General Biology

Unit 3
The cellular basis of life
 The cell theory
 Structural and Functional Unit of Life.

 A cell is the basic unit that is capable of performing life functions

o All organisms are composed of one or more cells .

o Cell is the basic unit of life in all living things.
o All cells are produced by the division of preexisting cells.

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 Eukaryotic cell three major parts
 The plasma membrane: the outer boundary of the cell.

 The cytoplasm: the intracellular fluid packed with organelles,

small structures that perform specific cell functions.

 The nucleus: an organelle that controls cellular activities.

Typically the nucleus resides near the cells center.

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 The cell organelles

An organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific

function.
In eukaryotes an organelle is a membrane bound structure found
within a cell.
Just like cells have membranes to hold everything in, these mini-
organs are also bound in a double layer of phospholipids to
insulate their little compartments within the larger cells
Prokaryotes are cells that do not have membrane bound organelles

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 organelles

Nonmembranous Membranous
organelles organelles
ribosomes Endoplasmic reticulum
centrosomes (Rough and Smooth),
Golgi bodies,
cilia and flagella
mitochondria,
microtubules basal
chloroplasts, nucleus,
bodies and
lysosomes, peroxisomes
microfilaments 5
 Structure and function of organelles
The nucleus:
Contains the cell’s genetic library
• The nucleus contains most of the genes in an eukaryotic cell as it is the repository
for genetic material.

• The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane called nuclear
envelope.

• It directs activities of the cell.

• The nuclear membrane contains pores that allow large macromolecules and
particles to pass through.

• The nuclear membrane is maintaining the shape of the nucleus. 6

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The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope and contains chromatin and one or more
nucleoli.

The nuclear envelope completely encloses the nucleus and separates the cells genetic
material from the surrounding cytoplasm, serving as a barrier to prevent
macromolecules from diffusing freely between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.
Chromatin: -"colored material" The nucleus contains “chromatin fiber” which is made up of DNA and
proteins - histones. When the cell prepares to divide, the chromatin fibers coil up and condensed to be seen as
“chromosomes”.
Nucleoli: Actively engage in synthesizing of ribosomes. The nucleolus, unlike most of the organelles, does
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not have a limiting membrane.
The Cytoplasm

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Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

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 The rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
The outer surface of the rough ER contains dark particles called
ribosomes.
The rough ER in association with ribosomes produces and releases a
variety of proteins(for export & use within the cell), into the fluid-filled
space enclosed by the membrane.
ER membrane also contains enzymes required for the synthesis of
almost all the lipids needed for the production of new membranes.
These lipids enter the ER lumen along with the proteins.

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• In the nucleolus, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized and assembled with
proteins from the cytoplasm to form ribosomal subunits.
• The subunits passout through the nuclear pores to the cytoplasm where they
combine to form ribosomes.
• Cells that synthesize large quantities of proteins (e.g., pancreas) have large
numbers of ribosomes.
• Types of Ribosomes:-
1) Free ribosomes are suspended in the cytosol and synthesize proteins that
function within the cytosol.
2) Bound ribosomes are attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum.
• These synthesize proteins that are either included into membranes or for
secretion outside the cell.

Ribosomes are RNA-protein complexes composed

of two subunits (large and small) that join and
attach to messenger RNA to carry out protein
synthesis

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 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
serves in packaging and discharging site for protein molecules that are to
be transported from the ER.
All new proteins and fats pass from ER gathered in the smooth ER.
Portions of the smooth ER then “bud off/pinch off ”, giving rise to
‘transport vesicles’, they contain the new molecule wrapped in a
membrane derived from the smooth ER membrane.
 Transport vesicles move to the Golgi complex for further processing of
their cargo.

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The Golgi complex

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 Lysosomes

Phagocytosis, process by which certain living cells called phagocytes ingest

or engulf other cells or particles
pinocytosis, is a mode of endocytosis in which small particles suspended in
extracellular fluid are brought into the cell through an invagination of the cell
membrane, resulting in a suspension of the particles within a small vesicle
A lysosome fuses with the membrane of the internalized vesicle and
releases its contents of hydrolytic enzymes into the vesicle. 15
 Peroxisome
Peroxisome is membrane-enclosed sacs containing oxidative enzymes
and catalase that detoxify various wastes.
They contain enzymes to oxidize organic substances like fats. In other
words the use oxygen to break down molecules.
The enzymes in these organelles
produce hydrogen peroxide Hydrogen
peroxide is broken down right away by
the enzyme catalase into oxygen and water.
 Peroxisomes are abundant in the
liver where they produce bile salts and
cholesterol and break down fats.

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 Mitochondria -‘’power houses’’ of a cell
they extract energy from nutrients in food and transform it into usable form to energize cell activity.

A single cell may have few hundreds or thousands.

It is enclosed by a double membrane - a smooth outer that surrounds the mitochondria, and an inner
membrane that forms a series of enfolding or shelves called cristae, which project into an inner cavity filled
with a jelly-like matrix

These cristae contain proteins that convert much of the energy in food into a usable form (the electron
transport protein).

The matrix contains a mixture of hundreds of different dissolved enzymes (Citric acid cycle enzymes, ATP
synthesis, protein and fat synthesis and contain DNA, RNA and ribosom).

The high energy phosphate bonds of ATP contain adenosine with 3 phosphate groups. When high energy
phosphate bond is split, a substantial amount of energy is released. ATP is the universal energy carrier the
common energy “currency” of the body.

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Mitochondria are unusual organelles in
two ways:
 In the matrix they have their own unique
DNA called mitochondrial DNA.
 Mitochondria have the ability to replicate
themselves even when the cell to which
they belong is not undergoing cell
division.

