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Lagos (Nigeria) flooding and influence of urban planning

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DOI: 10.1680/udap.1000014

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Urban Design and Planning Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Urban Design and Planning 164 September 2011 Issue DP3
Volume 164 Issue DP3 Pages 175–187 doi:10.1680/udap.1000014
Lagos (Nigeria) flooding and influence of Paper 1000014
Received: 25/02/2010 Accepted: 29/11/2010
urban planning Published online 21/06/2011
Adeloye and Rustum Keywords: developing countries/floods & floodworks/
infrastructure planning

ice | proceedings ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Lagos (Nigeria) flooding and

influence of urban planning
&
1 Adebayo J. Adeloye PhD, CEng, MCIWEM, CWEM, FHEA &
2 Rabee Rustum PhD, MSBE, MSBT
Senior Lecturer, School of the Built Environment, Heriot-Watt Assistant Professor, College of Engineering, University of Dammam,
University, Edinburgh, UK Dammam, Saudi Arabia

1 2

The aim of the study was to analyse the causes of the flooding problems being encountered in Lagos (Nigeria) and to
recommend sustainable management solutions to them. Data on climate, drainage infrastructures and physical
planning regulations were collected and extensively analysed. These were combined with evidence from field
inspection and discussion with stakeholders, including relevant government departments, university researchers and
selected residents. The investigation revealed that, contrary to popular wisdom, climate change or unusually high
rainfall is not the primary cause of the flooding problems in Lagos. Rather, the increased urbanisation, lax planning
laws in relation to the erection of buildings in flood plains and the lack or inadequacy of storm drainage facilities in
the city are to blame. It is argued that a lasting solution to the flooding problem will require the incorporation of
sustainable drainage systems within the existing flood management strategy for the city and planning for this must
start now.

1. Introduction that modify the characteristics of the catchment. Notable

Flooding in various parts of Nigeria has been occurring much among the modifications is the reduction of the infiltration
more frequently in recent years because of the escalating trend capacity of catchments due to paving and erection of structures
towards urbanisation and the increasing number and size of (Pauliet et al., 2005). Another anthropogenic effect is the
metropolises and mega-cities without proper planning and building of structures in flood plains, which impede the free
drainage infrastructure (Adeaga, 2005). The problem has been flow of rivers and cause them readily to burst their banks. A
most pronounced in Lagos, the largest city in Nigeria, causing further dimension, especially in urban areas of developing
severe damage to property and disrupting economic and countries, is the problem posed by inadequate infrastructural
commercial activities. Social amenity infrastructures such as provision such as roads, drainage systems and waste collection
water supply and sanitation are often also damaged by and handling facilities. On top of these is climate change that is
flooding, resulting in the spread of diseases and plagues. predicted to result in more intense, flood-causing storms in
According to recent statistics jointly published by the World many parts of the world (IPCC, 2007).
Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations
Children’s Fund (UNICEF), most diseases requiring hospital The increased incidence of flooding being witnessed recently in
admission are water-borne or water-washed and this problem Lagos and elsewhere in Africa must be the by-product of the
is often exacerbated by flooding (WHO/UNICEF, 2000). above factors; however, there is currently a lack of information
or knowledge on the precise influence of each of the factors.
The immediate hydrological cause of flooding is well known: Without this information, it will be difficult to design a proper
long and persistent rainfall on already saturated or nearly and sustainable solution to a problem that is likely to get worse
saturated soil, resulting in increased runoff, which can exceed in the future. The importance of gaining fundamental know-
the carrying capacity of rivers and other conveyance structures, ledge about floods and flooding mechanisms, as a precursor to
and can breach physical defences. However, the effects and developing sustainable and lasting solutions to the problem, is
impacts of flooding are often exacerbated by human activities recognised throughout the world. For example in the UK,

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Urban Design and Planning Lagos (Nigeria) flooding and
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Adeloye and Rustum

stakeholders’ funding of research on various aspects of interventions to sustainable urban drainage systems (Suds) has
flooding through the Flood Risk Management Consortium been taking place.
(Falconer, 2006) has led to the development of new paradigms
for modelling flood propagation in rivers and flood plains in Suds, or best management practices, are a collection of non-
the UK, as well as flood inundation extents in urban areas, structural flood management approaches that aim as much as
among others (Neelz et al., 2006; Pender, 2006). While these possible to maintain the predevelopment natural drainage
efforts are to be welcomed, the tools developed are often pattern of a site and to treat runoff in an endeavour to remove
insufficiently flexible to be transferable wholesale for applica- pollutants. They comprise a number of simple design
tion in other hydrological and climatic settings. Lack of the interventions and other measures, which can either be applied
required data for calibrating and validating such models is also alone or in combination, and include the following (CIRIA,
a handicap in most developing country settings. 2000):

