicular to that of stra;fica;on.

In sedimentary stra;fied soils

generally:
kh > kv

kh = 10 to 100 ;mes kv
kh

kv

This means that seepage can occur more easily in the direc;on parallel to
stra;fica;on than perpendicular to it.
Darcy’s Law Limitations
Darcy’s law is valid where the flow of water is laminar (e.g. sands,
silts, clay). However, Darcy’s Law has an upper and lower limit.

ü  The upper limit ü  The lower limit

q q

Not linear

linear i I0 i

In soils which have par;cle sizes larger than In soil with ac;ve (i.e. swelling) clays a lower
coarse gravel, groundwater velocity may be limit of applicability of Darcy’s Law has been
large enough for turbulent flow (i.e. no detected when the hydraulic gradient is very
longer a linear rela;onship between q and i). small. I0 is the threshold gradient.
Determination of Coefficient of Permeability
The coefficient of permeability can be determined as follows:

1.  Es;mate from empirical rela;onships
2.  Laboratory measurement
3.  Field measurement
Determination of Coefficient of Permeability
1. Estimation from empirical equations.
Hazen’s empirical rela;onship is for sands. Hazen (1892) showed that the
approximate value of k is given by:

where D10 is the sieve size [mm] which allows 10% mass of the soil par;cles to pass
through it.
100
Percentage passing

10% of the par;cles are

10

smaller than the size

denoted as D10
D10 Particle size (mm)
0
Determination of Coefficient of Permeability
1. Estimation from empirical equations.
Kozeny-Carman equa;on relates hydraulic conduc;vity to void ra;o for sandy soils:

3 With this func;on it is possible to consider changes

e in the void volume (i.e. porosity).
k = C1
1+ e
This equa;on works well for describing coarse grained soils such as sand and some
silts. Various discrepancies when it is applied to clayey materials.
Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

2. Laboratory measurement of permeability.

In the laboratory two main tests are generally used:

•  The Constant Head test:
Suitable for more permeable granular materials.
Unsuitable for fine-grained soils where the flow rates are so small that evapora;on
could lead to significant error.
•  The Falling Head test:
Suitable for fine-grained soils

The coefficient of permeability can be also obtained from oedometer tests.
Determination of Coefficient of Permeability
2. Laboratory measurement of permeability.
ü  Constant head test This is perhaps the simplest method of permeability
measurement.
ü  Water flows one-dimensionally through the
sample in the direc;on of its axis.
▼
ü  There are inlet and outlet filters.
ü  The hydraulic gradient required to maintain a flow
rate q is determined from the head difference h
indicated by manometers inserted at two points at
distance L apart along the direc;on of flow.
h
ü  The flow rate is determined using measuring
H1
L cylinder and a stopwatch.
A
Filter ü  The hydraulic gradient i is found for a number of
different flow rates q.

q
▼

Datum H2
Determination of Coefficient of Permeability
2. Laboratory measurement of permeability.
ü  Constant head test h = constant during the test

Darcy's Law may be applied directly:

▼
q = Aki

q qL
k= =
Ai Ah
h
H1 The constant head test is unsuitable for
A
L determining the permeability of fine-
Filter grained soils (low permeability soils as
flow rate is too small to determine
accurately due to evapora;on).
q
▼
H2 For soils with k: 10-2 -10-4 m/s
Datum
Example
Calculate the coefficient of permeability (in m/s):
•  L = 300mm

•  A = 177cm2

•  Constant head difference = 0.5m ▼

•  Water collected in a 5min period = 350cm3

h
H1
L
A
Filter

q
▼
H2
Datum
Determination of Coefficient of Permeability
ü  The falling head test
a
For fine-grained soils the falling head test
is used.
dh •  Water flows from a small-bore tube of
cross sec;onal area a, through the soil
sample which is contained within a
larger tube of cross-sec;onal area A.
h
•  The water level in the upper tube falls
Filter A L as water flows through the soil sample

q
Determination of Coefficient of Permeability
ü  The falling head test Flow rate in standpipe = Flow rate in soil
dh h
q = −a ; q = Ak Ini;al condi;ons:
a dt L
dh h At t=t0 h=h0
−a = Ak At t=t1 h=h1
dt L
dh dh Ak
− = dt
h aL
h1 dh Ak t1
− ∫ = ∫ dt
h0
h aL 0

h0 h1 Akt1
(
− ln h1 − ln h0 = ) aL
Filter A L Akt1
ln h0 − ln h1 =
aL
h0 Akt1
ln =
h1 aL
al h
aL h0 k = 2.3 log 0
q k= ln At1 h1
At1 h1
Example
Calculate the coefficient of permeability (in cm/s):
•  L = 203mm a
•  Area of soil specimen = 10.3 cm2