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Chloroplasts
Chloroplast as semiautonomous organelle Like the
mitochondria the chloroplast have their own DNA,
RNA and protein synthetic machinery

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 Vacuoles
• are essentially larger Vesicles, and they are formed by the joining
together of many Vesicles.

• They are membrane bound organelles that have no specific shape

and contain water with a number of different compounds within it.

• Their function varies greatly depending on the type of cell they are
part of.

• In plant cells they are important in

maintaining Turgor Pressure.

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cytoskeleton is a complex protein network that act as the “bone and muscle” of the cell
The cytoskeleton extends throughout the cytoplasm and is a complex network of protein
filaments.
Providing structural support to the cell, the cytoskeleton also functions in cell motility and
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regulation
Plasma/cell membrane

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Functions of biological membranes

• Channel protein and carrier protein: these proteins are involved in the
selective transport of polar molecule and ion across the membrane
• Enzymes: membrane proteins sometimes act as enzymes, For example,
the microvilli on epithelial cells lining some part of the gut contain
digestive enzymes in their cell surface membrane
• Receptor molecules: proteins have very specific shapes and this makes
them ideal as receptor molecules for chemical signaling between cells.

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• Antigens: these act as cell identity markers or ''name tag''. They are
glycoproteins that is proteins with branching carbohydrates side chains
like antennae. This enables cells to recognize other cells, and to behave in
an organized way.
• Glycolipids- also have branching carbohydrate side chain and are
involved in cell-cell recognition. They may act as a receptor sites for
chemical signals. With glycoproteins they also involved in sticking the
correct cell together in tissues. Eg. sperm recognition of ova
• Energy Transfer in photosynthesis and respiration proteins take part in
the energy transfer systems that exist in the membranes of chloroplast
and mitochondria respectively.
• Cholesterol: acts like a plug, reducing even further the escape or entry
of polar molecules through the membrane.

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Cellular diversity
Cells are very diverse in their size, shape and their internal structure

Cell Shape

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 Cell Size
Some cell can be seen without using magnification instruments as they are enough to be seen
by the naked eye. Example, egg of birds

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Transport of biomolecules across the cell
membranes

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 Macromolecules found in membrane

Lipids
Phospholipid bilayer
Cholesterol
Proteins
Transport proteins
Receptor proteins
Recognition proteins
Carbohydrates
Oligosaccharides on glycoproteins

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The membrane is permeable to:
H2O
Gases (O2, CO2, N2)
Lipids
Small, neutral molecules (such as urea)

The membrane is impermeable to:

Small, charged molecules (sodium/potassium ions )
large molecules such as amino acids, glucose and larger
(these compounds must go through channels present in the
membrane in order to enter or exit the cell
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Transport mechanism across the cell
membrane

1. Diffusion and facilitated diffusion

2. osmosis
3. active transport
4. bulk transport

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 Transport processes across the cell membrane

Passive transport
Substances move from [high] [low]
No energy input required
Simple Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion, Osmosis
Active transport
Substances move from [low] [high]
Requires energy input
Protein carriers, Endocytosis, Exocytosis
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 Simple Diffusion
movement of molecules (or ions) from a region of their high concentration to a
region of their lower concentration.
The molecules move down a concentration gradient.

Factors that influence the rate of net diffusion across a membrane:

1. permeability of the membrane

2. surface area of the membrane
3. molecular weight of the substance (lighter one diffuses rapidly)
4. distance through which diffusion must take place
(increased distance - thickness, decreases the rate of diffusion)

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Movement along electrical gradient
 Movement of charged
particles is also affected
by their electrical
gradient.
 Charges difference
between adjacent areas,
the cations tend to move
towards more negatively
charged area, the anions
tend to move toward the
more positively charged
areas.

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 Carrier- Mediated Transport
As the molecule to be transported attaches to a binding site it triggers a change in the carrier
shape that causes the same site to be exposed to the other side of the membrane.
Characteristics of carrier mediated transport
1. Specificity: each cell possesses protein specified to transport a specific substance or few
closely-related chemical compounds
2. Saturation: in a given time only a limited amount of a substance can be transported via a
carrier
3. Competition: Several closely related compounds may compete for ride across the plasma
membrane on the same carrier

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 Facilitated diffusion
Facilitated diffusion uses a carrier protein to facilitate the transfer of a
particular substance across the membrane ''downhill'' from higher to
lower concentration..
No energy needed
Most passive transport proteins are solute specific Example: glucose
enter/leaves cells through facilitated diffusion

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 Osmosis

Diffusion of water across a differentially permeable membrane

Water moves from [high H2O] [low H2O]

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 Active transport
Compounds move from area of low concentration toward area of higher concentration
ATP (energy) is needed

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 The most common: Na/K pumps reestablish membrane potential. Present
in all cells.
Two K+ ions are exchanged with 3 Na + ions

Roles of Na+-K+-pump

1. It establishes sodium and potassium

concentration gradients across the plasma
membrane of all cells; generate electrical
signals.

2. It helps regulate cell volume by

controlling the concentration of solutes
inside the cell and thus minimizing
osmotic effects.

3. The energy used to run the pump also

indirectly serves as the energy source for
the co-transport of glucose and amino
acids across the membrane

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How molecules cross cell membrane

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 Vesicular Transport
Transport into the cell - endocytosis,
Transport out of the cell - exocytosis.

Endocytosis occurs by an in folding of cell surface membrane to form a vesicle or

vacuole.
It is of two types.
Phagocytosis (cell eating) material taken up is in solid form. Cells specializing in the
processes are called phagocytes and are said to be phagocytic.

Pinocytosis (cell drink) material taken up is in liquid form.

Vesicles formed are extremely small, in which case the process is known as
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