Consequently, the immediate priority of the work undertaken N Preventive measures: these are measures that reduce the
in the present research is the documentation of what is volume of overland runoff such as rainwater and runoff
available in terms of data – meteorological, hydrological, state harvesting and recycling, collection in water butts and
of drainage infrastructure, planning regulations, historical underground storage tanks.
flooding, flood damage estimates, etc. The aim is to use the N Filter strips and swales: these are vegetated landscape
results and experiences gained through this as the basis for the features with smooth surfaces and a gentle downhill
development of sustainable containment and adaptation gradient to drain water evenly off impermeable surfaces.
strategies for flood risk management in the city of Lagos. N Infiltration devices: these are below-ground or surface
structures that drain water directly into the ground.
In the next section, a brief outline of different urban storm Examples include soakaways, infiltration trenches, swales
water management strategies is given. This is followed in with infiltration and infiltration basins. These may be used
sequence by the methodology, analysis, results, summary and at source or the runoff may be conveyed to the infiltration
conclusions for this study. area in a pipe or swale.
N Filter drains and permeable and porous pavements: these
are permeable surfaces, which allow rainwater and runoff to
2. Urban stormwater management infiltrate permeable material placed below ground to store
strategies water before discharge.
The traditional solution to urban storm-water problems in N Basins and balance ponds: these are structures designed to
most countries is structural interventions involving the hold water when it rains. Basins are free from water in dry
installation of underground pipes, canals, dams, dikes and weather, ponds contain water at all times and are designed
diversions to regulate the flow and/or to convey the water as to hold more when it rains; examples include detention
quickly as possible away from the development, therefore basins, balancing/attenuation ponds, flood storage reser-
preventing flooding locally. However, a general problem with voirs, lagoons, retention ponds and wetlands/reed beds.
this approach is that by increasing the speed of runoff, it can
change the flooding regime of the catchment and so, although If properly operated, Suds have been known to deliver many
flooding may have been prevented upstream, the flooding benefits, as outlined in Figure 1; these include (CIRIA, 2000;
problem might actually be exacerbated further downstream 2001):
(Carmon and Shamir, 2010). Increased flow rates can also
cause erosion and damage to rivers’ flora and fauna. Water (a) enhanced groundwater recharge leading to improved
quality issues are also important because pollutants from built- yield of aquifer systems, abatement of possible saltwater
up areas washed into rivers or infiltrating groundwater systems intrusion in coastal aquifers and enhanced base flow
can harm fish and wildlife and can cause long-lasting damage discharges in hydraulically connected river systems
to groundwater quality (Bekele and Argue, 1994; Roy et al., (b) protection and enhancement of water quality through
2008). These pollutants, because of their diffuse nature, are pollutant trapping and degradation processes of other-
difficult to identify and clean up. wise difficult-to-control diffused sources
(c) flood peak attenuation thus reducing the risk of down-
Structural solutions are therefore unsustainable in the long stream flooding
term because they can damage the environment, they are costly (d) reduction in potable water demand deficiency through
and, most importantly, they are time consuming. rainwater harvesting
Consequently, throughout the world, a silent revolution (e) improving amenity through the provision of public open
involving a paradigmatic shift from the traditional, structural space and wildlife habitat.

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Urban Design and Planning Lagos (Nigeria) flooding and
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Decrease MALI 6 12
Disaster cost of flood Reducing
reduction risks loss of life NIGER CHAD
Lake
Natural Sustainable Chad
landscape water
Sokoto
protection management Katsina
12 Maiduguri 12
Runoff Rainwater Kano
management Suds Zaria
harvesting
Kaduna
BENIN Jos
Habitat Land spaces
CHAD
enhancement preservation Ni
ge ABUJA
r Yola
Ilorin e
Recharge nu
Water quality Ogbomoso Be
augmentation Biodiversity protection Chappal
Oshogbo Makurdi
preservation Waddi
Ibadan Benin
Enugu
City
6 Lagos 6
Warri
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the array of sustainable urban
Bight of
Port CAMEROON
Harcourt Bakasi
drainage systems (Suds) benefits Benin Peninsula

3. Methodology Guif of Guinea 0 100 200 km

EQUATORIAL
GUINEA 0 100 200 mi
3.1 Case study
The city of Lagos lies in south-western Nigeria, on the Atlantic
coast in the Gulf of Guinea, west of the Niger River delta, located Figure 2. Map of Nigeria showing Lagos and other major locations
on longitude 3˚ 249 E and latitude 6˚ 279 N (see Figure 2). On this
stretch of the high-rainfall west African coast, rivers flowing to
Odunuga (2008) detailed some of the major flooding events
the sea form swampy lagoons like Lagos Lagoon behind long
since the late 1960s until the present time, including heavy
coastal sand spits or sand bars (Figure 3). Lagos is the most
flooding events in the years of 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972,
populous conurbation in Nigeria with 7 937 932 inhabitants at
1974, 1999, 2000 and 2004. Faced with this, the Lagos state
the 2006 census (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2007).