•  Area of standpipe = 0.39cm2

•  Head difference at ;me t=0 =508mm dh

•  Head difference at ;me t=180s =305mm

h0 h1

Filter A L

Q
 in
stan
Determination of Coefficient of Permeability dpip
e =
Flow
Field measurement of permeability. rate
in
ü  The laboratory methods give an es;mate of the in-situ permeability at a point, this
will only be representa;ve of the whole soil layer, if it is uniform and isotropic. soil
ü  Samples must be selected and taken with care to replicate its field condi;ons.
ü  It is ooen difficult to obtain undisturbed soil specimens from the field (i.e. soil structure
and fabric can be altered during sampling).
ü  The most reliable way of determining hydraulic conduc;vity is by carrying out in-situ
tests. Several techniques are available, such as:
§  Pumping from wells:
•  Confined aquifer
•  Unconfined aquifer
§  Borehole tests:
•  Open-end test.
•  Packer test.
………………………….
Field measurement

Cone of depression

Well discharge

Unsaturated zone

Water table, original

Drawdown
groundwater level before
pumping

Saturated zone

Confining unit 42
Field measurement
Mineral grains

Cone of depression
Pore water

Original piezometric
surface before pumping

Drawdown

Confining unit (low hydraulic conductivity)

Confined aquifer

Confining unit 43
Field measurement
Well pumping in an unconfined aquifer.
•  It is most suitable for use in homogeneous coarse soil.
•  Con;nuous pumping at constant rate from the test well (steady-state condi;ons).
•  Radial seepage results in the water table being drawn down to form a ‘cone of
depression’.
•  Water levels are observed in a number of boreholes spaced on radial lines at various
distances from the test well.
•  It is assumed that the hydraulic
gradient at any distance ‘r’ from
the centre of the well is constant
with depth and is equal to the
slope of the water table:

“Dupuit’s assump;on”
(accurate except for points
close to the well)
 in
stan
Field measurement dpip
Well pumping in an unconfined aquifer e =
Flow
•  The test enables the average hydraulic conduc;vity of the soil mass below the cone of
rate
depression to be determined.
in
•  Consider two boreholes located on a radial line at distances ‘r1’ and ‘r2’ from the centre
soil
of the well, the respec;ve water levels being ‘h1’ and ‘h2’.
•  At a distance ‘r’ from the well the area through which the seepage take place is ‘2πrh’
where ‘r’ and ‘h’ are variables. q = Aki
•  Applying Darcy’s Law:
A = 2π rh
dh
q = 2π rhk dh
dr i=
r2 dr h2 dr
q∫ = 2π k ∫ hdh
r1
r h1

2π k ( h 22 − h12 )
q ( ln r2 − ln r1 ) =
2
r
q ln 2 = π k ( h 22 − h12 )
r1
q ln ( r2 r1 )
k=
π ( h 22 − h12 )
2.3q log ( r2 r1 )
k=
π ( h 22 − h12 )
Field measurement
Field measurement: Well pumping in a confined aquifer
•  Confined aquifer of thickness, H
• In this analysis it is assumed that the well A = 2π rH
penetrates to the boQom of the aquifer. dh
i=
q = Aki dr
dh
r2 q = 2π rHk
r1 dr
r2 dr h2
q∫ = 2π Hk ∫ dh
r1
r h1

r
q ln 2 = 2π Hk ( h 2 − h1 )
r1
h2
h1
q ln ( r2 r1 )
k=
2π H ( h 2 − h1 )
H
2.3q log ( r2 r1 )
k=
2π H ( h 2 − h1 )
References

1)  ‘Craig’s Soil Mechanics’, Craig, R F

E&FN SPON, 2012 (7th or 8th edi;on)

2) ‘Soil Mechanics’, William Powrie

E&FN SPON, 2004 (2nd edi;on)

3) Principles of geotechnical engineering’ Das, B M

‘PWS-Kent Publishing Co. Boston 2010’ (7th or 8th ediQon)

4) Advanced Soil Mechanics’ Das, B M

‘Hemisphere Publishing CorporaQon’ 2008 (3rd ediQon).

5) Henry Darcy, 1856. DéterminaQon des lois d'écoulement de l'eau à travers le sable.
Les Fontaines Publiques de la Ville de Dijon, Paris, Victor Dalmont, pp.590–594
hQp://biosystems.okstate.edu/darcy
CL217 Lab A – 1%
•  Tuesday Week 2 in JW 1.05
•  3 sessions:
- CE1-10 @ 11-12:30
- CE11-20 @ 12:30-2pm
- CE21-29 @ 2-3:30pm
•  Constant head tests
•  Calculate k for fine sand & coarse sand
•  Group submission of lab worksheets
•  Submission Week 3, Friday 6th October 4pm.
•  Hardcopy submission – coursework submission box
Level 5, James Weir.