In terms of relief, Lagos occupies a low-lying site, generally

below 17 m with many parts of the metropolis at or below sea
City of LAGOS
level (Awosika et al., 2000). The relative flatness means that the Main urban areas, lagoon,
Ifako-Ijayi
ability of surface water to drain rapidly away is restricted; harbour and port
coupled with extensive paving this often causes pools of Agege N
10 km
standing water to build up very quickly following a rain event.
Ikeja
Surface lithology is entirely made up of sedimentary formation Lagos Murtala
Muhammed
with sandy loam composition.
Airport

The climate of Lagos is similar to that of the rest of southern Oshodi- MushinShomolu
Nigeria, which is characterised by two rainy seasons: rainy Isolo Lagos
Mainland Lagos Lagoon
season 1 (April–July) and rainy season 2 (October–November).
Surulere
Season 1 produces the heaviest rains and consequently the
most likelihood of flooding. The temperature averages about Ajegunle Lagos Ikoyi
27 ˚C and humidity can be higher than 80%. Apapa Port Apapa Island
Tin Can Victoria Is.
Island Port
The growth of Lagos metropolis has resulted in major land use Badagry Creek Lagos Harbour
changes, resulting in a phenomenal growth in the extent of Atlantic Ocean
impervious surfaces, from about 200 km2 at independence in
1960 to about 1140 km2 now. As urbanisations progresses, the Figure 3. Map of Lagos showing main urban areas, the lagoon,
population density and housing stock on the impervious spaces harbour and creek
within the core areas have also increased.

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Adeloye and Rustum

authorities have put several measures in place that attempt to Apart from rainfall, data on monthly temperature and
tackle these difficulties. For example, several initiatives, humidity were also collected and documented. Both the
ranging from community self-help programmes to World temperature and humidity affect evapotranspiration; however,
Bank loan for drainage improvements, are being implemented, for short-term events that cause flooding, the loss of water due
such as the drain dock programme in 2000, emergency flood to evapotranspiration is usually so small that it can be ignored.
abatement gang, and Lagos metropolitan development and Consequently, the temperature and humidity data were not
governance project, but these have only had minimal effects or subjected to further analyses.
none at all (Odunuga, 2008).
3.2.2 Discussions with authorities
3.2 Field activities Discussions were held with officers of the Lagos state Ministry
The methodology adopted for the research involved a site visit of Environment, who are responsible for the drainage facilities
to Lagos, Nigeria during July/August 2008 to collect data and in the state. The officials of the ministry were unequivocal in
other relevant information, as well as to hold discussions with blaming the problem on the indiscriminate dumping of refuse
authorities responsible for planning and drainage facilities in in the drains and felt that unless something was done about it,
the city, such as the Lagos State Ministry of Environment who the flooding problem was unlikely to go away. Additionally,
are responsible for the drainage facilities in the state, academics meetings were held with academics at the geography depart-
at the geography department at the University of Lagos ment at the University of Lagos because of their involvement
because of their involvement in previous research on flooding in previous research on flooding in Lagos. Finally, a visit was
in Lagos and the Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and also made to the Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and
Marine Research. These activities are briefly described below. Marine Research to collect information on the previous work
on flooding in Ikoyi and Victoria Island, Lagos.
3.2.1 Meteorological data collection
Monthly rainfall data for Lagos (island) and Ikeja (mainland) 3.2.3 Field inspection visits to drains in Lagos
areas spanning 1941 to December 2006, albeit gap ridden, were In order to gain better appreciation of the state of the drains in
obtained from the Nigerian Meteorological Department. To Lagos, local inspection of some of the drains was made as part
facilitate comparisons with less-maritime locations in Nigeria, of the field visit of July/August 2008. Extensive photographic
similar data for Ibadan located some 140 km north of Lagos evidence showed that most of the drains were clogged with
were also collected and formed part of the wider analysis. Box sediments and gross solid refuse, and were poorly maintained,
plots of the available rainfall data are shown in Figure 4, from as shown in Figure 5. Current storm-water management
which it is clear that the distribution of the monthly rainfall is practices in Lagos, where they exist, are based almost
highly skewed. Additionally, published information relating to exclusively on structural facilities, especially open-channel
the intensity–duration–frequency (I–D–F) relationships for
shorter-term rainfall was also obtained. These relationships
were developed for different time periods, one in the early
1980s (Oyebande, 1983) and another more recently (Dar Al-
Handasah Consultants, 1993).

1000
900
800
700
600
Rainfall: mm

500
400
300
200
100
0
Ibadan Ikeja Lagos

Figure 5. A drain totally taken over by sediments being cleared in

Figure 4. Box plots of monthly rainfall for Ibadan, Ikeja and Lagos the Victoria Island area of Lagos (July, 2008)

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Urban Design and Planning Lagos (Nigeria) flooding and
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Adeloye and Rustum

drains. The adoption of non-structural, best management (Kohonen et al., 1996; Rustum and Adeloye, 2007).
practices such as Suds is non-existent. Essentially, the procedure involves clustering the patterns in
an input data set or array in such a way that similar patterns
4. Analysis and results are represented by the same output vector or best matching
unit (BMU). Once the BMU has been identified, the missing
4.1 Long-term rainfall data
values in the input vector are assumed to take on the
Analysis carried out included preprocessing of the monthly
corresponding values in the BMU, as illustrated in Figure 6.
data for the detection and replacement of outliers, in-filling of
missing values and simple analysis to detect trends in the
annual data. Figure 7 contains the KSOM component planes, which
visually illustrate that there is a nearly perfect correlation in
4.1.1 Preprocessing the occurrence of low rainfall between Ikeja and Lagos (see the
Outliers were identified using the statistical Z-score approach top half of the respective component planes). Similarly, the
(McBean and Rovers, 1998). This test labels any observation correlation in the occurrence of high rainfall at the two
 2 3s, X
outside the interval [X  + 3s] as an outlier, where X is locations is also quite high (see the bottom left-hand corner of
the sample mean and s is the standard deviation. Based on this the component planes). Neither of these observations is
criterion, only a handful of the monthly rainfall values were unexpected, given the close proximity of the two stations. A
identified as outliers (Table 1); these were removed and further feature revealed by the component planes is the
replaced with more plausible values alongside the other missing generally higher monthly rainfall at Lagos when compared
values. with Ikeja, a situation also not unexpected given the maritime
climate that prevails in Lagos island, due to its closeness to the
Missing values were replaced using a multivariate clustering sea. The Ibadan component plane showed some similarities in
approach based on the Kohonen self-organising map (KSOM) the occurrence of low rainfall with Ikeja and Lagos; however,

Date Ibadan Ikeja Lagos

6/1943 — — 615?4
7/1947 — — 785?9
6/1954 — 560?1 617?5
6/1955 — — 629?2
6/1958 — — 818?4
6/1961 — 487?9 673?4
6/1962 — 524?8 833?6
8/1963 384 — —
6/1964 — — 685?8
7/1965 — — 648?2
7/1968 — 833?1 926?6
6/1972 — 538?5 —
8/1980 605 — —
7/1981 894 — —
8/1987 411?3 — —
6/1988 — 487?4 —
7/1989 — — 658?7
7/1990 — 567 —
7/1991 — 498?2 —
6/1997 — 619?5 —
7/1999 385?8 — —
5/2003 — — 753?5
6/2004 — — 620?5
Number of outliers 5 9 13

Table 1. Detected outliers in the Ibadan, Ikeja and Lagos monthly

rainfall data using the Z-score approach

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Adeloye and Rustum

Input KSOM Output KSOM are shown. The KSOM series includes the predicted
missing values. In general, the KSOM has performed very well
Known in reproducing the measured rainfall data at the three stations.
values BMU Prediction
search BMU Table 2 shows the Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency indices for the
KSOM models; these are generally above 96%, further
supporting the excellent performance of the KSOM in
Missing modelling the rainfall at the three stations.
values

4.1.2 Long-term rainfall trends

One of the concerns of the study was to establish whether or
Figure 6. Schematic illustration of prediction of missing not the increased incidence of flooding in Lagos has been due
components of an input data vector using the Kohonen self- to increasing rainfall. To establish this, it was necessary to see
organising map (KSOM) (Rustum and Adeloye, 2007) (with whether or not there had been an upward trend in the long-
permission from ASCE) BMU, best matching unit term rainfall. The trend line for Lagos monthly rainfall (see
Figure 8) can be observed to reveal a gently declining monthly
rainfall. For the longer term, the 5-year moving average of the
its high rainfall tends to be associated with mid-range rainfall annual rainfall was computed and the results are shown in
at both Lagos and Ikeja. Rainfall at Ibadan tends to be Figure 9, on which are also superimposed both the annual
generally much lower than the values observed at both Ikeja rainfall and its long-term average. While the Ikeja rainfall
and Lagos. revealed an upward trend until the 1970s, the Lagos and
Ibadan rainfall 5-year moving average rainfall series have
The time series plots of the monthly rainfall data, on which remained more or less constant. Indeed, it is remarkable that
have been superimposed trend lines, are shown in Figures 8(a) for all three stations, the post-1990, 5-year moving average
and 8(b); both the observed values and those estimated by the rainfall series have remained more or less the same as the long-
term mean annual rainfall. As mentioned earlier, flooding
U-matrix: mm Ibadan: mm incidence is more a function of short-term bursts of rainfall
0.0486 and may have little correlation with the long-term (i.e. monthly
and annual) rainfall, but the fact that the rainfall in Lagos has
1.65
remained relatively stable suggests that perhaps the increased
0.858 incidence of flooding in the city may not be due principally to
364 rainfall. This fact will be further examined below through
0.453 analysis of the available short-term rainfall information for the
city.
183
0.0486
4.2 Short-term rainfall information
1.65 The rainfall intensity is normally obtained from the I–D–F
d
relationship. However, short-term rainfall data were not
Ikeja: mm Lagos: mm readily available for collection during the visit to Nigeria,
which could have been used to develop an up-to-date I–D–F.
Thus, the results of two studies that developed the I–D–F
5.08
607 functions for Lagos have been compared to determine whether
or not short-term rainfall events have changed in character-
454 istics over the years.
307

Oyebande (1983) produced an I–D–F for most parts of Nigeria

229 including Lagos and Ikeja using 27 years’ worth of data
7.48
(Lagos, 1949–1975) and 31 years’ worth for Ikeja (1946–1976).
More recently, Dar Al-Handasah Consultancy (1993) have
5.08
d d used records (11 years for Lagos and 20 years for Ikeja) that
span 1963–1983 to develop a new set of I–D–F relationships as
Figure 7. Component planes for the Kohonen self-organising map well. The fact that the latter analyses used relatively more
(KSOM) model of rainfall data for Ibadan, Ikeja and Lagos recent data means that the estimate of rainfall intensities can be
compared with those by Oyebande (1983) in order to make

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Urban Design and Planning Lagos (Nigeria) flooding and
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1000
Rainfall: mm

Ibadan
500

0
1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
1000
Rainfall: mm

Ikeja
500

0
1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
1000
Lagos
Rainfall: mm

500

0
1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Year
Observed rainfall Rainfall from KSOM Predicted missing values Trend
(a)
1000
Rainfall: mm

Ibadan
500

0
1995 2000 2005
1000
Rainfall: mm

Ikeja
500

0
1995 2000 2005
1000
Rainfall: mm

Lagos

500

0
1995 2000 2005
Year
Observed rainfall Rainfall from KSOM Predicted missing values Trend
(b)

Figure 8. Performance of the Kohonen self-organising map

(KSOM) in predicting monthly rainfall in Nigeria stations:
(a) complete time series; (b) recent time slice

tentative inferences regarding possible changes in the char- likely to be subject to such large variability that they will be
acteristics of short-term rainfall in Lagos and Ikeja. unreliable.

The estimated rainfall intensities for the two stations based on As can be seen in Table 3, the estimates of intensities using
the Oyebande (1983) and Dar Al-Handasah Consultancy the sample containing more recent data are generally lower
(1993) models are compared in Table 3. Given the short time than estimates based on more distant past data, indicating
period of the available data, especially those used for the more that for shorter-term rainfall characteristics, there has been a
contemporary analyses, only short return periods (,10 years) decline in rainfall intensities when compared to the distant
are presented in Table 3; higher return periods estimates are past.

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Urban Design and Planning Lagos (Nigeria) flooding and
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Rainfall Rainfall KSOM rainfall KSOM rainfall KSOM rainfall

Rainfall (Ibadan) (Ikeja) (Lagos) (Ibadan) (Ikeja) (Lagos)

Rainfall (Ibadan) 1 — — — — —
Rainfall (Ikeja) 0?62 1 — — — —
Rainfall (Lagos) 0?60 0?82 1 — — —
KSOM rainfall (Ibadan) 0?96 0?69 0?64 1 — —
KSOM rainfall (Ikeja) 0?69 0?97 0?89 0?75 1 —
KSOM rainfall (Lagos) 0?63 0?89 0?98 0?68 0?94 1

Table 2. Correlation coefficients for monthly rainfall for Ibadan,

Ikeja and Lagos KSOM, Kohonen self-organising map

4.3 Degree of imperviousness and capacity of Such a high rate of imperviousness produces little or no loss
stormwater drains during a rainfall event, implying that almost all the rainfall is
The evidence gathered while visiting Lagos as part of this study instantaneously converted to runoff.
revealed that significant expansion in urban areas has occurred
and continues to occur. Indeed, as the aerial photographs in The clear evidence demonstrated by Odunuga (2008) about the
Figure 10 demonstrate, there appear to be very few pervious high rate of urbanisation means that, even without increases in
areas in Lagos. the rainfall intensity, more flooding would be expected.
However, this is not the only problem. The study by
Odunuga (2008) carried out an exhaustive study of a part of Odunuga (2008) also showed that the conveyance capacity of
the Lagos mainland in which it was established that extensive most of the main drains in Lagos mainland has been
land use change involving rapid urbanisation had taken place significantly reduced because of illegal dumping of refuse in
in the studied area. As Table 4 adapted from the study reveals, the drains, heavy sediment load in the runoff and the
the proportion of imperviousness in the studied catchments in inadequate programme of maintenance or cleaning of the
the Lagos mainland area was at least 91% and this situation is drains. Also shown in Table 4 is a comparison of the designed
typical of most areas in the Lagos metropolis (Odunuga, 2008). and recent carrying capacities of the main drains studied by

4000
Ibadan
Rainfall: mm

2000

0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
4000
Ikeja
Rainfall: mm

2000

0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
4000
Lagos
Rainfall: mm

2000

0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
Annual values Long-term average 5-years moving average

Figure 9. Annual and 5-year moving average rainfall data for

Ibadan, Ikeja and Lagos (with the long-term mean annual rainfall
line superimposed)

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Urban Design and Planning Lagos (Nigeria) flooding and
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Adeloye and Rustum

Duration: h

Return period: years 0?2 0?4 1 3 6 12 24

Lagos 2 120* 94?5 57 26 15 8?5 4?5

95?7{ 73?0 53?2 26 15?7 8?9 5?1
5 150 119 70 34 20 11 6
113?1 85?9 63?4 32?5 20?7 11?5 6?8
10 170 138 85 40 24 14 7?4
123?7 93?6 69?7 36?7 24?0 13?2 7?9
Ikeja 2 120 94 54 24 13 7?3 3?9
58?9 54?7 53?1 25?1 14?2 7?8 4?0
5 155 119 70 32 18 10 5?4
95?5 73?0 64?8 31?6 18?2 10?1 5?1
10 170 138 80 37 20 12 6?3
119?4 85?2 72?5 36 20?8 11?6 5?9

*Past data (Oyebande, 1983).

{Recent data (Dar Al-Handasah, 1993).

Table 3. Comparing rainfall intensities based on recent and past

rainfall data records

Odunuga (2008); it is clear that some of the drains have lost by Lagos residents was being met by the facilities of the Lagos
almost 80% of their initial capacity. The drains were designed State Water Corporation, the state’s agency with statutory
for the 5-year storm (Dar Al-Handasah Consultancy, 1993) responsibility for water supply. The split of the supplied water
and the reduction in carrying capacity is primarily due to the between surface and groundwater sources is more or less even
corresponding reduction in the channel depth caused by (Fasona et al., 2005). The remainder of the population (i.e. the
trapped, dumped solid wastes. majority) rely on private water development – boreholes,
shallow hand-dug wells, rivers, streams and ponds, water
The analysis carried out for Lagos has shown that the vendors and so on – most of which could be enhanced by
significant reduction in the pervious areas within the city has proper management of the excess water during a rain event,
been the most important factor in the rising tendency for instead of being allowed to run away uncontrollably, thereby
flooding, which has now become an annual event. The causing flooding.
situation has not been helped by the compromised capacity
of the available drains, whose depths have been reduced to a Controlling storm water at source so that it can be put to
mere 20% of their design value in some places. This situation beneficial use has been recognised in the UK and elsewhere as
has resulted in part because of the deliberate deposition of solid one of the best management practices for mitigating flooding
waste in the drains by people with no other organised facility due to excess runoff generation (CIRIA, 2000). The study
for solid waste disposal. Additionally, the open-channel design carried out here has demonstrated clearly that the traditional
for the drains represents a ready invitation for refuse dumping structural approach to flood management is not working in
during a storm. Extensive litter on the streets, especially the Lagos. The limitations of structural measures are not peculiar
discarded polythene sachets of what has now become known as to Lagos; however, while communities in other parts of the
‘pure water’ and sediments are readily washed into the drains world have been implementing Suds, either as newly built or
during a storm because the drains are uncovered. retrofits, any such strategies have not even begun to be
considered in Lagos. For example in the UK, it is now a
5. The way forward requirement that any new development must incorporate Suds
The situation where the excess water that results during storms as part of the overall flood management strategy, as a result of
is being allowed to cause such havoc rather than being put to which there now exist guidelines for the selection and design of
beneficial use is unpardonable for a city that continues also appropriate Suds (CIRIA, 2000). Since Lagos has no
to suffer from perennial water supply shortage. According to experience of Suds, a documentation of some of these
Fasona et al. (2005), only about 41% of the total water demand guidelines could help to inform the development of Suds

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practice in rural areas of Nigeria and has been known to

contribute significantly towards meeting water supply and
irrigation needs (Adekalu et al., 2009).

For new developments, it is important to consider using Suds

early in the design process. Development usually increases the
area of impermeable surface that promotes rapid runoff to
surface water rather than percolation into the ground. The
effect can be to increase both total and peak water flows,
contributing to flooding. However, by introducing vegetated
areas in place of impermeable surfaces, redevelopment of sites
may in some cases reduce runoff. Swales, pervious pavements
and detention ponds can also work in new developments.
Wherever possible, these Suds should be integrated within the
layout of the development site. However, it may be appropriate
(a) to develop Suds over a wider area serving a number of sites,
with each development making a contribution to the imple-
mentation and management costs of off-site Suds.

The selected Suds approach will also have a bearing on

interactions between practitioners, regulators and other stake-
holders including local authorities, highway authorities and
sewerage and water supply undertakers. Thus before Suds is
implemented, certain elements of the scheme should be thoroughly
evaluated in order to minimise any hostilities to its installation.
Examples of good housekeeping activities that have been known
to work are listed below (CIRIA, 2000; CIRIA, 2001).

(a) Early discussion with stakeholders: Suds can make an

important contribution to the overall sustainability of a
development. However, a successful Suds scheme will
require the design team to liaise and integrate with other
(b) stakeholders involved in the development process. Such
consultation should commence early, preferably at the
Figure 10. Aerial view of Lagos showing (a) the extent of
feasibility stage of development so as to realise the
urbanisation and (b) a comparison with the hinterland with
optimum contribution from a sustainable approach and
extensive green areas (ß Googlemaps)
point of view.
(b) Groundwater considerations: the risk of groundwater
pollution may limit the types of techniques that can be
facilities to complement the existing structural drainage used in a Suds programme. Water supply undertakings
facilities in the city. may therefore be inclined to object to methods that
encourage the infiltration of improperly treated runoff
Selection of the most appropriate Suds approach for Lagos water. Where such approaches are being proposed,
and indeed other parts of Nigeria should be based on meeting therefore, there may be the need to delineate groundwater
the same principles of hydrology and hydraulics as traditional protection zones in which infiltration is restricted and/or
drainage systems, but also taking into account the interests of prohibited.
the landscape and the environment. As a general principle, (c) Drainage impact assessment: the groundwater example
techniques based on the control of runoff near its source, that given above is a type of drainage impact that must be
is preventive measures (see section 2), are to be preferred to carefully assessed prior to Suds adoption and implemen-
downstream solutions. For example, for the high-density areas tation. Other impacts are possible in Lagos, for example
of Lagos that currently lack proper drainage systems, rain and detention ponds can constitute breeding grounds for
runoff water harvesting is simple and can be managed at the mosquitoes and therefore greater risk of malaria trans-
household level. The harvesting of roof water is an age-old mission; excessive infiltration may compromise the

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Area, A: Percentage Design volume of Actual volume of Percentage

S/N Name ha impervious, C: % drain: m3 drain: m3 blocked: %

1 Kobiti/LUTH 67?4 93 318?47 159?24 50?00

2 Owooniran 74?3 94 547?23 255?37 53?33
3 Ishaga Road 168?8 93 713.12 142?62 80?00
4 Michael Ogun Road 101?3 98 345?10 103?53 70?00
5 George Street 81?0 91 241?66 120?83 50?00
6 Moshalasi Street 33?8 92 199.83 57.09 71?43
7 Garuba Musa 60?8 98 148?75 42?50 71?43
8 Mushin/Itire Road 67?2 97 404?39 179.73 55?56
9 Mushin/Itire Road 132?2 98 517?46 310.48 40?00
10 Otunoba 42?5 98 248?15 93?06 62?50
11 Ojo Street 68?4 99 275?35 165?21 40?00
12 Adeniyi 119?2 98 668?33 445?55 33?33
13 Karounwi 115?3 98 337?85 135?14 60?00
14 Olorugun/Onotiri 167?7 98 1258?00 629?00 50?00
15 Odo-Ashimowu 282?9 99 29 617?43 21 061?28 28?89
16 Odo-Ashimowu 387?8 95 28 943?33 19 295?55 33?33

Table 4. The design and actual capacity of drains in Lagos

mainland (adapted from Odunuga, 2008)

integrity of foundations of structures, and so on. It is and the continued reliance on this approach is therefore
therefore no wonder that, increasingly, local planning unsustainable. It is therefore no wonder that despite the
authorities do request a drainage impact assessment to numerous attempts to develop drainage master plans for Lagos
help ensure that the impacts of a proposed development involving millions of dollars in consultancy fees, the problem
on the catchment are understood and will be well has not only refused to go away, but is even becoming worse.
managed. The analysis has also revealed that current initiatives by the
(d) Interaction with foul water sewers: where there are no state government for maintaining and cleaning these drains,
separate foul and surface water sewers on a development, such as the drain dock and emergency flood abatement gang,
discharging rainwater to foul drainage may exacerbate are not effective because they are slow and have not addressed
the risk of flooding and disease transmission where sewers the root cause of the problem, which is the lack of alternative
have been designed to accept only foul flows (or where solid waste disposal facilities for the communities.
combined sewers are running at their design capacity).
There is thus the need for a paradigmatic shift on the part of
6. Conclusions the Lagos state government, involving the introduction of Suds
Findings during the study showed that flooding problems in as a way of reducing the recurring flooding problems in Lagos.
Lagos are anthropogenic. The analysis of the collected rainfall The combination of these Suds and the existing structural
data and information, both long term and short term, does not drainage systems is bound to work for the following reasons:
implicate rising rainfall as the dominant factor for the increasing
flooding. This might be counterintuitive, given the general N The runoff flow rates will be managed, thus reducing the
perception that climate change is bound to have resulted in impact of urbanisation on flooding.
increasing rainfall, especially of the short-duration and high- N The water quality in rivers and aquifers will be protected
intensity types, in various parts of the world. There is no doubt and enhanced.
that further, more involved analyses will be required to clarify this N Natural groundwater recharge will be encouraged, which is
aspect, but on the basis of the limited analyses carried out in this important given the high dependence of Lagos residents on
study, there is no evidence that rainfall has been the dominant private wells for their water supply. With the current high
cause of the increasing flooding that has been plaguing Lagos. rate of groundwater withdrawal by Lagos residents as
alluded to earlier, it will not be too long before the aquifer
The situation analysis of Lagos carried out in this study has yield decreases significantly and contamination by salt
shown that the existing provision of conventional (i.e. water intrusion sets in, if there is insufficient recharge.
structural) drainage systems is insufficient to prevent flooding N Habitat for wildlife will be provided in urban watercourses.

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The development of these alternative facilities requires careful Adekalu KO, Balogun JA, Aluko OB, et al. (2009) Runoff water
planning and takes time, but their planning should start now. harvesting for dry spell mitigation for cowpea in savannah
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government of Lagos state is already investing heavily in 1502–1508.
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to the other benefits listed earlier. To this end, the World Bank- of Main Drainage Channels of Victoria and Ikoye Islands in
assisted Lagos metropolitan development and governance Lagos Nigeria and their Response to Tidal and Sea Level
project should be reviewed to see if it is not too late to divert Changes. Nigeria Institute for Oceanography and Marine
some of its resources to a Suds programme for Lagos. Research, Lagos, Nigeria, Coast and Small Island (CSI-
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Acknowledgements Management Solutions for Large Cities (Savic DA, Marino
This study was funded by a RICS Education Trust research MA, Savenije HHG and Bertoni JC (eds)). IAHS,
grant and the authors thank them for this. The authors also Wallingford, IAHS Publication 293, pp. 49–57.
thank those who assisted with information, data and ideas Federal Republic of Nigeria (2007) Legal notice on publication
during the sites visit, especially Mrs Afun and Mr Ogunbambi of the details of the breakdown of the national and state
(Director of Drainage) at the Lagos Ministry of Environment. provisional totals 2006 census. Federal Government’s
Academics at the Department of Geography, University of Extraordinary Gazette 94(24). Statutory Instrument 23,
Lagos including Dr Balogun, Dr Odunuga, Dr Adeaga and Abuja, Nigeria.
Professor Oyebande were very helpful. Thanks are also owed IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (2007)
to Dr Folorunsho of the Nigerian Institute for Oceanography Climate Change 2007: Synthesis report. Contribution of
and Marine Research (NIOMR). Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment
Report of the IPCC. (Pachauri RK and Reisinger A (eds)).
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